Understanding and measuring the shelf li

Understanding and measuring the shelf-life of food Related titles from Woodhead's food science, technology and nutrition list: The stability and shelf-life of food (ISBN 85573 500 8) The stability and shelf-life of a food product are critical to its success in the market place, yet companies experience considerable difficulties in defining and understanding the factors that influence stability over a desired storage period This book is the most comprehensive guide to understanding and controlling the factors that determine the shelf-life of food products Taints and off-flavours in foods (ISBN 85573 449 4) Taints and off-flavours are a major problem for the food industry Part I of this important collection reviews the major causes of taints and off-flavours, from oxidative rancidity and microbiologically-derived off-flavours, to packaging materials as a source of taints The second part of the book discusses the range of techniques for detecting taints and off-flavours, from sensory analysis to instrumental techniques, including the development of new rapid on-line sensors Colour in food ± Improving quality (ISBN 85573 590 3) The colour of a food is central to consumer perceptions of quality This important new collection reviews key issues in controlling colour quality in food, from the chemistry of colour in food to measurement issues, improving natural colour and the use of colourings to improve colour quality Details of these books and a complete list of Woodhead's food science, technology and nutrition titles can be obtained by: · visiting our web site at www.woodhead-publishing.com · contacting Customer Services (email: sales@woodhead-publishing.com; fax: +44 (0) 1223 893694; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 891358 ext 30; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge CB1 6AH, UK) Selected food science and technology titles are also available in electronic form Visit our web site (www.woodhead-publishing.com) to find out more If you would like to receive information on forthcoming titles in this area, please send your address details to: Francis Dodds (address, tel and fax as above; e-mail: francisd@woodhead-publishing.com) Please confirm which subject areas you are interested in Understanding and measuring the shelf-life of food Edited by R Steele Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited Abington Hall, Abington Cambridge CB1 6AH England www.woodhead-publishing.com Published in North America by CRC Press LLC 2000 Corporate Blvd, NW Boca Raton FL 33431 USA First published 2004, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC ß 2004, Woodhead Publishing Limited The authors have asserted their moral rights This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials Neither the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited or CRC Press LLC for such copying Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Woodhead Publishing Limited ISBN 85573 732 (book); 85573 902 X (e-book) CRC Press ISBN 0-8493-2556-0 CRC Press order number: WP2556 The publisher's policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which have been manufactured from pulp which is processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free practices Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards Project managed by Macfarlane Production Services, Markyate, Hertfordshire (e-mail: macfarl@aol.com) Typeset by MHL Typesetting Limited, Coventry, Warwickshire Printed by TJ International Limited, Padstow, Cornwall, England Contents Contributor contact details Part I xi Factors affecting shelf-life and spoilage The major types of food spoilage: an overview R P Singh and B A Anderson University of California, USA 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Physical instability 1.3 Chemical spoilage (degradation) 1.4 Microbial spoilage 1.5 Future trends 1.6 Sources of further information 1.7 References Shelf-life and moisture management R Esse and A Saari, Humidipak, Inc., USA 2.1 Introduction: moisture activity and shelf-life 2.2 Water activity and moisture management 2.3 The effects of moisture on the storage stability of food 2.4 How moisture management systems work: the case of meat jerky 2.5 Application of moisture management systems to food and other products 2.6 Future trends 2.7 Bibliography 3 11 17 18 19 24 24 25 29 32 37 40 41 vi Contents Temperature and food stability: analysis and control P S Taoukis and M C Giannakourou, National Technical University of Athens, Greece 3.1 Introduction: temperature and the shelf-life of food 3.2 Quantifying the effect of temperature on food 3.3 Shelf-life testing and indices 3.4 Shelf-life prediction and management: time±temperature relationships 3.5 Future trends 3.6 References Genetic and physiological factors affecting colour and firmness R E Schouten and O van Kooten, Wageningen University and H Jalink, I F Kappers, J F H Snel and W Jordi, Plant Research International, The Netherlands 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Physiology of firmness: fruits and vegetables 4.3 Methods of improving and maintaining