MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEM VOLUME 2 Episode 10 pdf

... 20 1.3 .2. 1. Hamilton’s principle 20 1.3 .2. 2. Hilbert functional vector space 20 1.3 .2. 3. Variation of the kinetic energy 21 1.3 .2. 4. Variation of the strain energy 21 1.3 .2. 5. Variation of the ... 327 6 .2. 4 .2. Vibration equations 327 6 .2. 4.3. Elastic boundary conditions 328 6 .2. 5. Application to a few problems in statics 329 6 .2. 5.1. Bending of a plate loaded by edge moments 329 6 .2. 5 .2. ... 449A.3 .2. Differential operators in curvilinear andorthogonal coordinates 4 52 A.3 .2. 1. Gradient of a scalar and the Nabla operator 4 52 A.3 .2. 2. Gradient of a vector 4 52 A.3 .2. 3. Divergence of a...

... Concentrated loads 82 2 .2. 1.5. Intermediate supports 84 2. 2 .2. Shear mode of deformation 86 2. 2 .2. 1. Local equilibrium 86 2. 2 .2. 2. General solution without external loading 88 2. 2 .2. 3. Elastic boundary ... motion 25 95.1. Introduction 26 05.1.1. Plate geometry 26 05.1 .2. Incidence of plate geometry on the mechanical response 26 05 .2. Kirchhoff–Love model 26 25 .2. 1. Love simplifications 26 25 .2. 2. Degrees ... conditions 88 2. 2 .2. 4. Concentrated loads 88 2. 2 .2. 5. Intermediate supports 89 2. 2.3. Torsion mode of deformation 89 2. 2.3.1. Torsion without warping 89 2. 2.3 .2. Local equilibrium 89 2. 2.3.3. General...

... placethroughinformalextendedfamilyandyewcontexts.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Traditionally,socialorganization(ofteninvolvingritual)revolvedaroundactivities of theyewanditsassociatedmen'shouse.Theyewwasthelargeststableunit of socialorganization.Sincethe1950sthisfocushasdi-minishedsomewhat.Somemen'shouseshavebeenreplacedbycommunityhouses,opentoall.PoliticalOrganization.Forthistraditionallyegalitariansociety,politicalorganizationwasbasedupontheinterplay of yew-prescribedactivity(includingwarfareandritual)andthedictates of thetesmaypits,ascribedcharismaticleaders.As-cdbedleadership,basedonacombination of skill,generosity,andcharisma(tes),isstillimportanttoday;butthegovern-ment'sappointment of anAsmatterwhodoesnotpossesstestoalocalpostcancreateagreatdeal of friction.Theability of tesmaypitstodevelopflexibleintersettlementalliancesandconfederations,oncesoimportanttothewaging of warandpeace,hasbeencurtailed.SocialControlTraditionally,socialcontrollargelywasexertedbythevarioustesmaypitsandwastiedtoallegiancesthattheyhaddevelopedovertime.Whileattenuated,thispracticecontinues.Strongprocesses of peersanctionareope-rative,includinggossipandtheopenberating of husbandsbytheirwives.Wifebeatingoccursandisimplicitlycondoned.ConflictRitualizedwarfare,head-hunting,andcannibal-ismweredistinctivefeatures of Asmatlifethroughtheearly1950s.Strikes,ambushes,andskirmishesstilloccurocca-sionally,and-aswithritualwarfareinthepast-theyareaimedatrevenge.Thelatentfunctionisseentobetherectifi-cation of cosmicandalsopopulationbalance.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Traditionallyananimisticsociety,theAsmathavedevelopedanintricatepattern of ritualsthatper-vadesvillagelife.VariousCatholic,Protestant,Islamic,andgovernmentprograms(introducedsince1953)haveattenu-atedbutnoterasedbeliefsinacomplexspiritual system basedontheconception of adualistic,balancedcosmos.Spiriten-titiesarethoughttoinhabittrees,earth,andwater.Thespir-its of deceasedancestorsmingleamongtheliving,attimesaidingorhinderingactivitiesandbringingsickness.Cyclicalrtuals-suchasthoseinvolvingthecarving of elaboratean-cestor(bis)poles-andritualsthataccompaniedhead-huntingraids,thedeath of greatwarriors,andceremonies of peaceandreconciliationcanberelatedtotheappeasement of theancestralspirits. 12 AmbaeManageandFamilyMarriage.Beforeconversion,men of highrankonbothsides of theislandoftenpracticedpolygyny.Suchmenas-piredtohavetenwives.Onewouldbeamember of hisownmoietywithwhomhecouldnothavesexualintercourse.Childbetrothalalsowascommon.Churchesdiscouragedbothpolygynyandarrangedmarriage.Todayyoungpeoplehaveconsiderablefreedomtochooseamarriagepartner,solongas(inEastAmbae)moietyexogamyisfollowed.Bride,wealthexchangescustomarilyinvolvedtuskedpigsandmats.Nowadays,cloth,householdgoodsand/ormoneyarein-cluded.PostmaritalresidencetendstobevirilocaLAUmis-sionsontheislanddiscourageorprohibitdivorce,andlegalseparation of marriagepartnersisveryrare.DomesticUnit.Thehouseholdcomposed of thenuclearfamilyisnowthebasicdomesticunit.PriortoconversiontoChristianity,settlementpatternsweresuchthatthedomesticunitwastheextendedfamily.Inheritance.InWestAmbae,landinheritanceispatrilin-eal.InEastAmbae,landinheritanceissaidtraditionallytohavebeenbilateral,butthepattern of funeraryobligationssuggestthepriority of matrilineallandtransmission.Chil-drenmustmakefunerarygiftstothefather'smatrilinealkinto ... secureownership of hisland.Matrilinealheirsneedmakenosuchpayment.Landinheritanceisoftencontentious.Socializatko.Parentssharedutiesasprimarycaretakers,andgrandparents,father'ssisters,andthemother'sbrothersalsoplayimportantrolesinsocialization.Childrenlearnpri-marilythroughimitationratherthanverbalinstruction.Bothwivesandchildrenmaybesubjecttobeatings,althoughlegalsanctionsmaybeimposedincases of severephysicalabuse.Anational system of educationhasreplacedmany(butnotall)churchschools.Mostchildrencanwalktoschoolthroughgradesix.BoardingschoolsontheislandprovideeducationthroughhighschooLSociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganizaton.Locality,politics,and,toalesserex-tent,kinshipdeterminegroupmembership.Moietiesandclansaredispersedandnoncorporate;affiliationinkinshipgroupslargerthantheextendedfamilyassumesmostimpor-tanceinthecontext of thematdisplaysandexchangesthataccompanymarriagesandfuneraryfeasts.Ineverydaylife,thehamletisthebasicunit of cooperation.Hamletsjointogetherintolong-standing,largelyendogamousalliancenetworksformedonthebasis of affiliationwithChristiandenomina-tions.Alliancenetworks,inturn,aresubdivisions of namedterritorialunits.Therearetensuch"districts"onAmbae,each of whichclaimsameasure of culturalandlinguisticdis-tinctness.Residents of eachdistrictshareanidentitybasedonasense of placeandcommonculture.Districtsaretheelectoralunitusedtodeterminemembershipinthestate-sponsoredislandgovernment.PoliticalOrganization.BigmenonEastAmbaearemen of rank,titleholdersinanelaboratesocialhierarchyconsist-ing of gradesscaledinterms of relativeprestige.Prestigeinthegradedsocietyorhungweisallocatedtoindividualsonthebasis of theirabilitytoaccumulateanddispose of boarswithtusksinparticularstages of development.Theman of highestrankinthecommunityoftenservesasitsdesignatedleaderonceremonialoccasions.Withingroups of alliedham-lets,high-rankingmencompetewitheachotherforauthority,prestige,andprivilege.Thealliancenetworkisthelargestpo-liticalunitonEastAmbaewithinwhichaleadercanexerciseauthorityonaregularbasis.Similarly,onWestAmbae,ham-letsandgroups of alliedhamletsarethemostimportantpolit-icaldivisionsbuttherethechurchratherthantherankasso-ciationcontrolsprocesses of recruitmenttopositions of politicalauthority.SocialControlHigh-rankingchiefsonAmbaeattheturn of thecenturypossessedthelegitimaterighttoorderan of- fender'sexecution.WhentheAnglo-FrenchCondominium of theNewHebrides"pacified"theisland ... therepetitiveagriculturalchoressuchasweeding.Menworkedwithstoneandwood,constructingtoolsandweapons,andwomenworkedwithclayandplantfi-bers,makingpots,mats,baskets,andfiberskirts.Today,fam-iliescontinuetocooperateinagriculture.LandTenure.IntraditionaltimesKanaksmaintainedin-dividualrightstoland.Theywere of fourtypes:(1)Firstoccupationrights-landbelongedtothefamilythatfirstclearedandoccupiedtheland. (2) Inheritancerights-amaninheritedlandfromhisfatherandthroughhisfathertherighttocultivatelandinany of thesuccessivesitesoccupiedbyhispaternalancestors.Succes-sionwasusuallymasculine.However,ifawomanwasthelastinherline,sheinheritedaccesstoherfamily'slanduntilherson(whothentookthename of hismaternalgrandfather)wasoldenoughtoinheritit.(3)Acquiredrights-throughmarriageamanestablishedarelationshipwithhisbrothers-in-lawwhocouldthengivehimsome of theirland.Amancouldalsogivelandtohisalliesifhewasunabletogiveasisterordaughterinmarriageexchange.(4)Cededrights-eventhoughthefirstcultivators of thesoilalwayshadrightsoverthatland,theycouldwelcomenew-comersorharborrefugeesonthatlandandgivethemtherighttosettlethereonatemporaryorpermanentbasis.LandclaimshavebeenacentralissueintheindependencestruggleandtheFrenchgovernmenthassetupaseries of landdevelopmentagenciestodealwiththeproblembutthepopulationpressureintheKanakreservescontinuestomount.AlthoughtheAjiiareapproximately80percent of thepopulationinthecommune of Houailou,thenativere-servescoveronly 20 percent of theland.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thenuclearfamilywasthebasicunit of Kanaksociety.Thefamilywasincorporatedintoanextendedfamily(usuallythreegenerationsdeep),lineage,andclanthatdidnotrepresentterritorialgroupsbutrathersuccessivelylargerpatrilinealunitssharingthesameritesandsymbolsandthesamemarriagecustoms.Extendedfamilieswereassembledintowidergroups of affiliationbyreferencetoacommonplace(homesteadmound) of origin.Genealogywasspatiallymanifestedbyroutesmarkedbyasuccession of occupiedsitesormounds,andwithineachclanthelineageswerepositionedhierarchicallyaccordingtotheantiquity of theirfirstresidenceinthegenealogicalitinerary.Duringthecolonialperiod,clanswerearbitrarilyassociatedwithaterritorysothatpreviouslysocialgroupingsbecamegeographicgroupingsonreserves.KinshipTerminology.OnLaGrandeTerretherewereatleasttwodistinctkinshipsystems.Inthefirst system, inHienghene,Balade,Pouebo,andVoh,allsistersandfemalecrossandparallelcousinswerecalledbythesameterm.Theuniqueattribute of this system wasitsasymmetry,asafather'ssister'shusbandwascalledmaternaluncleeventhoughhiswife(father'ssister)wascalledmother.Inthesecond system, adistinctionwasmadebetweenconsanguinesandaffines,thatis,betweensistersandfemalecrossandparallelcousins.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Eachmanandwomanhadaseries of obligatoryandoptionalsocialactionsinterms of residenceandmar-riage.Marriagetraditionallywasexogamous,patrilineal,andbetweencrosscousins.However,the system wasflexible.Dis-tantcousinsmarriedandsometimesitwassufficientjusttobesymboliccrosscousins.Residencewasusuallyvirilocal;however,uxorilocalresidencewasalwaysanoption.Mar-riageswerenegotiatedbyfamilies of similarrankthroughase-ries of ceremonialexchanges,andalthoughthereare"love"marriagesoccurringtoday,manyyoungpeople,particularlythose of chieflyrank,stillhavearrangedmarriages.Polygamywassometimespracticed,butbecause of theinfluence of 10Ajieswellingwiththeshark,anemiawiththerat.Eachillnesscouldbecuredbyaspecificherbthatwouldbechewedorchoppedandthensuckedon.Theherbactedonthetotem,nottheillness.Plantsfromtheforest,fishandplantsfromthesea,andsometarospecieswerealsousedformedicinalpurposesinpoultices,infusions,etc.DeathandAfterife.Thespirits of thedeadinhabitedanunderworldandcouldsurfaceattimes.Inordertoensurethattheydidnottakeupresidenceintheirformerbodies,theKanaksboundcorpsesinfetalpositions.Motherswereburiedwithawoodensticksothattheywouldthinkthattheyhadachildintheirarmsandwouldnotcomelookingfortheiroff-spring.Geographicalfeaturesthatweretraditionallybelievedtobethegatewaystotheunderworldremainknownandre-spectedandarestilltheobject of offeringsandprayer.Thispracticeispart of theAjii'suniquebondwiththeland.SeealsoLoyaltyIslandsBibliographyClifford,J.(19 82) .PersonandMyth:MauriceLeenhardtintheMelanesianWorld.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Connell,J.(1987).NewCaledoniaorKanaky?ThePoliticalHistory of aFrenchColony.AustraliaNationalCenterforDevelopmentStudies,AustralianNationalUniversity.Leenhardt,M.(1979).DoKamo:PersonandMythintheMel-anesianWorld.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Thompson,V.,andR.Adloff(1971).TheFrenchPacificIs-lands:FrenchPolynesiaandNewCaledonia.Berkeley:Univer-sity of CaliforniaPress.Ward,A.