firmness 4.4 Physiology of colour: fruits and vegetables 4.5 Methods of improving and maintaining colour 4.6 Future trends 4.7 Acknowledgements 4.8 References Spoilage yeasts T Deak, Budapest University of Economic Science, Hungary 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Characteristics and classification of yeasts 5.3 Factors affecting the growth and survival of spoilage yeasts 5.4 Diversity and frequency of food spoilage yeasts 5.5 Factors affecting the inactivation of spoilage yeasts 5.6 Future trends: alternative technologies 5.7 Sources of further information 5.8 References Factors affecting the Maillard reaction A Arnoldi, University of Milan, Italy 6.1 Introduction: the Maillard reaction (MR) 6.2 Factors affecting the Maillard reaction 6.3 The Maillard reaction and spoilage: flavour deterioration 6.4 The Maillard reaction and spoilage: nutritional losses and browning 6.5 Improving shelf-life: antioxidative Maillard reactions 42 42 43 52 53 61 65 69 69 70 72 75 78 82 85 85 91 91 92 97 100 103 106 109 109 111 111 114 116 119 122 Contents 6.6 6.7 6.8 Improving shelf-life: the Maillard reaction and microbial spoilage Conclusion References Factors affecting lipid oxidation M H Gordon, University of Reading, UK 7.1 Introduction: mechanisms of autoxidation 7.2 Factors influencing the rate of lipid oxidation 7.3 Methods of measuring oxidation in an oil or food 7.4 Monitoring changes in oxidation and the use of predictive methods 7.5 Future trends 7.6 Sources of further information and advice 7.7 References Lipolysis in lipid oxidation C Davies, Unilever R & D, Sharnbrook, UK 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Lipolytic enzymes, lipids and food spoilage 8.3 Lipolysis in particular foods: dairy, meat and fish products 8.4 Lipolysis in particular foods: cereals and vegetables 8.5 Controlling lipolysis to improve shelf-life 8.6 Future trends 8.7 Sources of further information and advice 8.8 References vii 124 124 124 128 128 131 132 137 140 140 140 142 142 143 145 150 153 154 155 156 Part II Measuring shelf-life and spoilage 10 Ways of measuring shelf-life and spoilage T K Singh and K R Cadwallader, University of Illinois, USA 9.1 Introduction: understanding and estimating the shelf-life of food 9.2 Key factors influencing the shelf-life of food 9.3 Quality indices for testing the shelf-life of food 9.4 Conclusions and future trends 9.5 Sources of further information and advice 9.6 References Verification and validation of food spoilage models G D Betts and S J Walker, Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association, UK 10.1 Introduction: the modelling process 10.2 Validation and verification: definitions and use 165 165 167 171 178 178 179 184 184 186 viii Contents 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 11 12 13 Evaluation techniques and data transformation Limitations of models Future trends Sources of further information and advice References 189 207 211 212 212 Measuring and modelling the glass transition temperature I A Farhat, University of Nottingham, UK 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Measuring the glass transition temperature 11.3 Modelling the glass transition temperature 11.4 Conclusion and recommendations 11.5 Sources of further information and advice 11.6 References 218 Detecting spoilage yeasts V Loureiro and M Malfeito-Ferreira, Instituto Superior de Agronomia and A Carreira, STAB Vida, Portugal 12.1 Introduction: food spoilage yeasts 12.2 Detection and enumeration: viable and direct count techniques 12.3 Detection and enumeration: instrumental techniques 12.4 Methods of identifying and characterising foodborne yeasts 12.5 The use of microbiological indicators to monitor food quality and spoilage 12.6 Future trends 12.7 Sources of further information 12.8 Acknowledgements 12.9 References Measuring lipid oxidation J W Irwin and N Hedges, Unilever R & D, Sharnbrook UK 13.1 Introduction: lipid oxidation 13.2 Chemical methods of measuring lipid oxidation 13.3 Physical methods of measuring lipid oxidation 13.4 Chromatographic methods of measuring lipid oxidation 13.5 Measurement issues 13.6 Correlating analytical measurements with sensory evaluation 13.7 Measurement techniques and shelf-life improvement 13.8 Conclusions and future trends 13.9 Sources of further information 13.10 References 218 219 226 229 229 230 233 233 235 252 260 267 274 275 275 275 289 289 290 294 295 303 304 308 308 310 311 Contents 14 15 16 Accelerated shelf-life tests S Mizrahi, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Basic principles 14.3 Initial rate approach 14.4 Kinetic model approach 14.5 Problems in accelerated shelf-life tests 14.6 Future trends 14.7 References Shelf-life testing C M D Man, London South Bank University, UK 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Assuring food safety: the HACCP system 15.3 Determining the shelf-life of food 15.4 Predicting the shelf-life of food 15.5 Conclusions 15.6 Sources of further information and advice 15.7 References ix 317 317 317 318 320 333 335 337 340 340 342 343 350 352 352 354 Lipid oxidation and the shelf-life of muscle foods P A Morrissey and J P Kerry, University College Cork, Ireland 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Lipid oxidation in vivo 16.3 Antioxidant defence systems 16.4 Lipid oxidation in muscle and muscle foods 16.5 Factors influencing lipid stability in meat and meat products 16.6 Cholesterol oxidation 16.7 Lipid oxidation and meat flavour, colour and drip loss 16.8 Meat packaging and shelf-life quality 16.9 Future developments 16.10 References 357 368 374 377 381 383 383 Index 396 357 358 362 367 Index accelerated incubation tests 272 accelerated shelf-life tests (ASLTs) 52±3, 167, 168±9, 317±39, 350±1 basic principles 317±18 future trends 335±7 initial rate approach 318±20 kinetic model approach 320±33, 333±4 problems in 333±4 accelerating factors multiple 327±9 single 322±6 acceleration ratio 324±6 acceptability 69±70 acceptable yeast levels 272±3 accuracy factor 197, 198, 199, 201±2, 204±5 acidic foods 102 activation energy 44±5, 328±9 active oxygen method (AOM) 138 acyl hydrolases 143 adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 175, 253±4 advanced glycation end products (AGEs) 113 aflatoxins 14 Albicans ID 249 alc tomato mutant 81 alcoholic beverages 101±2 aldehydes 129±31, 361, 378 alkoxyl radicals 129±30, 359, 361 alkyl radicals 129, 361 -linolenic acid 155 -lipoic acid 383 -tocopherol 150, 363, 364, 365±6 dietary supplementation 370±2, 372±3, 376, 378±80, 381 Amadori rearranged products (ARPs) 112 amino acids 114 aminoacetophenone 174 amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) technology 263, 266 anamorphs 92±3, 94, 95±6 anisidine value (AV) 136, 292 anthocyanins 76±7 antimicrobial agents 16, 108±9 antioxidants 383 defence systems 362±7 and rate of lipid oxidation 131±2 see also under individual antioxidants antioxidative Maillard reactions 122±3 apiculate yeasts 95 apoC11 145±6 apple firmness 70±2 argon 171 aroma extraction and dilution analysis (AEDA) 302 Arrhenius equation 44±6, 50, 168 and ASLT 322±3, 333, 351 and glass transition 50±2 predictive microbiological modelling and 48±9 artworks 38 ascomycetous yeasts 92, 93 Index ascorbic acid 365±6 supplementation 372±3 assigning shelf-life 349±50 astaxanthin 150 automated headspace injectors 133±4, 140 automated thermal desorption (ATD) system 300 autoxidation mechanism 128±31 see also lipid oxidation bacteria 14 bacteriocins 108 banana 76 basidiomycetous yeasts 92, 96 beans, green 58±60 beef 372 beef jerky 27, 34, 37±8 beer 117±18, 241 Belehradek equation 48 -carotene 366, 373 bias factor 197, 198, 199, 201±2, 204±5 biological sense 193, 194 bioluminescence 253±4, 256, 258±9 biomarkers, zymological indicators based on 269±72 bismuth glycine glucose yeast agar (BiGGY agar) 249 bran 151 bread 123 Brettanomyces selective broth 243, 249 broccoli 76, 80 browning 9±10 non-enzymatic 10, 53, 55, 121±2, 174, 328±9 see also Maillard reaction cadaverin lysine ethylamine nitrate (CLEN) agar 241 Cake Expert System 352 caking of dry powders calorimetry 221±3 Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association (CCFRA) 343, 352 CandichromII 249 Candida BCGAgar 249 Candida ID Agar 249 Candida Ident Agar 249 Candida Isolation Agar 249 CandiSelect 249 capacitance 252±3 capacitance scanning dilatometry (CSD) 219±20 397 carbohydrates 10, 16 see also sugar carbon dioxide 171 carboxymethyllysine 120 carotenoids 77, 362, 366 supplementation 373 cell cultivation-based zymological indicators 268 cell injury and repair 106 cellulose 28 cereals 150±3, 154 cheese 146 chelates 368 chemical sensors 310 chemical spoilage 5, 9±11, 172±4, 211 chemical techniques 346 measuring lipid oxidation 290±3 yeast typing methods 261 zymological indicators 268±9 chemometrics 310 chicken 370±1, 378±9 chill chain management systems 62±4 chilling injury 6±7 chitosan 108 chloramphenicol (glucose/dextrose) agar 245 chlorophyll 75±6 chlorophyllide 75±6 chloroplasts 153 chocolate, white 122 cholesterol oxidation 374±7 CHROMagar 250 CHROMagar Candida 250 CHROMOGEN ALBICANS 250 chromatography gas see gas chromatography measuring lipid oxidation 295±303 miniaturisation 140 CIE colour system 75 cigars 37 circular intensity differential scattering (CIDS) 261 classical yeast typing methods 260 clays 40 climacteric fruits 72±3 Cnr tomato mutant 73 coffee 118±19 Coffee and Coffee Products Regulations (1978) 349 colligative properties 33 colorimetry 253 colour 75±85, 290 and antioxidant properties 122±3 genetics and 78±85 398 Index losses and water activity 31, 32 meat 357, 380±1 methods of improving and maintaining 77±82 physiology and 77±8 ComBase 212, 351 ComBase Combined Database and Predictive Microbiology Program 351 combined ASLT approaches 332±3 combined preservation systems 105±6 novel 109 commercial culture media 243, 244±50 Compactdry 243 compositional factors 167, 321 conductance 252±3 conjugable oxidation products 137 conjugated dienes 135, 294 constant bias 190, 191 consumer complaints 167 consumer demand 166 consumer handling 344 control samples 345 controlled atmosphere packaging (CAP) 16, 171 convenience foods 155 Cooke rose Bengal agar 244 copper sulphate medium 241 Couchman-Karasz equation 