(19 82) .LandandPoliticsinNewCaledonia.Aus-traliaResearchSchool of PacificStudies,AustralianNa-tionalUniversity.DONNAWINSLOWAmbaeETHNONYMS:aBai,AngaiTagaro,Aoba,Butona,Leper'sIs-land,Lombaha,Longana,Nduindui,Oba,Omba,Opa,WalurikiOrientationIdentification.Ambaeisanislandthathashadmanynames.TheearliestEuropeanwhowroteontheregionadoptedtheexplorerBougainville'sdesignation of theislandasliedeLepreuxorLeper'sIsle;after1880,mostEuropeanwritersusedone of fivevariantspellings of Aoba,usuallypro-nouncedOmba.PeopleontheislandinsistthatAobaisaname of nonindigenousorigin,possiblyaEuropeanmisap-propriation of thelocalwordfor"seabird."In1980,nearthetime of Vanuatu'sIndependence,theAobaCouncil of ChiefsofficiallyrenamedtheislandAmbae.Acrimoniousde-batebetweencustomarychiefsandWestern-educatedyoungleadersprecededthecouncil'sdecisiontogivetheislandanewname.OnAmbae,asinmanyparts of Vanuatu,knowl-edge of aplace's'true'nameisavitalaspect of establishingcontrolovertheplaceitself.Location.AmbaeissituatedinnorthernVanuatubetween167°40'and167°46'Eandbetween15°13'and15&apos ;24 'S.Ithasatotallandarea of 399squarekilometersandisone of thelargestislandsinnorthernVanuatu.Itsvolcano(whichisdormantratherthanextinct)hasacentralcalderathatrisesto1,300meterswithcloudcoverabove450meters.Erup-tionshaveoccurredinsmallcratersalongtheNE-SWspine of theisland.Themostrecentspilleddownthenortheastcoastintheearly1900s.TherearenopermanentriversonAmbaebutlack of waterseldomisaproblem,evenduringthedryseasonfromApriltoOctober.parts of theislandreceiveupto400centimeters of rainfallperyear.Darkvolcanicloamcarpetsmuch of theisland,andinmostyearsAmbaeansenjoyarichharvest of rootcrops,greenvegetables,fruit,andnuts.Twoshoulders of thecentralmountainseparatetheeasternandwesternsides of theisland.Themountainouster-rainmakesfoottravelbetweenEastandWestAmbaediffi.cult,andthereislittletradeorintermarriagebetweenpeoplelivingonthetwosides of theisland.Demography.In1885,aBritishcolonialofficialesti.matedthepopulation of Ambaetobebetween 10, 000and 12, 000;however,a1919censusrecordedonly4,000peoplelivingontheisland.Accordingtothelastofficialcensusin1979,theisland'spopulation of 7,754residesin306separatelocalities.Thetwohalves of theislandhaveroughlyequalnumbers of inhabitants,buttwo-thirds of thepopulation of WestAmbaeliveinNduindui,adenselysettledarea of 18 .2 squarekilometersoverwhichhouseholdsaremoreorlessevenlydistributed.Throughouttherest of theisland,clus-teredhouseholdsformhamlets.Typically,theseincludethreeorfournuclearfamilies.Forexample,inLonganain19 82, hamletsizeaveraged16people.Occasionalhamletclusters,suchasdeveloparoundachurch,mayhavepopulationsthatapproach 100 .Hamletsarescatteredalongthecoastandinthehills,uptoamaximum of about3kilometersinland.LinguisticAffiliation.Therearetwolanguagesspokenontheisland,Nduindui(WestAmbae)andNortheastAoban(EastAmbae).Botharemultidialectalontheeasternpor-tion of theislandalone,linguistshavefoundoverfifteendia-lects.PeoplefromEastandWestAmbaeunderstandeachother'snativelanguageonlywithdifficultyandusuallycom-municatewitheachotherinBislama,thelinguafranca of Vanuatu.HistoryandCulturalRelationsOn 23 May1768,LouisdeBougainvillebecamethefirstEu.ropeantoleadalandingpartytotherockyshores of Ambae.Hewasdispatchedbacktohisvesselswithavolley of stonesandarrows.AlmostacenturyelapsedbeforeotherEuropeansvisitedtheislandand,fromfirstcontactuntilindependencein1980,whitesinthearchipelagostereotypedAmbaeansasintractableandsometimesviolent.ConversiontoChristian-ityreachedapeakinthe1930s.MostWestAmbaeansjoinedAranda17grassseedsthatweregroundintoaflourtomakebread.Din-goesweresometimesdomesticatedandwouldoccasionallyactashuntingdogs.AsWhitesettlementincreasinglyre-strictedtraditionalhuntingandgatheringgrounds,theArandabecameincreasinglyreliantonWesternfoodstuffs,particularlywhiteflour,sugar,andtea.Today,somehuntingandalittlegatheringtakeplace,butpeoplemainlyrelyonthemeat,jam,bread,etc.thatcanbeboughtfromsupermarketsandlocalstores.Governmentfunding of socialsecuritypay-mentsandcommunitydevelopmentprojectsisnow of con-siderableeconomicimportance.lnustrialArts.IntheirhuntingandgatheringdaystheAranda,likeallAborigines,hadafairlysimpletoolkit,con-sistingmainly of spears,spearthrowers,carryingtrays,grind-ingstones,anddiggingsticks.Therewerenospecialistprofes-sions,andanymanorwomancouldmakeequipmenttohuntandgather.ManymenandwomenhavenowacquiredEuropean-styleprofessionalskills.Trade.Inonesense,tradewas,andstillis,endemictoArandasociallife,sincefamilymembersandgroupsareboundtoeachotherthroughvariouskinds of giftandserviceexchange.Inprecontacttimes,long-distancetradeextendingfaroutsidetheAranda-speakingareawascarriedoutforcer-tainspecialtygoods,likeochersandpituri(nativetobacco).TodaytheArandaproduceartsandcraftsforthelocalandnationaltouristandartmarkets.Division of Labor.Adultmenarethemainhunters of largegame,whilewomenandchildren,sometimeswithmen,huntsmallergameandgatherfruitsandvegetables.Womenaretheprimarycaregiverstochildrenuptoadolescence,butmentendtotakeagooddeal of interestinthetraining of ad-olescentboys.Inthecontemporaryenvironmentwomentendtotakecare of mostdomesticwork,whilemenoftenseekworkonpastoralstationsandthelike.ManyeducatedArandanowliveandworkinbureaucraticorganizationsandsomearebeginningtoquestiontheideology of thesexualdi-vision of labor.LandTenure.Asindividuals,Arandapeoplehaverightsinlandthroughallfourgrandparentsandmayacquirerightsbyothermeansaswell.Thereisastrongbeliefthatonebe-longstoorownsthecountry of one'spaternalgrandfatherandthatonehasaverystrongconnectiontothecountry of one'smaternalgrandfather.Ultimately,landismanagedandownedbyrightstoritualpropertyandthispropertyisdistib-utedthroughacomplexlynegotiablepoliticalframework.Inprecontacttimes,bandswouldwanderovertheterritories of alocalalliancenetworkandbemoreorlesseconomicallyself-sufficient.Today,theseterritorialalliancenetworksstillexist,buttheextenttowhichArandapeoplecandispose of theirowncountriesismadeproblematicbyWhitesettlement.Thebulk of ArandaterritoryisoccupiedbyWhitepastoralists,al-thoughasmallamountisownedandmanaged(asrecognizedinAustralianlaw)byArandapeople.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.InhuntingandgatheringtimestheArandawereorganizedintonomadicbands of bilateralkindred.Thesizeandcomposition of thesebandsfluctuatedgreatlyovertime.Today,smallsettlementsareorganizedalongsimilarlinesandmobilityisveryhigh.Largersettle-mentstendtobeorganizedasneighborhoods,againreflect-ingtheimportance of extendedfamilystructures.Incertainrespects,descentiscognatic;inothersitisambilineal,butwithapatrilinealbias.Peopleregardthemselvesaspart of asingle,territoriallybased,cognaticgroup,descendedfromoneormorecommonancestors,butforcertainpurposestheyalsorecognizeseparatelines of inheritancethroughmalesandfemales,oftenaffordingakind of prioritytoagnation.KinshipTerminology.TheArandahavegiventheirownnametoakinshiptypeinwhichmarriageisenjoinedwithaclassificatorymother'smother'sbrother'sdaughter'sdaugh-ter.Atthetime of contactsomeArandagroupsemployedasubsection system (witheightmarriageclasses),whilemostemployedasectionorKariera system (withonlyfourclasses).Todaythesubsectionisusedbythemajority of Arandagroups.Moietiesarerecognizedbutnotnamed.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Marriageswereoriginallyarrangedbetweenfamiliesonapromise system, althoughthis system hasbeenincreasinglyerodeduptothepresenttime.Today,peoplearejustaslikelytomarry'sweethearts"astheyaretomarryintothe"correct"families.Theprescribedmarriagecategoryforamanismother'smother'sbrother'sdaughter'sdaughter,butothercategorieshavealwaysbeenallowed.Therehasproba-blybeenageneralincreasein'wrong"marriagessincecon-tactwithWhites.Inprecontacttimes,bride-servicewasnor-mal,withamanoftenremainingwithhisparents-in-lawforsometimebeforehispromisedwifematuredtomarriageableage.Polygynywaspermissible,butitwasnotthenorm;todayitisextremelyrare.Divorceandbrokenmarriagepromiseshaveprobablyalwaysbeencurrent.MarriagebetweendialectgroupsorbetweenArandaandnon-ArandicAboriginesiscommon,andthereisalsoacertainamount of marriagebe-tweenAboriginesandWhites,usuallybetweenAboriginalwomenandWhitemen.DomesticUnit.Ahearthgroupmightconsist of anelderman,hiswife,andtheirunmarriedchildren,togetherwithanumber of otherrelatives,suchasparents,unmarriedsib-lings,andsons-in-lawworkingbride-service.Butbecause of theflexibility of hearthgroups,bothinterms of sizeandcom-position,itisdifficulttosaythateventhisunitwouldbetypical.inheritance.Themainheritableproperty,untilrecently,wasland,togetherwiththemyths,ritualacts,andparapher-naliathatstilleffectivelyactastitledeedstoland.Rightsinlandandritualpropertyareopentointensepolitickingwithintheframework of ambilinealdescent,althoughdescentisnottheonlycriterionusedtoqualifyaperson'sclaims.Histori-cally,one'splace of conception(or,lessfrequently,place of birth)hasbeenimportant.Socialization.Infantsandchildrenareheavilyindulgedbytheirparentsuntiladolescence,whentheytendtobedisci-plinedforthefirsttime.Inchildhooddevelopmenttheem-phasisisonthefostering of independenceandautonomy;hencedeprivationandphysicalpunishmentareoftenfrownedupon.AgreatmanyArandachildrennowattendschools.Some of theseschoolscatertotheirpeculiarneedsandarebilingual.Anuta15SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Anutaisasmall-scalePolynesianchiefdom.Anutansocietyishierarchicallyorganizedonthebasis of age,sex,andproximitytoachieflyline.Inaddition,Anutansadmirestrength,intelligence,andskillatnaviga-tion,storytelling,carpentry,gardening,andothercrafts.Thisprovidesadegree of socialmobilityina system thatotherwiseseemsrigidlystratifiedonthebasis of genealogicalcriteria.PoliticalOrganization.Anutaisdividedintofourranked"clans"(kainanga).ThetwoseniorIkainangaareledbychiefs(ariki);theremainingtwoarenot.TheseniorchiefisknownasTeArikdiMus("TheChiefinFront")orTuiAnuta;thejuniorchiefisTeArilkiMuri("TheChiefinBack")orTuiKainanga.Thetwoarikitracetheirancestrytoapair of chieflybrotherswholivedaboutninegenerationsago.Achiefisnormallysucceededbyhiseldestson.Inthe1890s,AnutawasincorporatedintotheBritishSolomonIslandsProtectorate.In1978theSolomonIslandsbecameaninde-pendentnationandclaimedsovereigntyoverAnutaaswellasneighboringislands.Thenationalandprovincialgovern-mentsprovidesomeshipping,medicalcare,andschooling.Anutans,however,continuetoassertlocalautonomybyre-fusingtopaytaxes,runforgovernmentoffice,orvoteinelections.SocialControl.Undernormalcircumstances,socialcontrolismaintainedbythehighvalueplacedontraditionalcustomandanappreciation of theimportance of suchcus-tom.Inaddition,itisencouragedbyabeliefthatdisrespectordisobediencedirectedtowardaperson of superiorrankiscer-taintoproducediseaseorothermisfortune.Inextremecases,achiefhastheauthoritytohaveanoffenderfloggedorexiledtotheocean.Atpresent,governmentorchurchauthoritiesmightalsobecalledupontointercede.Thisactionisun-usual,however,becauseitcompromiseslocalsovereignty.Conflict.Anutansrelateseveraltales of visitorsfromotherislandsbeingkilledordrivenoff.Internalconflictshavearisenovercontrol of thechieftainshipandaccesstogardenlandduringtimes of famine.Inrecentyears,externalpoliticalandeconomicpressureshaveledtodevelopment of factionsandongoingconflict.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelieb.PrecontactAnutanreligioninvolvedaform of ancestorworship.Formost of thiscentury,theislandhasbeenChristian.Sinceabout1916,theentirepopulationhasbeenaffiliatedwiththeAnglicanchurch.Still,beliefinthepower of ancestralspiritsandthepresence of maliciousghostscontinues.Themajorpagandeitieswereghosts of de-ceasedchiefs.Otherancestorsweresometimesaskedforhelpwithhouseholdproblems.Spiritswhohadneverbeenhuman(tupuapenua,or'spirits of theland")werepowerfulanddan-gerous,althoughattimestheymighthelppeoplewhohadshownthemrespect.Ordinaryghosts(atua),ontheotherhand,werenormallymaliciousandrarelyhelpedtheliving.Anutanscontinuetobelieveinpaganspirits.Byfarthemostimportantspiritualbeing,however,isnowtheChristianGod,followedbyassortedsaints.ReligiousPractitioners.Traditionally,chiefsalsowerehighpriests.Assistedby"ritualelders"knownasmauaapure,theyperformedsacredkavaritestokeepthegodsfavorablydisposed.Spiritmediums,calledvakaatua,facilitatedtwo-waycommunicationwiththespiritworld.Incontrastwithchieflystatus,therewerenogenealogicalrequirementsforspiritmediumship.Sincemissionization,thecommunity'sre-ligiousleaderhasbeenatrainedcatechist.Thispersonisap-pointedbythechiefsinconsultationwithacouncil of advi-sors(ngamaru),onthebasis of character,oratoricalskill,andscripturalknowledge.Thecatechist,inturn,appointsanum-ber of assistantstoaidinperformance of services.TheCom-panions of theBrotherhood of MelanesiaandtheMothers'Unionarevoluntaryassociationsestablishedtoassistintheconduct of churchbusiness.Ceremonies.Life-crisisritessurroundingbirth,marriage,anddeathcontinuetobepracticed.Othermajorceremoniesareperformedwhenayoungchildeatshisfirstfishandwhenheistakentothehilltopforthefirsttime.Theseceremoniesoccurwhenthechildisaboutayear of age.Sometimepriortoadolescence,amajorceremonyisheldtohonorthefirstboyandthefirstgirlineach'house."Maleinitiation,atthetime of puberty,involvesritualcircumcision.Christiancelebra-tions of Christmas,Easter,anumber of saints'days,baptism,andconfirmationhavebeenaddedtotheceremonialcalendar.Arts.Visualartsincludetattooinganddesignscarvedintocanoes,clubs,anddancepaddles.Performingartsincludestorytelling,song,anddance.Traditionally,theonlymusicalinstrumentsweresoundingboardsandhumanvoiceandbody.Today,theseareaugmentedbyafewguitarsandukuleles.Medicine.Mostillnessesareattributedtotheactivity of spiritsortabooviolation.Effectivetreatmentrequiresconfes-sion of themisdeedandforgivenessbytheoffendedparty,ac-companiedbyprayer.SomeWesternmedicinesareavailableviatheSolomonIslandsgovernment.DeathandAfterlife.Whensomeonedies,thepopula-tiondividesintoseveralgroupstowailfuneraldirges(puatanga)inthehouse of thedeceased.Thisisfollowedbyanexchange of goodsbetweenthedeceased'sclosestkinandeveryotherhousehold.Afuneralserviceisheldinchurch,andthecorpseisburiedbythedeceased'smother'sbrotherormembers of themother'sbrother's'house."AnutanstakeChristianideasabouttheafterlifequiteliter-ally,believingthatonegoestoHellorHeavendependingonone'smoralvirtuewhilealive.SeealsoSantaCruz,Tikopia,Tonga,Tuvalu,UveaBibwaogpafhyFeinberg,Richard(1977).TheAnutanLanguageReconsid-ered:LexiconandGrammar of aPolynesianOutlier.NewHaven,Conn.:HumanRelationsAreaFiles.Feinberg,Richard(1981).Anuta:SocialStructure of aPolyne-sianIsland.Laie,Hawaii,andCopenhagenInstituteforPoly-nesianStudiesandtheNationalMuseum of Denmark.Feinberg,Richard(1988).PolynesianSeafaringandNaviga-tion:OceanTravelinAnutanCultureandSociety.Kent,Ohio:KentStateUniversityPress.Asmat19StanmmeinZentral-Australien.5vols.7pts.FrankfurtamMain:JosephBaer.Strehlow,T.G.H.(1947).ArandaTraditions.Melbourne:MelbourneUniversityPress.Strehlow,T.G....

... awitch.Witches(sei)canbemaleorfemaleandgenerallydonotthemselvesknow of theirevilaspect,whichwaitsuntilitshostsleepsandthenprowlsaboutinthenightseekingitsvictims.Seiarethoughtnottoattacktheirownkin,exceptonex-tremelyrareoccasions.Ceremonies.Thecenterpiece of KaluliceremoniallifeistheGisaro,whichisperformedatallmajorcelebratoryocca-sionssuchasweddings."Gisaro"specificallyreferstothesongsanddancingperformedforahostlonghousebyvisitors;thesongsarecomposedtoincorporatesorrowfulreferencestoimportantplacesandpeoplewhohavediedbutwhoarere-memberedwithfondnessandgrief.TheornatelycostumedGisarodancerperformshissonginthecentralhall of thehostlorghouse,andhisgoalistoincitemembers of thehostgroupstotearswiththebeautyandsadness of hiscomposi-tionandthestateliness of hisdance.Whenhehassucceeded,longhousemenrunuptothedancerandthrustburningtorchesagainsthisbackandshoulders,burninghim.Afterallthesingers of aGisarotroupehaveperformed,thedancersleavesmallgiftsfortheirhosts,asrepaymentforhavingevokedtheirtearsandgrief.Arts.Theultimateartisticexpressionisthecompositionandperformance of Gisarosongsandtheproperexecution of theaccompanyingdance.Visualartsarenothighlydevel-oped,exceptintheelaboratecostumes of theGisarodancers.Medicine.Foodtaboosandtheuse of medicinalplantsarecommonlyappliedtotreatillness,butmostcuringisdonethroughtheassistance of amedium,throughactionshetakeswhiletravelinginthespiritworld.DeathandAfterlife.Upondeath,one'sspiritimmedi-atelyquitsthenowuselessphysicalbodyandischasedintotheforestbythelonghousedogs.ThespiritisthusforcedtowalkontheIsawaRiver,whichinthisnewnoncorporealstateappearsasabroadroadleadingwest.Eventually,thespiritar-rivesat"Imol,"aplace of enormousfire,wherehebumsuntilrescuedbyaspiritwomanwhocarrieshischarredsoulbackalongtheIsawa,stoppingatspiritGisaroceremoniesalongtheway.Inthisway,shegradually"heals"thesoul,eventuallybringinghimtoherspiritlonghouseandtakinghimasherhusband(inthecase of thedeath of awoman,thespirithelperandeventualspouseisamale).Henceforth,thespiritwillappeartohumansasjustanotherwildcreature of thefor-estorwillspeaktohisorherkinthroughamedium.Tradi-tionalmortuaryritualcalledforthebody of thedeceasedtobeslunginahammock-linkaffair of caneloops,afterthebodyhadbeenstripped of ornamentsandclothing,andhungatthefront of thehouseneartheunmarriedwomen'scom-munalarea.Fireswouldbelitattheheadandfoot of thecorpse,andduringthenextdaysfriendsandkinwouldviewthebody.Later,thebodywouldbeplacedonaplatformout-sideuntildecompositionwascomplete.TheboneswouldbeKaPauku 105 137°Eand3 25 'and4 10& apos;S.Most of theregionisabove1,500meters,withthreelargelakes(Paniai,Tage,andTigi),andfivevegetationzones,includingmuchtropicalrainforest.Rainfallisplentifulandtheaveragedailytemperaturerangesfrom 20 °Cto60°C.Demography.Inthe1960s,theKapaukupopulationwasestimatedatabout45,000;todaytheynumberabout 100 ,000.LinguisticAffiliation.TheKapaukulanguage(Ekagi)isclassifiedwithintheEkagi-Wodani-MoniFamily of Papuanlanguages.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThereislittleinformationavailableregardingthehistory of theKapaukupriortoEuropeancontact,buttheyhavelongbeenhorticulturalists(bothintensiveandextensive)andtradersintheregion.Animportantintertribaltradenetworklinkingthesouthcoast of NewGuineatotheinteriorrandi-rectlythroughKapaukuterritory,bringingthepeople of theregionintocontactwithpeoplesandgoodsfromfarbeyondtheirownterritorialborders.EuropeancontactwiththeKa-paukudidnotoccuruntil1938,whenaDutchgovernmentpostwasestablishedatPaniaiLake.ItwasquicklyabandonedwiththeJapaneseinvasion of NewGuinea.In1946thepostwasreestablished,andafewCatholicandProtestantmis-sionariesreturnedtothearea.SettlementsTheKapaukuvillagesettlementisaloosecluster of aboutfif-teendwellings,typicallyhousingabout 120 people.Housesarenotorientedtooneanotherinanyformalplan,asindivid-ualsarefreetobuildwherevertheyplease,aslongaspropertitleorleaseisheldtothepiece of landuponwhichthehouseistobebuilt.Dwellingsconsist,minimally, of alargehouse(owa),anelevatedstructurewithaspacebeneathinwhichtoshelterdomesticatedpigs.Thisbuildingisdividedintohalvesseparatedbyaplankpartition.Thefronthalfistheemaage,ormen'sdormitory.Thebacksectionissubdividedintokugu,orindividual"apartments,"oneforeachwomanandherchil-dren.Iftheowaisinsufficienttoprovidespaceforwivesandchildren,outbuildings(calledtone)areadded.EconomyLeopoldPospisil,theleadingauthorityontheKapauku,la-belstheireconomyas'primitivecapitalism"characterizedbythepursuit of wealthintheform of cowrieshellmoney,statusdistinctionsbasedonsuchwealth,andanethic of individualism.SubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Kapaukusub-sistenceisbasedonthesweetpotato,towhichabout90per-cent of cultivatedlandisdevoted,andpighusbandry.Sweetpotatoesaregrownbothforhumanconsumptionandtofeedthepigsthat,throughsales,areabasicsource of incomeandwealth.Commonlygrown,butconstitutingafarsmallerpor-tion of thediet,areaspinach-likegreen(idaia),bananas,andtaro.InthedenselypopulatedKamuValley,huntingis of smallimportanceduetoapaucity of largegameanimals,butitisindulgedinbymenassport.Ediblefishareabsentfromthelakes,butcrayfish,dragonflylarvae,certaintypes of bee-tles,andfrogsaugmentthediet,asdoratsandbats.Farmingisdonebothonthemountainslopesandinthevalleys.Up-landgardensaregivenovertotheextensivecultivation of sweetpotatoes,withlongfallowperiodsbetweenplantings.Inthevalleysamoreintensivemethodisfollowed,usingbothmixedcroppingandcroprotation.Householdswillgenerallycultivateatleastone of eachtype of garden.IndustrialArts.Kapaukumanufactureislimitedand,forthemostpart,notspecialized.Netbags,forutilitarianandfordecorativepurposes,aremadefromwoventreebark,asarethearmbandsandnecklaceswornbybothmenandwomen.Alsomadefromthisbarkarewomen'saprons.Kapaukualsomanufacturestoneaxesandknives,flintchips,andgrindingstones.Frombambootheymakeknivesforthecarving of porkandforsurgicaluse.Othercarvingtoolsarefashionedfromratteethandbirdclaws,andagriculturaltoolsincludeweeding,planting,andharvestingsticks.Weaponryconsists of bowsandarrows,thelatter of whichmaybetippedwithlongblades of bamboo.Trade.Tradeiscarriedoutintra-andinterregionallyandintertribally,withtradelinksextendingtotheMimikapeople of thecoast.Thetwomostimportanttradecommoditiesarepigsandsalt.Tradeisgenerallyconductedinshellcurrency,pigs,orextensions of credit,andthebulk of tradingoccursduringpigfeastsandatthepigmarkets.Barterisarelativelyunimportantmeansbywhichgoodsmaybetransferred.Alldistributions of foodincuradebtonthepart of eachrecipienttorepayinkindtothegiver.PospisilnotesthattheKapaukuarelivelyparticipantsintheselling of pigsandpork.Shellmoney(andsometimesanobligationtoprovidepork)isre-quiredinpaymenttoashamanfortheperformance of magic.Division of Labor.Thereisasexualdivision of labor.Tasksheldtobetheexclusiveprovince of menincludetheplanning of agriculturalproduction,diggingditches,makinggardenbeds,fellingtrees,buildingfences,plantingandhar-vestingbananas,tobacco,chilipeppers,andapuu(aparticu-larvariety of yam),whiletheburning of gardens,plantingsu-garcane,manioc,squash,andmaize,aswellastheharvesting of sugarcane,manioc,andginger,arepreferentiallybutnotnecessarilydonebymales.Exclusivelyfemaletasksincludetheplanting of sweetpotatoesandjatu(anediblegrass,Setariapalmifolia)andweeding.Othertasks,suchasplantingandweedingtaroandharvestingsweetpotatoes,areusuallydonebywomen.Allothertasksrelatingtoagriculturearecar-riedoutbymembers of bothsexes.Thegathering of crayfish,waterbeetles,tadpoles,dragonflylarvae,andfrogsislargelythetask of women;thehunting of largegameisaninfrequententerpriseandisdoneonlybymen.Smallgameishuntedbyyoungmenandboys.Pigsandchickens,whileusuallyownedbymales,aretendedbywomenoradolescentchildren,butonlymalesareallowedtokillandbutcherthem.Theweaving of utilitariannetbagsisawoman'sjob,whiletheproduction of themoreornateandcolorfuldecorativebagsistheprov-ince of males.LandTenure.Aparticularpiece of landistheproperty of thehouseowner,alwaysmale,withuserightsaccordedtomembers of hishousehold.Sonsinheritlandfromtheirfa-thers.Ownershipimpliesrights of alienation of thelandaswellasusufructrights.Kwoma133cialAssemblyandtothePapuaNewGuineaHouse of Assembly.SocialControLThetsunaunwassupposedtosettledis-puteswithinhisownvillage,andmayhavehadthepowertopassthedeathsentenceonsomeoneguilty of persistentanti-socialbehavior.However,amuchmorepervasivemethod of socialcontrollayinthefear of harmfulmagicthatcouldbeperformedbyavictimagainstanoffender.Theusualway of expressingangerwastobreakupone'sownpersonalposses-sions.TodayTinputzaresubjecttothelaws of PapuaNewGuinea,whichincludea system of villagecourtsforsettlinglocaldisputes.Confli.Astate of sporadicwarfareexistedbeforecoloni-zation,especiallybetweencoastalandinteriordwellers,butalsoamongcoastalpeoplethemselves.Atsunaunwasex-pectedtoleadhisvillageorevenagroup of villagesinsuchconflict.Itseemsthatwarfaretooktheform of raidsandam-bushes,ratherthanpitchedbattles.Onemotiveforraidswasthecapture of prisonerstobeeaten.Colonialadministrationsregardedeliminatingwarfareasafirsttask,butgroupslivinginlandfromtheTinputzcontinuedcannibalraidsoncoastalvillagesuntilafterWorldWarI.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.ToaWesternobserver,traditionalTin-putulifeseemedfilledwithsupernaturalism.Mostdailyactiv-itiesinvolvedconsideration of spells,magic,andattentiontospiritbeings.Tinputzdonotseemtohaverecognizedacate-gory of supernaturalsthatmightbecalled'divinities."Byfarthemostimportantspiritswerethose of deceasedhumans.Althoughtheyweregenerallyregardedwithdread,theymightalsobepropitiatedandcalledupontoaidingardeningandotheractivities.Thesameterm,ura,wasappliedtospiritsthoughttoinhabitparticularlocales.RomanCatholicmis-sionariesbeganworkinBougainvillein19 02, andMethodistandSeventh-DayAdventistmissionariesarrivedafterWorldWar1.Methodist(nowUnitedChurch)presenceistodayverystrongintheTinputzarea.ReligiousPractitioners.Therewerenofull-timereligiousspecialists,butmanyindividualswerebelievedtohavespecialknowledgetoinfluenceevents(e.g.,everyvillagehaditsrain-maker).MissionteachersandUnitedChurchpastorsplayaroleintoday'sreligiouslife.Ceremonies.Asnoted,life-cycleceremonieswerethemostsignificantforTinputz,butalmostanyactivitymighthaveassociatedwithitspellsormagicalsubstances.Missioni-zationbroughtSundayandotherChristianobservances.Arts.Music,dance,andotheraestheticactivitieswereinti-matelyconnectedtoceremoniallife.Slitgongs,woodentrumpets,panpipes,bullroarers,musicalbows,andJew'sharpswereusedfordifferentoccasions.Utilitarianobjectslikelimepotsandcanoepaddlesweredecorated,butcarvedwoodenfigures,especially of uraspirits,weretraditionallyas-sociatedwithreligiousobservance.Medicine.TinputzdidnotmaketheWesterndistinctionbetweenmedicineandreligion.Illnesswasthoughttobebroughtbymalevolentspiritsormagicperformedbyanen-emy.Althoughplantandothermaterialswereusedforcur-ing,theirefficacywasasmuchsupernaturalaspharmacologi-cal.WesternmedicinehasstampedoutyawsandHansen'sdisease,butmalariacontinuestobeaserioushealthproblem.DeathandAfterlife.Exceptinthecase of theveryyoungorveryold,Tinputzregardedalldeathsascausedbymali-cioushumanorspiritbeings.ThedeadwerebelievedtogototheactivevolcanoatMountBalbi,butsomeremainednearthelivingintheform of ura.Tinputzlivingontheshoreorigi-nallythrewthedeadintothesea;however,burialhadbeenadoptedevenbeforeChristianitybecamedominant.Moum-ingwasenjoinedforwidowsand,inthecase of atsunaun'sdeath,forawholevillage.SeealsoNissanBibliographyAllen,Jerry,andConradHurd(1963).Languages of theBou-gainvilleDistrict.Ukarumpa,PapuaNewGuinea:SummerInstitute of Linguistics.Blackwood,Beatrice(1935).BothSides of BukaPassage.Ox-ford:ClarendonPress.Oliver,DouglasL.