228 critical control points (CCPs) 42, 346 Cryptococcus neoformans 239 Cryptosporidium parvum 18 crystallization fat ice crystal formation 7±8 sugars 8, 28±9 cucumber colour model 75±6, 77, 78, 79, 82±3 culture media 237±43 commercial media 243, 244±50 general purpose media 237±8, 244±5 selective and differential media 238±42, 245±50, 268 cysteine 174 cytokinins 78±80, 81 Czapek Dox agar 244 D-value 16, 103 dairy products 102, 117, 119±20, 145±6, 154 Dairy Products (Hygiene) Regulations (1995) 349 data effects, on spoilage models 207±8, 209±10 data transformation 189±206 graphical representations 190±3 statistical analysis techniques 194±8 death/inactivation models 185, 192 dehydration 104 Dekkera/Brettanomyces differential medium (DBDM) 239±41 Dekkera bruxellensis 234 desiccants 40 deterioration index 318±19 absence of 333±4 diacylglycerides (DAG) 152 dichloran 18% glycerol agar (DG18) 239, 247 dichloran rose Bengal chloramphenicol agar (DRBCA) 238, 245 dichotomic keys 260 dielectric constant (DC) 294 dielectric probes 224 dielectric thermal analysis (DETA) 224±5 diet, animal 367, 369±70 supplementation 370±4, 376±7, 378±80, 381, 382, 383 difference tests 176 differential culture media 238±42, 245±50, 268 differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) 138, 169, 221±3 dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) 239 dilatometry 219±21 dilution, sample 236±7 direct count techniques 251±2 direct determination of shelf-life 343±5 experimental protocols 345 shelf-life tests 345±9 direct epifluorescent filter technique (DEFT) 251±2 direct injection method 135 distribution chain 58±60, 61±4 distribution test method 167 docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 148, 154±5 domestic freezers 57 domestic refrigerators 56 dried foods 102 dried fruit products 38 drip loss 357, 380 dry powders 38±9 caking dyes 241±2 dynamic growth models 185, 192, 203 dynamic headspace analysis 134±5, 299±300 dynamic headspace capillary gas chromatography (DH-GC) 175 Index dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) 169, 223, 224 dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) 169 dynamic testing 323, 329±30 effective temperature 57±8 eggs 121 Eh value 15 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) 148, 154±5 electrometry 174±5, 252±3 electron spin resonance (ESR) 226, 307, 309±10 electronic nose (EN) 307, 310 electronic tongue (ET) 310 emulsion breakdown 8±9 enrichment, sample 237 enthalpy 221 enthalpy relaxation 222±3 environmental factors 167, 321 enzymatic browning 9±10 enzyme-catalysed reactions 132 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) 255, 310 epifluorescence microscopy 251±2 equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) 352 ERH CALC 352 errors of measurement 200±2 essential oils 109 ethanol sulphite agar 241 ethylene 72, 72±3 ethylene oxide (EO) 77±8 evaluation of models see food spoilage models expansins 74 experimental protocols 345 exponential extrapolation 325±6 extrapolation 320 extrapolation error 323±6 extrapolation region 188±9 extreme conditions 209±10 Eyring's equation 49±50 fail-dangerous models 190, 191, 192, 202 fail-safe models 190, 191, 192, 202 fat bloom (crystallization) fatty acid composition analysing changes in 138 chromatographic methods 303 and lipid stability 368±70 rate of lipid oxidation 131 zymological indicators 269±72 see also polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) 399 fermentation 14, 94±5, 97 firmness 70±5, 82±5 genetics and 72±5, 82±5 improving and maintaining 72±5 physiology and 72 first in first out (FIFO) 61, 63, 64 fish and fish products 102±3 chill chain management system 62, 63, 64 lipolysis 148±50 flame ionisation detector (FID) 302 flame photometric detector (FPD) 302 flavonoids 367 flavour Maillard reaction and deterioration of 116±19 meat 377±80 FlavrSavr tomato 82 flow cytometry 254, 257 fluorescence techniques 307 fluoroplate candida agar 250 food and beverage industries acceptable levels of yeasts 273 increasing use of models 211±12 instrument utilisation for yeast detection 255±6, 257±9 Food MicroModel 273, 351 Food Oil Sensor (FOS) 294 food polymer science (food material science) 218 food preservation processes 16 food safety 340±1 HACCP and assuring 342±3 food safety objectives (FSOs) 343 food spoilage 3±23 acceptable levels of yeasts and spoilage prediction 272±3 chemical 5, 9±11, 172±4, 211 future trends 17±18 mechanisms for various food products 4, microbial see microbial spoilage physical 4±9, 172 food spoilage models 184±217, 343 choice of measurement criteria 198±9 conditions over which to evaluate 188±9 evaluation techniques and data transformation 189±206 expanding conditions of 211 increasing use by food industry 211±12 limitations of 207±10 modelling process 184±6 performance criteria to be expected 400 Index 199±206 relationship of microbial predictions to other factors 211 validation 187, 200, 207±9 verification 187±8, 209±10 food studies, comparison of models with 187 Forecast 351 formulation 165±6 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) 137 free fatty acids (FFA) 146±7, 148±9, 290±1, 305 free