(1949).StudiesintheAnthropology of Bou-gainville,SolomonIslands.Cambridge,Mass.:PeabodyMu-seum,HarvardUniversity.Spriggs,Matthew(1984)."TheLapitaCulturalComplex:Origins,Distribution,Contemporaries,andSuccessors."TheJournal of PacificHistory19 :20 2 -22 3.EUGENEOGANKwomaETHNONYMS:Nukuuma,Washkuk,WaskukOrientationidentification.TheKwomaarelocatedintheAmbuntiSub-Province of theSepikRiverregion of PapuaNewGuinea.Thepeoplearedividedintotwodialectgroups.OneislocatedintheWashkukHills,arange of lowmountainsonthenorthside of theSepikadjacenttotheAmbuntiPatrolPost;theotherissituatedtothenorthandwest of theWashkukrangealongtributaries of theSepik.Members of theformeridentifythemselvesas'Kwoma,"or'hillpeople,"andrefertothelatteras"Nukuma,"or"headwaterpeople."LinguistsgivethenameKwomatothelanguageasawholeandNukuumatoitsnortherndialect."Washkuk"orWaskukisagovernmentname of uncertainderivationforthelanguageandthepeople.Location.Thetotalareathepeopleoccupycoincidesroughlywiththat of theWashkukHillsCensusDistrict,anarea of 485kilometerslocatedbetween4°and5°Sand1 42 and143°E.Climateis of thetropical-foresttype.14Kerakiexchangepartners,andtheyperformritualservicesforeachother'schildren.Othermales of approximatelythesameagebecomekamat(sisters'husbandsorwives'brothers),offeringhospitalityandfriendshiptotheircounterpartsintheoppo-sitelocalgroup.PoliticalOrganization.TheKerakirecognizehereditaryheadmen of thelocalgroupsdescribedabove.However,sincetheselocalgroupsarepatrilineallyorganizedandtypicallyverysmall,consisting of onlyaboutthirtypersons,theheadmanisusuallytheeldestactivemale.Leadershippassestoayoungerbrotherandthentotheeldestson of theoriginalheadman.Theheadmanexercisesverylittlerealauthority.His'decisions"merelyreflectthegeneralconsensus of opin-ion.Thereisnoformalleadershipabovethelocalgrouplevel.SocialControlSocialcontrolwithinthegroupismain-tainedlargelythroughasense of conformity,knowledge of theimportance of reciprocity,feelings of in-groupsolidarityandsupport,andgeneralconservatism.Thesearebolsteredbyfears of publicreprobationorridicule,retaliationthroughviolenceorsorcery,andthepossibility of supernaturalretribution.Conflict.Conflictwithinthelocalgroupisrare,owingtothesocialcontrolmechanismsdescribedabove.Occasionaltheftsandsexualjealousiesarethemostcommonexceptions.FightingwithKerakipeoplefromoutsidethelocalgroupiscalledguwari,inwhichthemenfromonevillagedescendinopeninvasiononthemenfromanothervillage.Loud,wordyquarrelsmightdevelopintogeneralbrawls,sometimeswithsticksandarrowsusedasweapons,butthesefightsusuallyendinreconciliation.Incontrasttothiswasthemoku,orhead-huntingraid,directedagainstnon-Kerakipeople,mostcommonlytheGunduman.Theseraidstooktheform of un-expected,oftenpredawnraids.Headswerequicklyseveredwithbambooknivesandattachedtocaneheadcarriers,whereupontheentirepartyfled.Onceintheircamp,theraid-erscookedtheheads,ofteneatingabit of flesh,usuallyfromthecheek,andcleanedtheskulls,whichtheyerectedonpolesastrophies.Menwhohadtakenheadsachievedstatusandsomemeasure of influencewithinthegroup.TheKerakiwerecomparativelypeaceful,however,moreoftenbeingthevic-tims of theaggressiveMarindorWirampeoplethanthevic-torsthemselves,andtheirhead-huntingraidswereratherinfrequent.stimulusforfoodproductionandbringtogetherotherwisedisparategroups.Hostsprovidesociability,food,andsexualpartnersformaleguests;thesefavorsarethenreciprocatedatareturnfeast.Attheindividuallevel,byfarthemostimpor-tantceremony of maleyouthistheperiod of seclusionandin-itiationmentionedabove,whereyoungboysaretaughtritualandmythologicallore.InapracticenotuncommonintheTrans-Fly,theinitiatesaresodomizedbymenfromtheoppo-sitemoietyinordertopromotetheboys'growth.Arts.Kerakiartsincludewoodcarving,textilemaking,andaspects of musicandperformanceassociatedprimarilywithritual.Medicine.Sicknessanddeathareoftenascribedtosor-cery.Treatmentsforsorceryvary,buttheyoftenincludebleedingortheextraction of someobjectintroducedintothebody.DeathandAfterlife.Deceasedareburiedinahouse,oftenayamhouse.Thecorpseiswrappedinbarkandshallowlyinterredinasupinepositionwithfeetfacingthesouth(towardthesea).Roughlyayear of formalmourningandfoodavoidancefollows,particularlyforwomen,whocuttheirhairandthenletitgrow,refrainfromwashing,andwearmakamaka,elaboratecostumesconstructed of multiplelayers of plaitedswampgrass.Afterinterment,thereisasmallburialfeast,followedbytheerection of asmallmemorialandtheburning of personalbelongings.Alargerfeastsignalstheend of formalmourning.Womenthenremovethemakamaka,andthememorialisuprooted.Thereisabeliefinasoulthatindependentlycontinuestheexistence of apersonafterdeath,butwhereitabidesisunclear.SeealsoMarind-animBibliographyWilliams,FrancisEdgar(1 929 )."RainmakingontheRiverMorehead."Journal of theRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute of GreatBritainandIreland59:379-397.Williams,FrancisEdgar(1936).Papuans of theTrans-Fly.Territory of PapuaAnthropologyReportno.15.Oxford:Cla-rendonPress.RICHARDSCAGLIONReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.CertainKerakireligiousbeliefsareem-bodiedinmythandactuallynotknownbyasignificantpro-portion of thepopulation.ThereisanOriginatorandhisfamily,whoconstitutetheSkyBeings of gainjantimes,whencreaturesweregreaterthantheyaretoday.TheseSkyBeingscangrantorwithholdfavorstopresent-dayhumanbeings,andtheymaycausesicknessbycapturingaperson'sspirit.Theymaybeappealedtothroughprayersorexhortations.ReligiousPractitioners.Theactions of Keralireligiouspractitionersarelinkedtothebeliefinmagic,particularlysympatheticmagic.AllKerakipracticemagic of variouskinds,butspecialistpractitionersare of twomaintypes:therainmakersandthesorcerers.Ceremonies.Keraldrituallifeisquitevaried.Atthegrouplevel,exchangefeastsareextremelyimportant:theyprovideaKewaETHNONYMS:Kewapi,Pole,SouthMendiOrientationIdentification.TheKewaliveintheSouthernHighlandsProvince of PapuaNewGuineaandspeakthreemajor,mutu-allyintelligibledialects.Thename'Kewa"isnotindigenous,inthatareasareknownonlybythenames of theclansthatoccupythemandnotbymoregenericterms.Itmeans,liter-Koiari 12 7themimia.Theh6riomuisconnectedwiththecult of thedeadandisheldeachyearatthebeginning of thedryseason(inAprilorMay).Theceremonylastsseveralweeks,occupy-ingafewhourseachdaybeforesunset.Themoguruisthemostsecretandmostimportantceremony of theKiwaipeo-ple.Traditionally,itwasheldonceortwiceayearinthedarirno.Thetwomainpurposes of themog6ruarethesexualinstruction of boysandgirlswhohavereachedpubertyandthepreparation of amagicalconcoctionmade of herbsandsemencollectedfromthevaginas of womenfollowingpromis-cuoussexualintercourse.Themimiaorfireceremonyiscon-nectedwiththeinitiation of youngmen.Duringthecere-mony,theyoungmenareburnedandbeatenandgivenmagicalsubstancesthatarebelievedtomakethemstrong.Arts.TheKiwaiproduceagreatdeal of representationalart,andeventheirutilitarianwoodenimplements(e.g.,dig-gingorwalkingsticks)areoftencarvedtorepresentahumanfaceorbody.Musicalinstrumentsincludehourglassandcy-lindricaldrums,rattlesmadefromseedpods,reedwhistles,panpipes,bambooandreedflutes,shelltrumpets,Jew'sharps,andbullroarers.TheKiwaialsomakeelaboratecere-monialmasksfromwoodandturtleshells.Medicine.Illnessisbelievedtobecausedbycomets,earthquakes,sorcery,ortheabduction of aperson'ssoulbyaspirit.Menstrualbloodisbelievedtobeparticularlydeleteri-oustomen'shealth.Inthecase of fever,thepatientisbledfromthepart of thebodywheretheillnessisthoughttobelo-cated.Sickpeoplearegivenfoodthatisconsidered"strong'suchaspigmeat,sharkmeat,taro,orsago.Bananasarenoteatenbecausetheyaresoft,anddugongandturtlemeatmaynotbeeatenbecausetheyareassociatedwiththespiritworld.Itisalsobadifasickpersoncomesintocontactwithsome-one(manorwoman)whohasrecentlyhadsexualintercourse.DeathandAfterlife.Wailingbeginsimmediatelyafterapersondiesandcontinuesthroughthenight.Thenextmorning,thedeadperson'sfaceispaintedblack,white,andredandthebodyisdressedinaheaddressandshellorna-ments.Thebodyisthenplacedinasittingpositionnearthedoor of thehouse.Afterbeingdisplayed,thebodyisplacedonaboardandcarriedashortdistancefromthevillagewhereitisplacedonaplatform.Ifthepersonwasmurderedandrevengehasalreadybeentaken,themurderer'sheadmaybecutoffandplacedasapillowunderthehead of thedeceased.Waterispouredoverthebodydailytospeedde-composition.Whenonlybonesremain,theyarewashedandthenburiedinagardenbelongingtothedeadperson.Some-timestheskull of thedeceasediskeptanddecoratedbyhiswidow.Thewidowspendsaperiod of timesecludedinanenclosure of matsinthem6to.Awidowerwillnotgointose-clusion,buthewillspendseveraldayscryingforhiswifeandwillrefrainfromhuntingandfishingforalongtime.Bothwidowsandwidowerswearamourninggarbmade of grassandconsisting of acapwithlongfringeandafringedcover-ingforhisorhershoulders,chest,arms,andlegs.Nodrumsmaybebeatenuntilafeastisheldafewweekslatertoendtheperiod of mourning.Ordinarilythespirits of thedeadareinvisible,butsometimestheycanbeseenandtouched.Aghostmaynotalwaysstartitsjourneytotheland of thedeadimmediatelybutmayinsteadlingerforatimenearitsformerhome.TheKiwaiareparticularlyafraid of theghosts of sorcerersandpersonswhohavemetaviolentdeathorhavediedinanunusualway.Evenafterspiritshavegonetotheland of thedead,theymayreturntogivemessagestothelivingeitherthroughdreamsorappearingtothemdirectly.Ghostsmayalsopossesslivingpeople.SeealsoMarind-anim,TorresStraitBibliographyLandtman,Gunnar(1917).TheFolk-Tales of theKiwaiPa-puans.ActaSocietatisScientiarumFennicae,vol.47.Hel-sinki:FinnishSociety of Literature.Landtman,Gunnar(1 927 ).TheKiwaiPapuans of BritishNewGuinea.London:Macmillan.Wurm,Stefan(1951).StudiesintheKiwaiLanguages,FlyDelta,Papua,NewGuinea.ActaEthnologicaetLinguistica,no .2. Vienna:InstitutffirV5lkerkundederUniversititWien.Wurm,Stefan(1973)."TheKiwaianLanguageFamily."InTheLinguisticSituationintheGulfDistrictandAdjacentAr-eas,PapuaNewGuinea,editedbyKarlFranklin, 21 9 -26 0.PacificLinguistics,SeriesC,no. 26 .Canberra:AustralianNationalUniversity.MARKBUSSEKoiariTheKoiari(GrassKoiari)numberedabout1,800in1973.Theyliveatabout9°Sand148°EinPortMoresbySubpro-vince,CentralProvince of PapuaNewGuinea.TheyarecloselyrelatedtotheMountainKoiali(MountainKoiari)whoarefoundfartherinlandandathigherelevations.SeealsoMotuBibliographyGroves,Murray,etaL(1957).'BloodGroups of theMotuandKoitaPeoples."Oceania 28 :22 2 -23 8.Lawes,W.G.(1879)."EthnologicalNotesontheMotu,Koitapu,andKoiariTribes."Journal of theRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute8:369-377.1 12 1MUIL&youngmansettingoutonalongjourney (of severalmonths),whichoftenwilltakehimbeyondtheborders of hisownsection'straditionalterritoryandmayevenbringhimintocontactwithnon-Karieragroups.Throughoutthecourse of thisjourneyheacquiresknowledge of thesurroundinglandsand,moreimportantly,isgraduallyintroducedintotheritualloreassociatedwiththeterritory.Onthisjourney,theyoungmanseeksawife,buthealsoestablishestheroughoutline of the"road,"thespecificportion of territoryinwhichhewill,asanadult,travelandhunt.BibliographyRadcliffe-Brown,A.R.(1930)."TheSocialOrganization of AustralianTribes,PartI."Oceania1:34-63.Radcliffe-Brown,A.R.(1930)."TheSocialOrganization of AustralianTribes,PartII."Oceania1 :20 6 -25 6; 322 -341.Radcliffe-Brown,A.R.(1930).'TheSocialOrganization of AustralianTribes,PartIII."Oceania1: 426 -456.KerakiETHNONYMS:Morehead,Nambu,Trans-FlyOrientationIdentification.Theterm"Keraki"generallyreferstoone of severalsmalltranshumantculturalgroupslivingneartheMoreheadRiverintheTrans-Flyregion of PapuaNewGuinea,applyingprincipallytoNambuspeakersbutalsoin-cludingsome of theirimmediateneighbors.Thenamealsoreferstoone of theroughlyninesmall"tribes"intowhichtheKerakiaredivided.Location.Kerakiterritoryliesinthesouthwesternpart of PapuaNewGuinea,justtotheeast of theMoreheadRiver,atabout9°Sby1 42 E.Theareaischaracterizedbyextremes of climate.Duringaconsiderablepart of therainyseason,espe-ciallybetweenJanuaryandMarch,much of thelandisunderwater,andtheKerakiareobligedtotakeupresidenceinsemi-permanentvillagesinone of afewlocationsalonghighground.TherainsabateinMayorJune,thecountrydriesup,thelandbecomesparched,andtheKerakimovetolocationsalongone of thelagoonsorlargerstreams,withinreach of water.Attheheight of thedryseason,thepeopleoftenliveinsmallclearingsintheforesttoescapetheconsiderableheat.Demography.In1931,theethnographicpresentforthisreport,F.E.WilliamsestimatedtheentireKerakipopulationatabout700-800.Recentestimatesindicated700Nambuspeakersandanother800speakers of theTondaandLowerMoreheadlanguages.LinguisticAffiliation.Nambu,Tonda,andLowerMore-headarethree of thesevensmallNon-Austronesianlan-guagesthatmakeuptheMoreheadandUpperMaroRiversFamily.HistoryandCulturalRelationsOwingtoitssparseandscatteredpopulation,inhospitableclimate,andapparentlack of potentialfordevelopment,theMoreheadareawaslittleaffectedbyEuropeancontactinthe1 920 sand1930swhenF.E.Williamsconductedhisbasicethnographicresearch.Eventoday,theregionissomewhatisolated,withverylittleeconomicdevelopment.Culturalre-lationsandcommunicationsamonggroupsarehamperedbyflooding of theareainthewetseason,lack of waterinthedryseason,and,intheprecontactandearly-contactera,bytheconstantraiding of powerfulheadhuntersfromacrossthebordertothewest.SettlementsThesemipermanentvillagesareusuallylocatedinorontheedge of aforestarea,onhighground.Thevillageitselfisaclearing,plantedwithcoconutpalms,withhousesirregularlyscatteredabout.Gardensringthevillage,anddecorativeplantsandflowersgrowwithin.Housesare of severaltypes.Themongo-vivi,or"proper"house,isalong,oblongbuildingwitharidgedroof,stampedandhardenedclayfloor,andsemicircularverandasoneitherend.Agood-sizedhouseisabout9meterslong,3.6meterswide,and 2. 4metershigh,al-thoughdimensionsvaryconsiderably.Thesehousesareusedprimarilyforfoodstorage,especiallyforyams.Typically,vil-lagesalsocontainanumber of shelters,calledgua-mongo,underwhichKerakispreadtheirmats.Thesesheltersaresim-pleopen-sidedstructuresconsisting of fourpolessupportingaridgedroof.Incontrasttothesemipermanentvillages,thetemporaryvillages-whichmightbeusedasdry-seasonset-tlements,headquartersforlargehuntingparties,orothertemporaryencampments-usuallycontainonlyhaphazard,roughlybuilthouses,shelters,andlean-tos,withlittleat-temptmadetoclearthebrush.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheKerakiaresubsistencefarmerswhopracticeswiddenorslash-and-burnhorticulture.Theirstaplecropisthelesseryam(Dioscoreaes-culenta).Gardensarepreparedattheend of thedryseasonandcompletedbyOctoberorNovember,whenthefirstsounds of thundersignalthebeginning of theplantingsea-son.Severalfamiliesusuallycooperateinclearingatract of land,whichissubsequentlydividedintoindividuallyownedplots of about45meterssquare,separatedfromoneanotherbytimbermarkerslaidalongtheground.Theentireareaiscustomarilyfencedagainstwildpigs,wallabies,etc.ByJunetheyamvines,attachedto 2- meter-longpoles,havebeguntoturnyellow,andtheharvestbegins-desultorilyatfirst,thenmoreseriouslyasthevineswither.Yamsareleveredupordugoutwithheavyspatulatediggingsticks,thenpickedoutbyhand,andlatersortedintopilesforcooking,replanting,orforfeasts.Otherimportantrootcropsaretaro,manioc,andsweetpotatoes.Sugarcane,coconuts,andbananasarealsogrown,andvariousotherfruits,especiallypapayas,comple-menttheKerakidiet.Sagoisrareandhighlyprized,thrivingonlyinthefewsagoswampsthatexistinKerakiterritory. 104 Kalulilaterrecoveredandhungupintheeaves of thelonghouse.Since1968,governmentedicthasrequiredthatbodiesbeburiedinacemetery.Survivors of adeceasedpersonassumefoodtaboosduringtheperiod of mourning.Thesetaboosareobligatoryforthesurvivingspouseandchildren,buttheyareoftenvoluntarilytakenonbyclosefriendsandotherkinaswell.SeealsoFoi,GebusiBibliographyFeld,Steven(19 82) .SoundandSentiment:Birds,Weeping,PoeticsandSonginKaluliExpression.Philadelphia:University of PennsylvaniaPress.Rev.ed.1990.Schieffelin,Bambi(1990).TheGiveandTake of EverydayLife:LanguageSocialization of KalulbChildren.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Schieffelin,EdwardL.(1976).TheSorrow of theLonelyandtheBurning of theDancers.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Schieffelin,EdwardL.(1985)."TheRetaliation of theAni-mals:OntheCulturalConstruction of thePastinPapuaNewGuinea."InHistoryandEthnohistoryinPapuaNewGuinea,editedbyDeborahGewertzandEdwardSchieffelin,40-57.OceaniaMonographno. 28 .Sydney:OceaniaPublications.NANCYE.GRATTONKamilaroiest.Atthemostgenerallevel of socialorganization,theKamilaroiwereorganizedintoexogamousmatrimoities.Bothmoitiesweredividedintofourmarriageclasses.Alsopresentwithinthemoitieswerevarioussibsandlineages,eachrepre-sentedbyseveraltotemsandsubtotems.Descentwasmatri-lineal.TheKamilaroihadafour-classmarriage system. Ex-ogamywastheruleforeachkingroup,fromthelineagethroughthemoiety.Paternalhalf-sistermarriagewasreport-edlythepreferredformamongtheEuahlayi.Theprimaryeco-nomicunitswerethebands,whichwerecomposed of severalhouseholds.Matrilineageswererepresentedbysubtotemsandorganizedintoamatrisib,whichhaditsowntotem.Thesibsweremembers of oneortheothermatrimoieties.Inter-sectingwiththesegroupsbasedonkinshipanddescentwerethefourmarriageclasses,all of whichwerecommontobothmatrimoieties.Riteswereheldtoencouragethepropagation of totems.Therewereinitiationceremoniesforbothsexes,withcircum-cisionforboys.Shamans(wireenun)concernedthemselveswithcuringillnessandcommunicatingwiththeirdreamspir-its,whowereoftensentoutoninformation-gatheringmis-sions.TheKamilaroibelievedinan"AllFather,"themoralandkindlydeityintheskywhoreceivedthesouls of goodAb-originesupontheirdeath.Eachindividualwasbelievedtohaveasoul,adreamspirit,andashadowspirit.Sicknessordeathwasbelievedtoresultifone'sshadowspiritweremo-lestedorcapturedbyashaman.Someindividualsalsohadtheaid of aspirithelper.BibliographyFison,Lorimer,andA.W.Howitt(1867).KamilaroiandKurnai:GroupMarriageandRelationship,andMarriagebyElopement.Oosterhout,theNetherlands:AnthropologicalPublications.Parker,K.Langloh(1905).TheEuahlayiTribe:aStudy of Ab-originalLifeinAustralia.London:ArchibaldConstable.ETHNONYMS:Camileroi,Euahlayi,GunilroyTheKamilaroiwereanAboriginalgrouplocatedinNewSouthWales,Australia,alongtheBarwon,Bundarra,Balonne,andupperHunterriversandintheLiverpoolplains.Theyarenownearlyextinctandonlyasmallnumberremain.TheKamilaroilanguage,whichisnolongerspoken,isclassi-fiedinthePama-NyunganFamily of Australianlanguages.TheKamilaroiwerenomadichuntersandgathererswithaband-levelsocialorganization.Importantvegetablefoodswereyamsandotherroots,aswellasasterculiagrain,whichwasmadeintoabread.Insectlarvae,frogs,andeggs of severaldifferentanimalswerealsogathered.Variousbirds,kanga-roos,emus,iguanas,opossums,echidnas,andbandicootswereamongtheimportantanimals ... awitch.Witches(sei)canbemaleorfemaleandgenerallydonotthemselvesknow of theirevilaspect,whichwaitsuntilitshostsleepsandthenprowlsaboutinthenightseekingitsvictims.Seiarethoughtnottoattacktheirownkin,exceptonex-tremelyrareoccasions.Ceremonies.Thecenterpiece of KaluliceremoniallifeistheGisaro,whichisperformedatallmajorcelebratoryocca-sionssuchasweddings."Gisaro"specificallyreferstothesongsanddancingperformedforahostlonghousebyvisitors;thesongsarecomposedtoincorporatesorrowfulreferencestoimportantplacesandpeoplewhohavediedbutwhoarere-memberedwithfondnessandgrief.TheornatelycostumedGisarodancerperformshissonginthecentralhall of thehostlorghouse,andhisgoalistoincitemembers of thehostgroupstotearswiththebeautyandsadness of hiscomposi-tionandthestateliness of hisdance.Whenhehassucceeded,longhousemenrunuptothedancerandthrustburningtorchesagainsthisbackandshoulders,burninghim.Afterallthesingers of aGisarotroupehaveperformed,thedancersleavesmallgiftsfortheirhosts,asrepaymentforhavingevokedtheirtearsandgrief.Arts.Theultimateartisticexpressionisthecompositionandperformance of Gisarosongsandtheproperexecution of theaccompanyingdance.Visualartsarenothighlydevel-oped,exceptintheelaboratecostumes of theGisarodancers.Medicine.Foodtaboosandtheuse of medicinalplantsarecommonlyappliedtotreatillness,butmostcuringisdonethroughtheassistance of amedium,throughactionshetakeswhiletravelinginthespiritworld.DeathandAfterlife.Upondeath,one'sspiritimmedi-atelyquitsthenowuselessphysicalbodyandischasedintotheforestbythelonghousedogs.ThespiritisthusforcedtowalkontheIsawaRiver,whichinthisnewnoncorporealstateappearsasabroadroadleadingwest.Eventually,thespiritar-rivesat"Imol,"aplace of enormousfire,wherehebumsuntilrescuedbyaspiritwomanwhocarrieshischarredsoulbackalongtheIsawa,stoppingatspiritGisaroceremoniesalongtheway.Inthisway,shegradually"heals"thesoul,eventuallybringinghimtoherspiritlonghouseandtakinghimasherhusband(inthecase of thedeath of awoman,thespirithelperandeventualspouseisamale).Henceforth,thespiritwillappeartohumansasjustanotherwildcreature of thefor-estorwillspeaktohisorherkinthroughamedium.Tradi-tionalmortuaryritualcalledforthebody of thedeceasedtobeslunginahammock-linkaffair of caneloops,afterthebodyhadbeenstripped of ornamentsandclothing,andhungatthefront of thehouseneartheunmarriedwomen'scom-munalarea.Fireswouldbelitattheheadandfoot of thecorpse,andduringthenextdaysfriendsandkinwouldviewthebody.Later,thebodywouldbeplacedonaplatformout-sideuntildecompositionwascomplete.TheboneswouldbeKaPauku 105 137°Eand3 25 'and4 10& apos;S.Most of theregionisabove1,500meters,withthreelargelakes(Paniai,Tage,andTigi),andfivevegetationzones,includingmuchtropicalrainforest.Rainfallisplentifulandtheaveragedailytemperaturerangesfrom 20 °Cto60°C.Demography.Inthe1960s,theKapaukupopulationwasestimatedatabout45,000;todaytheynumberabout 100 ,000.LinguisticAffiliation.TheKapaukulanguage(Ekagi)isclassifiedwithintheEkagi-Wodani-MoniFamily of Papuanlanguages.