radicals 358±61 freeze-concentration effect 50, 60 freezers 57 freezing 103, 169 fresh produce 70±85 colour 75±85 firmness 70±5, 82±5 moisture management 26±7, 41 see also vegetables frozen products 169 fish 150 fruit juices 101, 117 fruit and vegetables see fresh produce furancarboxaldehyde 120 furosine 120, 121 galactolipase 152±3 galactolipids 153 -tocopherol 363, 364±5 gas chromatography (GC) 173, 298±303, 306±7 DH-GC 175 with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) 175, 302, 307 with olfactometry (GCO or GC sniff) 175, 302±3, 307 gas composition 170±1 gel microdroplet technique 253 gelatinization 10 general purpose culture media 237±8, 244±5 genetics and colour 78±85 and firmness 72±5, 82±5 gibberellic acid 77 glass transition 7, 50±2, 218±32 kinetic models 326±7 measuring glass transition temperature 219±26 modelling glass transition temperature 226±9 glucose syrups 121 glycolytic (white) muscle 147, 368±9 glycosylation 113 goats' milk 146 Good Manufacturing and Hygiene Practices (GMHPs) 42 Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) 273 Gordon-Taylor equation 227±8 graphical representations of data 190±3 grass-fed animals 378 green vegetables 58±60 growth of microorganisms factors affecting 11, 14±16 growth rate 48±52 models see food spoilage models requirements for yeasts 98±100 water activity and 14±15, 29, 30 growth/no-growth models 185, 192, 203±6 Growth Predictor 212 guidelines, voluntary 349±50 hazard analysis 343±4 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system 42, 273, 342±3, 346 headspace analysis 133±5, 140, 173, 299±300 Health Protection Agency 350 heat flux calorimeters 222 heat treatment 16, 78, 103, 154 hedonic testing 176 herring 148 hexanal 130, 173, 306±7 Heyns rearranged product 112 high hydrostatic pressure 107 high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) 303 hydroperoxides 297±8 lipid classes 296±7 high-sugar foods 102 hp tomato mutant 81 human pathogens 13 Humidipak moisture management technology 33±7 humidity restoration 34±6 hurdle technology 105±6, 109 hydrogen peroxide 358 hydrolysis 10, 97±8 hydrolytic rancidity 11, 17 water activity and 31, 32 see also rancidity hydroperoxides 129, 297±8 Index hydrophobic grid membrane filter technique 243 hydroxyl radicals 129, 358±9, 360 hydroxymethylfurancarboxaldehyde (HMF) 120 hyphal yeasts 95 ice crystal growth 7±8 immunological techniques 254±5, 310 immunofluorescence 254±5 impedance, electrical 174±5, 252±3 imperfect yeasts (anamorphs) 92±3, 94, 95±6 inactivation/death models 185, 192 independent data, evaluation against 188 induction period 128±9 induction period (IP) tests 294±5 inert gas MAP 171 infant formulas 120 infrared spectroscopy 137 initial rate approach 318±20 injury wounding due to harvest/slaughter 154 yeast cells 106 inoculum level 207±8 Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST) 340, 350 instrumental techniques 252±6 utilisation in food and beverage industries 255±6, 257±9 interfacial activation 143 intermediate moisture foods (IMF) 29, 104, 105±6, 170 interpolation region 188, 189 inventory management and stock rotation 61±4 ipt gene 79±80 iron 368 irradiation 104±5, 376±7 ISO 9000 273 jerky, meat 27, 32±8 keeping quality 69±70 kinetic growth models 185, 192, 203 kinetic model approach to ASLT 320±33, 333±4 accelerated methods for establishing a kinetic model 329±30 combinations of approaches 332±3 glass transition models 326±7 multiple accelerating factors 327±9 `no model' approach 330±2 single accelerating factor 322±6 401 Kluyveromyces differential medium (KDM) 240 Kreis test 293 lactic acid 367 lag time 185, 193, 209 lager 117±18, 241 leaf tissues, yellowing in 152±3 least shelf-life first out (LSFO) 61±2 legal standards 346, 349 level of survival 335 light pulses 108 light treatment 78 linoleic acid oxidation products 130, 131 Lin's wild yeast medium (LWYM) 247 lipases 17, 142, 143 lipid hydroperoxides 360±1 lipid oxidation 10±11, 116, 128±41, 172±3 factors influencing rate of 131±2 in vivo 358±61 lipolysis in see lipolysis measurement 132±7, 289±316 chemical methods 290±3 chromatographic methods 295±303 correlating analytical measurements with sensory evaluation 304±7 issues 303±4 physical methods 294±5 techniques and shelf-life improvement 308 mechanisms of autoxidation 128±31 monitoring changes in oxidation 137±40 in muscle and muscle foods 367±8 predictive methods 138±40 and shelf-life of muscle foods 357±96 temperature and 53, 55, 131 lipids 17, 142, 143±5 extraction 304 lipid classes by HPLC 296±7 lipolysis 142±61 cereals and vegetables 150±3 controlling to improve shelf-life 153±4 fish 148±50 future trends 154±5 lipolytic enzymes, lipids and food spoilage 143±5 meat and meat products 146±8 milk and dairy products 145±6, 154 lipolytic enzymes 11, 143±5 lipoprotein lipase (LPL) 143, 145, 146 lipoxygenases (LOX) 132, 142, 151, 152 liquid chromatography (LC) 295±6 402 Index HPLC 296±8, 303 long shelf-life products 345 luminometer 253±4, 258±9 lycopene 77 lysine 120 lysine medium 248 mackerel 148 Maillard reaction (MR) 10, 111±27 antioxidative Maillard reactions 122±3 browning 10, 53, 55, 121±2, 174, 328±9 factors affecting 114±16 flavour deterioration 116±19 mechanisms underlying 112±14 and microbial spoilage 124 nutritional losses and browning 119±22 water activity and 31, 32, 115±16 malonaldehyde 136 malondialdehyde (MDA) 292±3 malt extract agar 244 mano-thermo-sonication 109 marker chemicals 119, 120, 175±6, 177, 268±9, 308 mass spectrometry (MS) 302 GC/MS 175, 302, 307 MAST ID 250 matrix assisted laser desorption time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) 261 maximum likelihood graphical procedure (Weibull method) 176±8, 335±7 mean absolute relative error (MARE) 198, 199 mean square error (MSE) 195±6 meat flavour deterioration (MFD) 358, 377±80 meat jerky 27, 32±8 Meat and Livestock Commission 372 meat and meat products 357±96 antioxidant defence systems 362±7 cholesterol oxidation 374±7 colour 357, 380±1 drip loss 357, 380 factors influencing lipid stability 368±74 flavour 377±80 future developments 383 lipid oxidation in muscle and muscle foods 367±8 in vivo 358±61 lipolysis 146±8 packaging and shelf-life quality 381±2 SMAS 62±4 spoilage yeasts 102±3 mechanistic physiological models 82±5 median relative error (MRE) 198, 199 medium shelf-life products 345 melanoidins 119, 121, 123 mesophiles 15 mesophilic yeasts 98 metabolic activities, yeasts and 97±8 metabolites, microbial 175±6, 177, 268±9 metals 132, 362 methylcyclopropene (MCP) 72, 77 methylfuranthiol (MFT) 173±4 methylthiopropanal 174 microbial metabolites 175±6, 177, 268±9 microbial spoilage 5, 11±17, 174±6 Maillard reaction and 124 markers 175±6, 177, 268±9 predictive microbiological models see food spoilage models temperature and 53, 54 microbiological examination 346 microbiological indicators 267±73 acceptable levels of yeast and spoilage prediction 272±3 zymological indicators 261, 267±72 microorganisms choice for modelling 209 growth see growth of microorganisms see also yeasts microscopy 251±2 milk 117, 119±20 lipolysis 145±6, 154 milk fat globule membrane 145 minimal processing 105 minimum convex polyhedron (MCP) 188, 189 minimum durability 340 mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) restriction analysis 262, 265±6 mixed systems 227±9 modelling glass transition temperature 226±9 predictive microbiological models see food spoilage models techniques and validation process 208±9 modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) 16, 72, 106, 171, 382 moisture management 24±41 application of moisture management systems 37±40 effects of moisture on storage stability 29±32 future trends 40±1 Index mechanism of moisture management systems 32±7 moisture activity and shelf-life 24±5 water activity and 25±9 moisture mobility moisture-sensitive dry products 331±2, 332±3 moisture sorption isotherm 27±9 moisture transfer 4±6 molecular markers 119, 120, 175±6, 177, 268±9, 308 molecular weight 227 most probable number (MPN) technique 242 mould-free shelf-lives (MFSLs) 352 moulds 14 inhibition in meat jerky 36±7 multiple accelerating factors 327±9 multiple correlation 194±5 multiple imaging plant stress (MIPS) system 83±5 multivariate statistical analysis 271, 310 muscle foods see meat and meat products muscle type 147, 368±9 mycological agar 244 myoglobin 381, 382, 383 naturally contaminated foods, comparison against 187±8 naturally occurring antioxidants 155 nisin 108 nitrogen flushing 171 nitrogen phosphorus detector (NPD) 302 `no model' approach 330±2 non-climacteric fruits 72±3 nondestructive measurements 83±5 non-enzymatic browning 10, 53, 55, 121±2, 174, 328±9 see also Maillard reaction non-isothermal testing 323, 336±7 nonthermal processes 16, 107±8 nor tomato mutant 73 novel processing technologies 106±9 combinations of 109 Nr tomato mutant 73 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) 225±6, 310 nucleic acid based typing 261±7, 271 nutritional value 290 Maillard reaction and nutritional losses 119±21 and microbial growth 15±16 nylon connectors 38 403 observed vs predicted data plots 190, 191, 201 octanoate value 137 og tomato mutant 80±1 oil stability index (OSI) 138±9 oily fish 149 okra 58±60 oleoresins 109 oligonucleotide probes 266 open shelf-life dating optical instruments 253, 258 organoleptic zymological indicators 268±9 oscillating magnetic fields 107±8 osmo-dehydro-freezing 109 osmophilic (xerotolerant) yeasts 99, 104 oxidation lipids see lipid oxidation proteins water activity and 31±2 oxidation-reduction potential 15, 359±60, 364 oxidative (red) muscle 147, 368±9 Oxidative Stability Instrument (OSI) 295 oxidative stress 358±9 Oxidograph 139, 295 Oxipres 139 oxygen 382 availability 170±1 oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) 310 oxygen scavengers 34, 36 oxymyoglobin 381 oxytetracycline glucose yeast (extract) agar (OGYA) 245 packaging 165±6 CAP 16, 171 MAP 16, 72, 106, 171, 382 materials and moisture management systems 39±40 meat 381±2 vacuum packaging 171, 382 paper (cellulose) 28 para-anisidine value 136, 292 parameters, choice of 193±4 parasites 17 pasteurization 16 patatin 153 Pathogen Modelling Program 188 pathogens, human 13 peanuts, roasted 118 peas 58±60 pectate lyase (PL) 74 404 Index pectin 16±17, 73±4 