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThereislittleinformationavailableregardingthehistory of theKapaukupriortoEuropeancontact,buttheyhavelongbeenhorticulturalists(bothintensiveandextensive)andtradersintheregion.Animportantintertribaltradenetworklinkingthesouthcoast of NewGuineatotheinteriorrandi-rectlythroughKapaukuterritory,bringingthepeople of theregionintocontactwithpeoplesandgoodsfromfarbeyondtheirownterritorialborders.EuropeancontactwiththeKa-paukudidnotoccuruntil1938,whenaDutchgovernmentpostwasestablishedatPaniaiLake.ItwasquicklyabandonedwiththeJapaneseinvasion of NewGuinea.In1946thepostwasreestablished,andafewCatholicandProtestantmis-sionariesreturnedtothearea.SettlementsTheKapaukuvillagesettlementisaloosecluster of aboutfif-teendwellings,typicallyhousingabout 120 people.Housesarenotorientedtooneanotherinanyformalplan,asindivid-ualsarefreetobuildwherevertheyplease,aslongaspropertitleorleaseisheldtothepiece of landuponwhichthehouseistobebuilt.Dwellingsconsist,minimally, of alargehouse(owa),anelevatedstructurewithaspacebeneathinwhichtoshelterdomesticatedpigs.Thisbuildingisdividedintohalvesseparatedbyaplankpartition.Thefronthalfistheemaage,ormen'sdormitory.Thebacksectionissubdividedintokugu,orindividual"apartments,"oneforeachwomanandherchil-dren.Iftheowaisinsufficienttoprovidespaceforwivesandchildren,outbuildings(calledtone)areadded.EconomyLeopoldPospisil,theleadingauthorityontheKapauku,la-belstheireconomyas'primitivecapitalism"characterizedbythepursuit of wealthintheform of cowrieshellmoney,statusdistinctionsbasedonsuchwealth,andanethic of individualism.SubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Kapaukusub-sistenceisbasedonthesweetpotato,towhichabout90per-cent of cultivatedlandisdevoted,andpighusbandry.Sweetpotatoesaregrownbothforhumanconsumptionandtofeedthepigsthat,throughsales,areabasicsource of incomeandwealth.Commonlygrown,butconstitutingafarsmallerpor-tion of thediet,areaspinach-likegreen(idaia),bananas,andtaro.InthedenselypopulatedKamuValley,huntingis of smallimportanceduetoapaucity of largegameanimals,butitisindulgedinbymenassport.Ediblefishareabsentfromthelakes,butcrayfish,dragonflylarvae,certaintypes of bee-tles,andfrogsaugmentthediet,asdoratsandbats.Farmingisdonebothonthemountainslopesandinthevalleys.Up-landgardensaregivenovertotheextensivecultivation of sweetpotatoes,withlongfallowperiodsbetweenplantings.Inthevalleysamoreintensivemethodisfollowed,usingbothmixedcroppingandcroprotation.Householdswillgenerallycultivateatleastone of eachtype of garden.IndustrialArts.Kapaukumanufactureislimitedand,forthemostpart,notspecialized.Netbags,forutilitarianandfordecorativepurposes,aremadefromwoventreebark,asarethearmbandsandnecklaceswornbybothmenandwomen.Alsomadefromthisbarkarewomen'saprons.Kapaukualsomanufacturestoneaxesandknives,flintchips,andgrindingstones.Frombambootheymakeknivesforthecarving of porkandforsurgicaluse.Othercarvingtoolsarefashionedfromratteethandbirdclaws,andagriculturaltoolsincludeweeding,planting,andharvestingsticks.Weaponryconsists of bowsandarrows,thelatter of whichmaybetippedwithlongblades of bamboo.Trade.Tradeiscarriedoutintra-andinterregionallyandintertribally,withtradelinksextendingtotheMimikapeople of thecoast.Thetwomostimportanttradecommoditiesarepigsandsalt.Tradeisgenerallyconductedinshellcurrency,pigs,orextensions of credit,andthebulk of tradingoccursduringpigfeastsandatthepigmarkets.Barterisarelativelyunimportantmeansbywhichgoodsmaybetransferred.Alldistributions of foodincuradebtonthepart of eachrecipienttorepayinkindtothegiver.PospisilnotesthattheKapaukuarelivelyparticipantsintheselling of pigsandpork.Shellmoney(andsometimesanobligationtoprovidepork)isre-quiredinpaymenttoashamanfortheperformance of magic.Division of Labor.Thereisasexualdivision of labor.Tasksheldtobetheexclusiveprovince of menincludetheplanning of agriculturalproduction,diggingditches,makinggardenbeds,fellingtrees,buildingfences,plantingandhar-vestingbananas,tobacco,chilipeppers,andapuu(aparticu-larvariety of yam),whiletheburning of gardens,plantingsu-garcane,manioc,squash,andmaize,aswellastheharvesting of sugarcane,manioc,andginger,arepreferentiallybutnotnecessarilydonebymales.Exclusivelyfemaletasksincludetheplanting of sweetpotatoesandjatu(anediblegrass,Setariapalmifolia)andweeding.Othertasks,suchasplantingandweedingtaroandharvestingsweetpotatoes,areusuallydonebywomen.Allothertasksrelatingtoagriculturearecar-riedoutbymembers of bothsexes.Thegathering of crayfish,waterbeetles,tadpoles,dragonflylarvae,andfrogsislargelythetask of women;thehunting of largegameisaninfrequententerpriseandisdoneonlybymen.Smallgameishuntedbyyoungmenandboys.Pigsandchickens,whileusuallyownedbymales,aretendedbywomenoradolescentchildren,butonlymalesareallowedtokillandbutcherthem.Theweaving of utilitariannetbagsisawoman'sjob,whiletheproduction of themoreornateandcolorfuldecorativebagsistheprov-ince of males.LandTenure.Aparticularpiece of landistheproperty of thehouseowner,alwaysmale,withuserightsaccordedtomembers of hishousehold.Sonsinheritlandfromtheirfa-thers.Ownershipimpliesrights of alienation of thelandaswellasusufructrights.Kwoma133cialAssemblyandtothePapuaNewGuineaHouse of Assembly.SocialControLThetsunaunwassupposedtosettledis-puteswithinhisownvillage,andmayhavehadthepowertopassthedeathsentenceonsomeoneguilty of persistentanti-socialbehavior.However,amuchmorepervasivemethod of socialcontrollayinthefear of harmfulmagicthatcouldbeperformedbyavictimagainstanoffender.Theusualway of expressingangerwastobreakupone'sownpersonalposses-sions.TodayTinputzaresubjecttothelaws of PapuaNewGuinea,whichincludea system of villagecourtsforsettlinglocaldisputes.Confli.Astate of sporadicwarfareexistedbeforecoloni-zation,especiallybetweencoastalandinteriordwellers,butalsoamongcoastalpeoplethemselves.Atsunaunwasex-pectedtoleadhisvillageorevenagroup of villagesinsuchconflict.Itseemsthatwarfaretooktheform of raidsandam-bushes,ratherthanpitchedbattles.Onemotiveforraidswasthecapture of prisonerstobeeaten.Colonialadministrationsregardedeliminatingwarfareasafirsttask,butgroupslivinginlandfromtheTinputzcontinuedcannibalraidsoncoastalvillagesuntilafterWorldWarI.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.ToaWesternobserver,traditionalTin-putulifeseemedfilledwithsupernaturalism.Mostdailyactiv-itiesinvolvedconsideration of spells,magic,andattentiontospiritbeings.Tinputzdonotseemtohaverecognizedacate-gory of supernaturalsthatmightbecalled'divinities."Byfarthemostimportantspiritswerethose of deceasedhumans.Althoughtheyweregenerallyregardedwithdread,theymightalsobepropitiatedandcalledupontoaidingardeningandotheractivities.Thesameterm,ura,wasappliedtospiritsthoughttoinhabitparticularlocales.RomanCatholicmis-sionariesbeganworkinBougainvillein19 02, andMethodistandSeventh-DayAdventistmissionariesarrivedafterWorldWar1.Methodist(nowUnitedChurch)presenceistodayverystrongintheTinputzarea.ReligiousPractitioners.Therewerenofull-timereligiousspecialists,butmanyindividualswerebelievedtohavespecialknowledgetoinfluenceevents(e.g.,everyvillagehaditsrain-maker).MissionteachersandUnitedChurchpastorsplayaroleintoday'sreligiouslife.Ceremonies.Asnoted,life-cycleceremonieswerethemostsignificantforTinputz,butalmostanyactivitymighthaveassociatedwithitspellsormagicalsubstances.Missioni-zationbroughtSundayandotherChristianobservances.Arts.Music,dance,andotheraestheticactivitieswereinti-matelyconnectedtoceremoniallife.Slitgongs,woodentrumpets,panpipes,bullroarers,musicalbows,andJew'sharpswereusedfordifferentoccasions.Utilitarianobjectslikelimepotsandcanoepaddlesweredecorated,butcarvedwoodenfigures,especially of uraspirits,weretraditionallyas-sociatedwithreligiousobservance.Medicine.TinputzdidnotmaketheWesterndistinctionbetweenmedicineandreligion.Illnesswasthoughttobebroughtbymalevolentspiritsormagicperformedbyanen-emy.Althoughplantandothermaterialswereusedforcur-ing,theirefficacywasasmuchsupernaturalaspharmacologi-cal.WesternmedicinehasstampedoutyawsandHansen'sdisease,butmalariacontinuestobeaserioushealthproblem.DeathandAfterlife.Exceptinthecase of theveryyoungorveryold,Tinputzregardedalldeathsascausedbymali-cioushumanorspiritbeings.ThedeadwerebelievedtogototheactivevolcanoatMountBalbi,butsomeremainednearthelivingintheform of ura.Tinputzlivingontheshoreorigi-nallythrewthedeadintothesea;however,burialhadbeenadoptedevenbeforeChristianitybecamedominant.Moum-ingwasenjoinedforwidowsand,inthecase of atsunaun'sdeath,forawholevillage.SeealsoNissanBibliographyAllen,Jerry,andConradHurd(1963).Languages of theBou-gainvilleDistrict.Ukarumpa,PapuaNewGuinea:SummerInstitute of Linguistics.Blackwood,Beatrice(1935).BothSides of BukaPassage.Ox-ford:ClarendonPress.Oliver,DouglasL.(1949).StudiesintheAnthropology of Bou-gainville,SolomonIslands.Cambridge,Mass.:PeabodyMu-seum,HarvardUniversity.Spriggs,Matthew(1984)."TheLapitaCulturalComplex:Origins,Distribution,Contemporaries,andSuccessors."TheJournal of PacificHistory19 :20 2 -22 3.EUGENEOGANKwomaETHNONYMS:Nukuuma,Washkuk,WaskukOrientationidentification.TheKwomaarelocatedintheAmbuntiSub-Province of theSepikRiverregion of PapuaNewGuinea.Thepeoplearedividedintotwodialectgroups.OneislocatedintheWashkukHills,arange of lowmountainsonthenorthside of theSepikadjacenttotheAmbuntiPatrolPost;theotherissituatedtothenorthandwest of theWashkukrangealongtributaries of theSepik.Members of theformeridentifythemselvesas'Kwoma,"or'hillpeople,"andrefertothelatteras"Nukuma,"or"headwaterpeople."LinguistsgivethenameKwomatothelanguageasawholeandNukuumatoitsnortherndialect."Washkuk"orWaskukisagovernmentname of uncertainderivationforthelanguageandthepeople.Location.Thetotalareathepeopleoccupycoincidesroughlywiththat of theWashkukHillsCensusDistrict,anarea of 485kilometerslocatedbetween4°and5°Sand1 42 and143°E.Climateis of thetropical-foresttype.14Kerakiexchangepartners,andtheyperformritualservicesforeachother'schildren.Othermales of approximatelythesameagebecomekamat(sisters'husbandsorwives'brothers),offeringhospitalityandfriendshiptotheircounterpartsintheoppo-sitelocalgroup.PoliticalOrganization.TheKerakirecognizehereditaryheadmen of thelocalgroupsdescribedabove.However,sincetheselocalgroupsarepatrilineallyorganizedandtypicallyverysmall,consisting of onlyaboutthirtypersons,theheadmanisusuallytheeldestactivemale.Leadershippassestoayoungerbrotherandthentotheeldestson of theoriginalheadman.Theheadmanexercisesverylittlerealauthority.His'decisions"merelyreflectthegeneralconsensus of opin-ion.Thereisnoformalleadershipabovethelocalgrouplevel.SocialControlSocialcontrolwithinthegroupismain-tainedlargelythroughasense of conformity,knowledge of theimportance of reciprocity,feelings of in-groupsolidarityandsupport,andgeneralconservatism.Thesearebolsteredbyfears of publicreprobationorridicule,retaliationthroughviolenceorsorcery,andthepossibility of supernaturalretribution.Conflict.Conflictwithinthelocalgroupisrare,owingtothesocialcontrolmechanismsdescribedabove.Occasionaltheftsandsexualjealousiesarethemostcommonexceptions.FightingwithKerakipeoplefromoutsidethelocalgroupiscalledguwari,inwhichthemenfromonevillagedescendinopeninvasiononthemenfromanothervillage.Loud,wordyquarrelsmightdevelopintogeneralbrawls,sometimeswithsticksandarrowsusedasweapons,butthesefightsusuallyendinreconciliation.Incontrasttothiswasthemoku,orhead-huntingraid,directedagainstnon-Kerakipeople,mostcommonlytheGunduman.Theseraidstooktheform of un-expected,oftenpredawnraids.Headswerequicklyseveredwithbambooknivesandattachedtocaneheadcarriers,whereupontheentirepartyfled.Onceintheircamp,theraid-erscookedtheheads,ofteneatingabit of flesh,usuallyfromthecheek,andcleanedtheskulls,whichtheyerectedonpolesastrophies.Menwhohadtakenheadsachievedstatusandsomemeasure of influencewithinthegroup.TheKerakiwerecomparativelypeaceful,however,moreoftenbeingthevic-tims of theaggressiveMarindorWirampeoplethanthevic-torsthemselves,andtheirhead-huntingraidswereratherinfrequent.stimulusforfoodproductionandbringtogetherotherwisedisparategroups.Hostsprovidesociability,food,andsexualpartnersformaleguests;thesefavorsarethenreciprocatedatareturnfeast.Attheindividuallevel,byfarthemostimpor-tantceremony of maleyouthistheperiod of seclusionandin-itiationmentionedabove,whereyoungboysaretaughtritualandmythologicallore.InapracticenotuncommonintheTrans-Fly,theinitiatesaresodomizedbymenfromtheoppo-sitemoietyinordertopromotetheboys'growth.Arts.Kerakiartsincludewoodcarving,textilemaking,andaspects of musicandperformanceassociatedprimarilywithritual.Medicine.Sicknessanddeathareoftenascribedtosor-cery.Treatmentsforsorceryvary,buttheyoftenincludebleedingortheextraction of someobjectintroducedintothebody.DeathandAfterlife.Deceasedareburiedinahouse,oftenayamhouse.Thecorpseiswrappedinbarkandshallowlyinterredinasupinepositionwithfeetfacingthesouth(towardthesea).Roughlyayear of formalmourningandfoodavoidancefollows,particularlyforwomen,whocuttheirhairandthenletitgrow,refrainfromwashing,andwearmakamaka,elaboratecostumesconstructed of multiplelayers of plaitedswampgrass.Afterinterment,thereisasmallburialfeast,followedbytheerection of