pectin-methylesterase (PME) 74 pentosidine 120 peptidonucleic acid (PNA) molecular probes 264, 266 percent variance 195 peroxide value (PV) 135, 140, 173, 291±2, 305 peroxyl radicals 359, 360±1, 364 peroxynitrite radicals 364±5 Petrifilm 243 pH 15, 100, 116 phase changes 50, 144±5, 150, 169 phase transition analyser (PTA) 223±4 phosphodiesterases 143 phospholipases 142, 143 phospholipase D (PLD) 143, 152 phospholipids (PL) 128, 143, 148±9, 150 physical spoilage 4±9, 172 physical techniques 346 measuring lipid oxidation 294±5 physical treatments heat treatment 16, 78, 103, 154 novel non-thermal 107±8 physiology 69±90 colour 75±85 improving and maintaining 77±82 firmness 70±5, 82±5 improving and maintaining 72±5 mechanistic models 82±5 phytochrome activation 80 Pichia guilliermondii 241 plasmin plasticisation 227±9 plating techniques 243±51 polar paradox 132 polygalacturonase (PG) 73±4 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) 262±4, 265 polyphenols 123 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) 144, 154±5 lipid oxidation 131, 361 monitoring loss of PUFAs 138 zymological indicators 269±72 see also fatty acid composition pork 147, 370 potato 153 potato dextrose/glucose agar 244 potato off-flavour (POF) 173 poultry meats 147, 370±2 powders 38±9 caking power-compensated calorimeters 222 power law extrapolation 325±6 predicted vs observed data plots 190, 191, 201 predicting shelf-life 350±2 predictive methods for lipid oxidation 138±40 predictive microbiological models see food spoilage models predictive pathogen modelling program (PMP) 351 pre-inoculation techniques 235 preservation processes 16 preservatives 105 primary models 184 probabilistic (growth/no-growth) models 185, 192, 203±6 processing 165±6 see also under individual processes proportional bias 190, 191 protein degradation 9±10, 17 protochlorophyllide (Pchl) 75±6, 77, 78 protocols, experimental 345 pseudohyphae 95, 96 Pseudomonas Predictor 351±2 psychrotrophic yeasts 98±9 psychrotrophs 15 published data 167 pulsed electric fields 107 puncture test 71, 83 `purge and trap' (dynamic headspace) sampling 134±5, 299±300 putrescine 72 pyrolysis mass spectrometry 261 pyrraline 120 QA 48 Q10 46±8, 49, 168, 322 quality defining 69 food safety and 340±1 quality distribution 62, 63, 64 quality functions 43±4, 48 quality indices 43±4, 171±8 chemical changes 172±4 microbiological changes 174±6 physical changes 172 sensory quality changes 176±8 quantitative microbiological risk assessment (QMRA) 343 quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis 74±5 rancidity 289±90 hydrolytic see hydrolytic rancidity Rancimat test 295 Index random amplified polymorphic (RAPD) techniques 263, 266 Raoult's Law 25 rapid tests 255±6 rate parameter 335±6 reaction order 43±4 reaction rates 43±6 reactive oxygen species (ROS) 358±61 ready-to-eat wheat cereal 28 red (oxidative) muscle 147, 368±9 red yeasts 96 Redigel 243 reduction potential 15, 359±60, 364 reflectance spectra 83 refrigerators 27, 56 relative error (RE) 197, 198, 199 relative humidity 25±6 see also water activity residuals plots 190 restriction fragment length polymorphism PCR (RFLP-PCR) 262, 265 retail cooling cabinets 56 retail freezers 57 retailers 273 retinol 362 retrogradation of starches 10 reuterin 108 reverse storage trials 303±4 RGB colour system 75, 83 rheology 223±4 rin tomato mutant 73 ripening 26, 81±2 roasted peanuts 118 rose Bengal chloramphenicol agar (RBCA) 246 rosemary extract 374 royal jelly 121 rubbery state 51 see also glass transition Sabouraud dextrose agar 246 Saccharomyces bayanus 234 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 94, 234 Safefood HACCP Documentation Software 343 Safety Monitoring and Assurance System (SMAS) 62±4 SAG12 promoter 79±80 salt solutions 33, 39 samples dilution 236±7 enrichment 237 preparation and treatment 236 treatment and storage 303±4 405 sampling plans 235 techniques for volatiles 298±301 saturated salt solutions 33 Schiff base 112 Schizosaccharomyces pombe 94 Schwarz differential agar 248 Seafood Spoilage Predictor (SSP) 352 seafoods 102±3 see also fish and fish products secondary models 185 selected ion monitoring (SIM) 302 selective culture media 238±42, 245±50, 268 sensory changes 176±8, 211 sensory evaluation 346 lipid oxidation 133, 140, 290, 309 correlating analytical measurements with 304±7 quality indices 176±8 relevant standards 346, 349 sensory panelling 309 shelf-life 165±83 approaches to estimation 166±7 definition 340 initial rate approach 318 and keeping quality 69 key factors influencing 167±71 moisture activity and 24±5 open shelf-life dating quality indices for testing 171±8 relationship of microbial predictions to other factors affecting 211 temperature and 42±3, 44, 168±9 temperature dependence of main shelflife indices 53, 54±5 Shelf-Life Decision System (SLDS) 62, 63, 64 shelf-life indices 53, 54±5 shelf-life plots 47 shelf-life testing 52±3, 340±56 determination of shelf-life 343±50 direct determination 343±5 experimental protocols 345 shelf-life tests 345±9 using shelf-life data to assign shelflife 349±50 HACCP system 342±3 predicting shelf-life 350±2 short shelf-life products 345 silica gels 38, 40 SimPlate 243 Simplified Identification Method (SIM) 260 406 Index simultaneous distillation and extraction (SDE) 298±9 single accelerating factor 322±6 soft drinks 101 soft rot 16±17 solid phase cytometry 254, 257 solid phase microextraction (SPME) 134, 300±1 soyabeans 152 specific heat capacity 221, 222 spices, dry 38 spinach 58±60 spoilage see food spoilage spoilage microorganisms see microbial spoilage; microorganisms spoilage yeasts see yeasts, spoilage sporulation 14, 92±3 square root model 48±9 staling standard deviation of the residuals 196 standards, legal 346, 349 starches, retrogradation of 10 static headspace analysis 133±4, 299 statistical analysis 334 techniques 194±8 sterilization 16 stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) 301 stock rotation and inventory management 61±4 storage conditions 165±6 direct determination of shelf-life 344±5 effects of moisture on storage stability 29±32 storage factors 321 strawberries 76±7, 78 Strecker degradation 113, 114 stringed instruments 38 strongly fermentative yeasts 94 substrate aggregation 143±4 sugar crystallization 8, 28±9 Maillard reaction 112±13 sulphur compounds 114, 115 sulphur dioxide 77±8 superoxide anion 358±9 superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzymes 362 supplementation, dietary 370±4, 376±7, 378±80, 381, 382, 383 surface analysis 251 survival, level of 335 survival models 185, 192, 203±6 tea catechins 373±4 teleomorphic states 92±3, 96 temperature 6, 42±68 distribution chain 61±4 glass transition see glass transition and growth of microorganisms 15 yeasts 98±9, 100 and lipid oxidation 53, 55, 131 lipolysis 144±5, 150 and Maillard reaction 115 quantifying the effect on food 43±52 and shelf-life 42±3, 44, 168±9 temperature dependence of main shelf-life indices 53, 54±5 shelf-life tests 52±3 time-temperature relationships 53±61 Ten Brinke equation 228 tertiary level models 185 thermal processing 16, 78, 103, 154 thermo mechanical analysis (TMA) 220, 221 thermophiles 15 thiamin 174 thiobarbituric acid (TBA) test 136, 140, 173, 292, 305±6 thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) 292±3, 305±6, 376, 377, 378±9 thiols 119, 173±4 time-dependent effects 334 time to growth models 185, 203±6 time temperature integrators (TTIs) 61±4 time-temperature relationships 53±61 time/temperature/tolerance (TTT) approach 58±61 Tin in Food Regulations (1992) 349 titration 291 tocopherols 362, 363 see also -tocopherol; -tocopherol tomato 73, 74, 80±1, 82, 83±4 total polar compounds (TPC) 295±6 totox value (TV) 136, 292 transgenic research 72±5, 78±85 triacylglycerides (TAG) 143, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151 triglycerides (triacylglycerols) 128 triphenylphosphine (TPP) 137 triphenylphosphine oxide (TPPO) 137 turbidity 206 turkey 371±2, 379 UHT milk 117, 119±20 ultrasound 108 unsaturated fatty acids 368 Index degree of unsaturation 144 UV radiation 72, 108 vacuum packaging 171, 382 validation of models 184±217, 334 definition 186, 187 increasing errors with validation stage 200 issues 207±9 vanillin 109 vegetables fruit and vegetables see fresh produce lipolysis 150±3 temperature and food stability 58±60 Velocity XPT system 300 verification of models 184±217, 334 definition 186, 187±8 issues 209±10 quality of data 210 viable count techniques 235±51 viruses 14 vitamins losses temperature and 53, 55, 58±60 vitamin C 58±60 and water activity 31, 32 vitamin E 362, 363, 367 antioxidant activity 364±5 supplementation 370±2, 378±80, 382, 383 volatile compounds 129±31, 173, 289±90 detection 302±3 headspace analysis 133±5, 299±300 meat flavour 377±80 sampling techniques 298±301 voluntary guidelines 349±50 warmed-over flavour (WOF) 357, 377±80 water 132 water activity 4, 6, 170 and growth of microorganisms 14±15, 29, 30 yeasts 99, 100 and Maillard reaction 31, 32, 115±16 and moisture management 25±9 water vapour permeability 331±2 weakly fermenting yeasts 94±5 Weibull distribution 176±8, 335±7 407 weight gain 138 white chocolate 122 white (glycolytic) muscle 147, 368±9 wholesalers 273 Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF) equation 50±1, 219, 326 wine 241, 272±3 WLD agar 248 WLN agar 245 wood veneers 38 wort agar 248 wounding/injury 154 xerotolerant (osmophilic) yeasts 99, 104 Yarrowia lypolytica medium (YLM) 239, 240 yeast extract agar 244 yeast glucose chloramphenicol agar (YGCA) 247 yeast and mould agar 244 yeasts, spoilage 14, 91±110 alternative technologies 106±9 characteristics and classification 92±7 main groups 93±6 natural habitats 97 detection 233±88 direct count techniques 251±2 future trends 274 identification and characterisation 256±67 instrumental techniques 252±6, 257±9 microbiological indicators 267±73 viable count techniques 235±51 diversity and frequency 100±3 factors affecting growth and survival 97±100 factors affecting inactivation 103±6 metabolic activities 97±8 nomenclature 92±3, 234 yellowing in leaf tissues 152±3 z-value 16, 48 Zygosaccharomyces bailii agar (ZBA) medium 238 Zygosaccharomyces differential medium (ZDM) 239, 240, 241 zymological indicators 261, 267±72