asmallmemorialandtheburning of personalbelongings.Alargerfeastsignalstheend of formalmourning.Womenthenremovethemakamaka,andthememorialisuprooted.Thereisabeliefinasoulthatindependentlycontinuestheexistence of apersonafterdeath,butwhereitabidesisunclear.SeealsoMarind-animBibliographyWilliams,FrancisEdgar(1 929 )."RainmakingontheRiverMorehead."Journal of theRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute of GreatBritainandIreland59:379-397.Williams,FrancisEdgar(1936).Papuans of theTrans-Fly.Territory of PapuaAnthropologyReportno.15.Oxford:Cla-rendonPress.RICHARDSCAGLIONReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.CertainKerakireligiousbeliefsareem-bodiedinmythandactuallynotknownbyasignificantpro-portion of thepopulation.ThereisanOriginatorandhisfamily,whoconstitutetheSkyBeings of gainjantimes,whencreaturesweregreaterthantheyaretoday.TheseSkyBeingscangrantorwithholdfavorstopresent-dayhumanbeings,andtheymaycausesicknessbycapturingaperson'sspirit.Theymaybeappealedtothroughprayersorexhortations.ReligiousPractitioners.Theactions of Keralireligiouspractitionersarelinkedtothebeliefinmagic,particularlysympatheticmagic.AllKerakipracticemagic of variouskinds,butspecialistpractitionersare of twomaintypes:therainmakersandthesorcerers.Ceremonies.Keraldrituallifeisquitevaried.Atthegrouplevel,exchangefeastsareextremelyimportant:theyprovideaKewaETHNONYMS:Kewapi,Pole,SouthMendiOrientationIdentification.TheKewaliveintheSouthernHighlandsProvince of PapuaNewGuineaandspeakthreemajor,mutu-allyintelligibledialects.Thename'Kewa"isnotindigenous,inthatareasareknownonlybythenames of theclansthatoccupythemandnotbymoregenericterms.Itmeans,liter-Koiari 12 7themimia.Theh6riomuisconnectedwiththecult of thedeadandisheldeachyearatthebeginning of thedryseason(inAprilorMay).Theceremonylastsseveralweeks,occupy-ingafewhourseachdaybeforesunset.Themoguruisthemostsecretandmostimportantceremony of theKiwaipeo-ple.Traditionally,itwasheldonceortwiceayearinthedarirno.Thetwomainpurposes of themog6ruarethesexualinstruction of boysandgirlswhohavereachedpubertyandthepreparation of amagicalconcoctionmade of herbsandsemencollectedfromthevaginas of womenfollowingpromis-cuoussexualintercourse.Themimiaorfireceremonyiscon-nectedwiththeinitiation of youngmen.Duringthecere-mony,theyoungmenareburnedandbeatenandgivenmagicalsubstancesthatarebelievedtomakethemstrong.Arts.TheKiwaiproduceagreatdeal of representationalart,andeventheirutilitarianwoodenimplements(e.g.,dig-gingorwalkingsticks)areoftencarvedtorepresentahumanfaceorbody.Musicalinstrumentsincludehourglassandcy-lindricaldrums,rattlesmadefromseedpods,reedwhistles,panpipes,bambooandreedflutes,shelltrumpets,Jew'sharps,andbullroarers.TheKiwaialsomakeelaboratecere-monialmasksfromwoodandturtleshells.Medicine.Illnessisbelievedtobecausedbycomets,earthquakes,sorcery,ortheabduction of aperson'ssoulbyaspirit.Menstrualbloodisbelievedtobeparticularlydeleteri-oustomen'shealth.Inthecase of fever,thepatientisbledfromthepart of thebodywheretheillnessisthoughttobelo-cated.Sickpeoplearegivenfoodthatisconsidered"strong'suchaspigmeat,sharkmeat,taro,orsago.Bananasarenoteatenbecausetheyaresoft,anddugongandturtlemeatmaynotbeeatenbecausetheyareassociatedwiththespiritworld.Itisalsobadifasickpersoncomesintocontactwithsome-one(manorwoman)whohasrecentlyhadsexualintercourse.DeathandAfterlife.Wailingbeginsimmediatelyafterapersondiesandcontinuesthroughthenight.Thenextmorning,thedeadperson'sfaceispaintedblack,white,andredandthebodyisdressedinaheaddressandshellorna-ments.Thebodyisthenplacedinasittingpositionnearthedoor of thehouse.Afterbeingdisplayed,thebodyisplacedonaboardandcarriedashortdistancefromthevillagewhereitisplacedonaplatform.Ifthepersonwasmurderedandrevengehasalreadybeentaken,themurderer'sheadmaybecutoffandplacedasapillowunderthehead of thedeceased.Waterispouredoverthebodydailytospeedde-composition.Whenonlybonesremain,theyarewashedandthenburiedinagardenbelongingtothedeadperson.Some-timestheskull of thedeceasediskeptanddecoratedbyhiswidow.Thewidowspendsaperiod of timesecludedinanenclosure of matsinthem6to.Awidowerwillnotgointose-clusion,buthewillspendseveraldayscryingforhiswifeandwillrefrainfromhuntingandfishingforalongtime.Bothwidowsandwidowerswearamourninggarbmade of grassandconsisting of acapwithlongfringeandafringedcover-ingforhisorhershoulders,chest,arms,andlegs.Nodrumsmaybebeatenuntilafeastisheldafewweekslatertoendtheperiod of mourning.Ordinarilythespirits of thedeadareinvisible,butsometimestheycanbeseenandtouched.Aghostmaynotalwaysstartitsjourneytotheland of thedeadimmediatelybutmayinsteadlingerforatimenearitsformerhome.TheKiwaiareparticularlyafraid of theghosts of sorcerersandpersonswhohavemetaviolentdeathorhavediedinanunusualway.Evenafterspiritshavegonetotheland of thedead,theymayreturntogivemessagestothelivingeitherthroughdreamsorappearingtothemdirectly.Ghostsmayalsopossesslivingpeople.SeealsoMarind-anim,TorresStraitBibliographyLandtman,Gunnar(1917).TheFolk-Tales of theKiwaiPa-puans.ActaSocietatisScientiarumFennicae,vol.47.Hel-sinki:FinnishSociety of Literature.Landtman,Gunnar(1 927 ).TheKiwaiPapuans of BritishNewGuinea.London:Macmillan.Wurm,Stefan(1951).StudiesintheKiwaiLanguages,FlyDelta,Papua,NewGuinea.ActaEthnologicaetLinguistica,no .2. Vienna:InstitutffirV5lkerkundederUniversititWien.Wurm,Stefan(1973)."TheKiwaianLanguageFamily."InTheLinguisticSituationintheGulfDistrictandAdjacentAr-eas,PapuaNewGuinea,editedbyKarlFranklin, 21 9 -26 0.PacificLinguistics,SeriesC,no. 26 .Canberra:AustralianNationalUniversity.MARKBUSSEKoiariTheKoiari(GrassKoiari)numberedabout1,800in1973.Theyliveatabout9°Sand148°EinPortMoresbySubpro-vince,CentralProvince of PapuaNewGuinea.TheyarecloselyrelatedtotheMountainKoiali(MountainKoiari)whoarefoundfartherinlandandathigherelevations.SeealsoMotuBibliographyGroves,Murray,etaL(1957).'BloodGroups of theMotuandKoitaPeoples."Oceania 28 :22 2 -23 8.Lawes,W.G.(1879)."EthnologicalNotesontheMotu,Koitapu,andKoiariTribes."Journal of theRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute8:369-377.1 12 1MUIL&youngmansettingoutonalongjourney (of severalmonths),whichoftenwilltakehimbeyondtheborders of hisownsection'straditionalterritoryandmayevenbringhimintocontactwithnon-Karieragroups.Throughoutthecourse of thisjourneyheacquiresknowledge of thesurroundinglandsand,moreimportantly,isgraduallyintroducedintotheritualloreassociatedwiththeterritory.Onthisjourney,theyoungmanseeksawife,buthealsoestablishestheroughoutline of the"road,"thespecificportion of territoryinwhichhewill,asanadult,travelandhunt.BibliographyRadcliffe-Brown,A.R.(1930)."TheSocialOrganization of AustralianTribes,PartI."Oceania1:34-63.Radcliffe-Brown,A.R.(1930)."TheSocialOrganization of AustralianTribes,PartII."Oceania1 :20 6 -25 6; 322 -341.Radcliffe-Brown,A.R.(1930).'TheSocialOrganization of AustralianTribes,PartIII."Oceania1: 426 -456.KerakiETHNONYMS:Morehead,Nambu,Trans-FlyOrientationIdentification.Theterm"Keraki"generallyreferstoone of severalsmalltranshumantculturalgroupslivingneartheMoreheadRiverintheTrans-Flyregion of PapuaNewGuinea,applyingprincipallytoNambuspeakersbutalsoin-cludingsome of theirimmediateneighbors.Thenamealsoreferstoone of theroughlyninesmall"tribes"intowhichtheKerakiaredivided.Location.Kerakiterritoryliesinthesouthwesternpart of PapuaNewGuinea,justtotheeast of theMoreheadRiver,atabout9°Sby1 42 E.Theareaischaracterizedbyextremes of climate.Duringaconsiderablepart of therainyseason,espe-ciallybetweenJanuaryandMarch,much of thelandisunderwater,andtheKerakiareobligedtotakeupresidenceinsemi-permanentvillagesinone of afewlocationsalonghighground.TherainsabateinMayorJune,thecountrydriesup,thelandbecomesparched,andtheKerakimovetolocationsalongone of thelagoonsorlargerstreams,withinreach of water.Attheheight of thedryseason,thepeopleoftenliveinsmallclearingsintheforesttoescapetheconsiderableheat.Demography.In1931,theethnographicpresentforthisreport,F.E.WilliamsestimatedtheentireKerakipopulationatabout700-800.Recentestimatesindicated700Nambuspeakersandanother800speakers of theTondaandLowerMoreheadlanguages.LinguisticAffiliation.Nambu,Tonda,andLowerMore-headarethree of thesevensmallNon-Austronesianlan-guagesthatmakeuptheMoreheadandUpperMaroRiversFamily.HistoryandCulturalRelationsOwingtoitssparseandscatteredpopulation,inhospitableclimate,andapparentlack of potentialfordevelopment,theMoreheadareawaslittleaffectedbyEuropeancontactinthe1 920 sand1930swhenF.E.Williamsconductedhisbasicethnographicresearch.Eventoday,theregionissomewhatisolated,withverylittleeconomicdevelopment.Culturalre-lationsandcommunicationsamonggroupsarehamperedbyflooding of theareainthewetseason,lack of waterinthedryseason,and,intheprecontactandearly-contactera,bytheconstantraiding of powerfulheadhuntersfromacrossthebordertothewest.SettlementsThesemipermanentvillagesareusuallylocatedinorontheedge of aforestarea,onhighground.Thevillageitselfisaclearing,plantedwithcoconutpalms,withhousesirregularlyscatteredabout.Gardensringthevillage,anddecorativeplantsandflowersgrowwithin.Housesare of severaltypes.Themongo-vivi,or"proper"house,isalong,oblongbuildingwitharidgedroof,stampedandhardenedclayfloor,andsemicircularverandasoneitherend.Agood-sizedhouseisabout9meterslong,3.6meterswide,and 2. 4metershigh,al-thoughdimensionsvaryconsiderably.Thesehousesareusedprimarilyforfoodstorage,especiallyforyams.Typically,vil-lagesalsocontainanumber of shelters,calledgua-mongo,underwhichKerakispreadtheirmats.Thesesheltersaresim-pleopen-sidedstructuresconsisting of fourpolessupportingaridgedroof.Incontrasttothesemipermanentvillages,thetemporaryvillages-whichmightbeusedasdry-seasonset-tlements,headquartersforlargehuntingparties,orothertemporaryencampments-usuallycontainonlyhaphazard,roughlybuilthouses,shelters,andlean-tos,withlittleat-temptmadetoclearthebrush.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheKerakiaresubsistencefarmerswhopracticeswiddenorslash-and-burnhorticulture.Theirstaplecropisthelesseryam(Dioscoreaes-culenta).Gardensarepreparedattheend of thedryseasonandcompletedbyOctoberorNovember,whenthefirstsounds of thundersignalthebeginning of theplantingsea-son.Severalfamiliesusuallycooperateinclearingatract of land,whichissubsequentlydividedintoindividuallyownedplots of about45meterssquare,separatedfromoneanotherbytimbermarkerslaidalongtheground.Theentireareaiscustomarilyfencedagainstwildpigs,wallabies,etc.ByJunetheyamvines,attachedto 2- meter-longpoles,havebeguntoturnyellow,andtheharvestbegins-desultorilyatfirst,thenmoreseriouslyasthevineswither.Yamsareleveredupordugoutwithheavyspatulatediggingsticks,thenpickedoutbyhand,andlatersortedintopilesforcooking,replanting,orforfeasts.Otherimportantrootcropsaretaro,manioc,andsweetpotatoes.Sugarcane,coconuts,andbananasarealsogrown,andvariousotherfruits,especiallypapayas,comple-menttheKerakidiet.Sagoisrareandhighlyprized,thrivingonlyinthefewsagoswampsthatexistinKerakiterritory. 104 Kalulilaterrecoveredandhungupintheeaves of thelonghouse.Since1968,governmentedicthasrequiredthatbodiesbeburiedinacemetery.Survivors of adeceasedpersonassumefoodtaboosduringtheperiod of mourning.Thesetaboosareobligatoryforthesurvivingspouseandchildren,buttheyareoftenvoluntarilytakenonbyclosefriendsandotherkinaswell.SeealsoFoi,GebusiBibliographyFeld,Steven(19 82) .SoundandSentiment:Birds,Weeping,PoeticsandSonginKaluliExpression.Philadelphia:University of PennsylvaniaPress.Rev.ed.1990.Schieffelin,Bambi(1990).TheGiveandTake of EverydayLife:LanguageSocialization of KalulbChildren.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Schieffelin,EdwardL.(1976).TheSorrow of theLonelyandtheBurning of theDancers.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Schieffelin,EdwardL.(1985)."TheRetaliation of theAni-mals:OntheCulturalConstruction of thePastinPapuaNewGuinea."InHistoryandEthnohistoryinPapuaNewGuinea,editedbyDeborahGewertzandEdwardSchieffelin,40-57.OceaniaMonographno. 28 .Sydney:OceaniaPublications.NANCYE.GRATTONKamilaroiest.Atthemostgenerallevel of socialorganization,theKamilaroiwereorganizedintoexogamousmatrimoities.Bothmoitiesweredividedintofourmarriageclasses.Alsopresentwithinthemoitieswerevarioussibsandlineages,eachrepre-sentedbyseveraltotemsandsubtotems.Descentwasmatri-lineal.TheKamilaroihadafour-classmarriage system. Ex-ogamywastheruleforeachkingroup,fromthelineagethroughthemoiety.Paternalhalf-sistermarriagewasreport-edlythepreferredformamongtheEuahlayi.Theprimaryeco-nomicunitswerethebands,whichwerecomposed of severalhouseholds.Matrilineageswererepresentedbysubtotemsandorganizedintoamatrisib,whichhaditsowntotem.Thesibsweremembers of oneortheothermatrimoieties.Inter-sectingwiththesegroupsbasedonkinshipanddescentwerethefourmarriageclasses,all of whichwerecommontobothmatrimoieties.Riteswereheldtoencouragethepropagation of totems.Therewereinitiationceremoniesforbothsexes,withcircum-cisionforboys.Shamans(wireenun)concernedthemselveswithcuringillnessandcommunicatingwiththeirdreamspir-its,whowereoftensentoutoninformation-gatheringmis-sions.TheKamilaroibelievedinan"AllFather,"themoralandkindlydeityintheskywhoreceivedthesouls of goodAb-originesupontheirdeath.Eachindividualwasbelievedtohaveasoul,adreamspirit,andashadowspirit.Sicknessordeathwasbelievedtoresultifone'sshadowspiritweremo-lestedorcapturedbyashaman.Someindividualsalsohadtheaid of aspirithelper.BibliographyFison,Lorimer,andA.W.Howitt(1867).KamilaroiandKurnai:GroupMarriageandRelationship,andMarriagebyElopement.Oosterhout,theNetherlands:AnthropologicalPublications.Parker,K.Langloh(1905).TheEuahlayiTribe:aStudy of Ab-originalLifeinAustralia.London:ArchibaldConstable.ETHNONYMS:Camileroi,Euahlayi,GunilroyTheKamilaroiwereanAboriginalgrouplocatedinNewSouthWales,Australia,alongtheBarwon,Bundarra,Balonne,andupperHunterriversandintheLiverpoolplains.Theyarenownearlyextinctandonlyasmallnumberremain.TheKamilaroilanguage,whichisnolongerspoken,isclassi-fiedinthePama-NyunganFamily of Australianlanguages.TheKamilaroiwerenomadichuntersandgathererswithaband-levelsocialorganization.Importantvegetablefoodswereyamsandotherroots,aswellasasterculiagrain,whichwasmadeintoabread.Insectlarvae,frogs,andeggs of severaldifferentanimalswerealsogathered.Variousbirds,kanga-roos,emus,iguanas,opossums,echidnas,andbandicootswereamongtheimportantanimals ... awitch.Witches(sei)canbemaleorfemaleandgenerallydonotthemselvesknow of theirevilaspect,whichwaitsuntilitshostsleepsandthenprowlsaboutinthenightseekingitsvictims.Seiarethoughtnottoattacktheirownkin,exceptonex-tremelyrareoccasions.Ceremonies.Thecenterpiece of KaluliceremoniallifeistheGisaro,whichisperformedatallmajorcelebratoryocca-sionssuchasweddings."Gisaro"specificallyreferstothesongsanddancingperformedforahostlonghousebyvisitors;thesongsarecomposedtoincorporatesorrowfulreferencestoimportantplacesandpeoplewhohavediedbutwhoarere-memberedwithfondnessandgrief.TheornatelycostumedGisarodancerperformshissonginthecentralhall of thehostlorghouse,andhisgoalistoincitemembers of thehostgroupstotearswiththebeautyandsadness of hiscomposi-tionandthestateliness of hisdance.Whenhehassucceeded,longhousemenrunuptothedancerandthrustburningtorchesagainsthisbackandshoulders,burninghim.Afterallthesingers of aGisarotroupehaveperformed,thedancersleavesmallgiftsfortheirhosts,asrepaymentforhavingevokedtheirtearsandgrief.Arts.Theultimateartisticexpressionisthecompositionandperformance of Gisarosongsandtheproperexecution of theaccompanyingdance.Visualartsarenothighlydevel-oped,exceptintheelaboratecostumes of theGisarodancers.Medicine.Foodtaboosandtheuse of medicinalplantsarecommonlyappliedtotreatillness,butmostcuringisdonethroughtheassistance of amedium,throughactionshetakeswhiletravelinginthespiritworld.DeathandAfterlife.Upondeath,one'sspiritimmedi-atelyquitsthenowuselessphysicalbodyandischasedintotheforestbythelonghousedogs.ThespiritisthusforcedtowalkontheIsawaRiver,whichinthisnewnoncorporealstateappearsasabroadroadleadingwest.Eventually,thespiritar-rivesat"Imol,"aplace of enormousfire,wherehebumsuntilrescuedbyaspiritwomanwhocarrieshischarredsoulbackalongtheIsawa,stoppingatspiritGisaroceremoniesalongtheway.Inthisway,shegradually"heals"thesoul,eventuallybringinghimtoherspiritlonghouseandtakinghimasherhusband(inthecase of thedeath of awoman,thespirithelperandeventualspouseisamale).Henceforth,thespiritwillappeartohumansasjustanotherwildcreature of thefor-estorwillspeaktohisorherkinthroughamedium.Tradi-tionalmortuaryritualcalledforthebody of thedeceasedtobeslunginahammock-linkaffair of caneloops,afterthebodyhadbeenstripped of ornamentsandclothing,andhungatthefront of thehouseneartheunmarriedwomen'scom-munalarea.Fireswouldbelitattheheadandfoot of thecorpse,andduringthenextdaysfriendsandkinwouldviewthebody.Later,thebodywouldbeplacedonaplatformout-sideuntildecompositionwascomplete.TheboneswouldbeKaPauku 105 137°Eand3 25 'and4 10& apos;S.Most of theregionisabove1,500meters,withthreelargelakes(Paniai,Tage,andTigi),andfivevegetationzones,includingmuchtropicalrainforest.Rainfallisplentifulandtheaveragedailytemperaturerangesfrom 20 °Cto60°C.Demography.Inthe1960s,theKapaukupopulationwasestimatedatabout45,000;todaytheynumberabout 100 ,000.LinguisticAffiliation.TheKapaukulanguage(Ekagi)isclassifiedwithintheEkagi-Wodani-MoniFamily of Papuanlanguages.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThereislittleinformationavailableregardingthehistory of theKapaukupriortoEuropeancontact,buttheyhavelongbeenhorticulturalists(bothintensiveandextensive)andtradersintheregion.Animportantintertribaltradenetworklinkingthesouthcoast of NewGuineatotheinteriorrandi-rectlythroughKapaukuterritory,bringingthepeople of theregionintocontactwithpeoplesandgoodsfromfarbeyondtheirownterritorialborders.EuropeancontactwiththeKa-paukudidnotoccuruntil1938,whenaDutchgovernmentpostwasestablishedatPaniaiLake.ItwasquicklyabandonedwiththeJapaneseinvasion of NewGuinea.In1946thepostwasreestablished,andafewCatholicandProtestantmis-sionariesreturnedtothearea.SettlementsTheKapaukuvillagesettlementisaloosecluster of aboutfif-teendwellings,typicallyhousingabout 120 people.Housesarenotorientedtooneanotherinanyformalplan,asindivid-ualsarefreetobuildwherevertheyplease,aslongaspropertitleorleaseisheldtothepiece of landuponwhichthehouseistobebuilt.Dwellingsconsist,minimally, of alargehouse(owa),anelevatedstructurewithaspacebeneathinwhichtoshelterdomesticatedpigs.Thisbuildingisdividedintohalvesseparatedbyaplankpartition.Thefronthalfistheemaage,ormen'sdormitory.Thebacksectionissubdividedintokugu,orindividual"apartments,"oneforeachwomanandherchil-dren.Iftheowaisinsufficienttoprovidespaceforwivesandchildren,outbuildings(calledtone)areadded.EconomyLeopoldPospisil,theleadingauthorityontheKapauku,la-belstheireconomyas'primitivecapitalism"characterizedbythepursuit of wealthintheform of cowrieshellmoney,statusdistinctionsbasedonsuchwealth,andanethic of individualism.SubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Kapaukusub-sistenceisbasedonthesweetpotato,towhichabout90per-cent of cultivatedlandisdevoted,andpighusbandry.Sweetpotatoesaregrownbothforhumanconsumptionandtofeedthepigsthat,throughsales,areabasicsource of incomeandwealth.Commonlygrown,butconstitutingafarsmallerpor-tion of thediet,areaspinach-likegreen(idaia),bananas,andtaro.InthedenselypopulatedKamuValley,huntingis of smallimportanceduetoapaucity of largegameanimals,butitisindulgedinbymenassport.Ediblefishareabsentfromthelakes,butcrayfish,dragonflylarvae,certaintypes of bee-tles,andfrogsaugmentthediet,asdoratsandbats.Farmingisdonebothonthemountainslopesandinthevalleys.Up-landgardensaregivenovertotheextensivecultivation of sweetpotatoes,withlongfallowperiodsbetweenplantings.Inthevalleysamoreintensivemethodisfollowed,usingbothmixedcroppingandcroprotation.Householdswillgenerallycultivateatleastone of eachtype of garden.IndustrialArts.Kapaukumanufactureislimitedand,forthemostpart,notspecialized.Netbags,forutilitarianandfordecorativepurposes,aremadefromwoventreebark,asarethearmbandsandnecklaceswornbybothmenandwomen.Alsomadefromthisbarkarewomen'saprons.Kapaukualsomanufacturestoneaxesandknives,flintchips,andgrindingstones.Frombambootheymakeknivesforthecarving of porkandforsurgicaluse.Othercarvingtoolsarefashionedfromratteethandbirdclaws,andagriculturaltoolsincludeweeding,planting,andharvestingsticks.Weaponryconsists of bowsandarrows,thelatter of whichmaybetippedwithlongblades of bamboo.Trade.Tradeiscarriedoutintra-andinterregionallyandintertribally,withtradelinksextendingtotheMimikapeople of thecoast.Thetwomostimportanttradecommoditiesarepigsandsalt.Tradeisgenerallyconductedinshellcurrency,pigs,orextensions of credit,andthebulk of tradingoccursduringpigfeastsandatthepigmarkets.Barterisarelativelyunimportantmeansbywhichgoodsmaybetransferred.Alldistributions of foodincuradebtonthepart of eachrecipienttorepayinkindtothegiver.PospisilnotesthattheKapaukuarelivelyparticipantsintheselling of pigsandpork.Shellmoney(andsometimesanobligationtoprovidepork)isre-quiredinpaymenttoashamanfortheperformance of magic.Division of Labor.Thereisasexualdivision of labor.Tasksheldtobetheexclusiveprovince of menincludetheplanning of agriculturalproduction,diggingditches,makinggardenbeds,fellingtrees,buildingfences,plantingandhar-vestingbananas,tobacco,chilipeppers,andapuu(aparticu-larvariety of yam),whiletheburning of gardens,plantingsu-garcane,manioc,squash,andmaize,aswellastheharvesting of sugarcane,manioc,andginger,arepreferentiallybutnotnecessarilydonebymales.Exclusivelyfemaletasksincludetheplanting of sweetpotatoesandjatu(anediblegrass,Setariapalmifolia)andweeding.Othertasks,suchasplantingandweedingtaroandharvestingsweetpotatoes,areusuallydonebywomen.Allothertasksrelatingtoagriculturearecar-riedoutbymembers of bothsexes.Thegathering of crayfish,waterbeetles,tadpoles,dragonflylarvae,andfrogsislargelythetask of women;thehunting of largegameisaninfrequententerpriseandisdoneonlybymen.Smallgameishuntedbyyoungmenandboys.Pigsandchickens,whileusuallyownedbymales,aretendedbywomenoradolescentchildren,butonlymalesareallowedtokillandbutcherthem.Theweaving of utilitariannetbagsisawoman'sjob,whiletheproduction of themoreornateandcolorfuldecorativebagsistheprov-ince of males.LandTenure.Aparticularpiece of landistheproperty of thehouseowner,alwaysmale,withuserightsaccordedtomembers of hishousehold.Sonsinheritlandfromtheirfa-thers.Ownershipimpliesrights of alienation of thelandaswellasusufructrights.Kwoma133cialAssemblyandtothePapuaNewGuineaHouse of Assembly.SocialControLThetsunaunwassupposedtosettledis-puteswithinhisownvillage,andmayhavehadthepowertopassthedeathsentenceonsomeoneguilty of persistentanti-socialbehavior.However,amuchmorepervasivemethod of socialcontrollayinthefear of harmfulmagicthatcouldbeperformedbyavictimagainstanoffender.Theusualway of expressingangerwastobreakupone'sownpersonalposses-sions.TodayTinputzaresubjecttothelaws of PapuaNewGuinea,whichincludea system of villagecourtsforsettlinglocaldisputes.Confli.Astate of sporadicwarfareexistedbeforecoloni-zation,especiallybetweencoastalandinteriordwellers,butalsoamongcoastalpeoplethemselves.Atsunaunwasex-pectedtoleadhisvillageorevenagroup of villagesinsuchconflict.Itseemsthatwarfaretooktheform of raidsandam-bushes,ratherthanpitchedbattles.Onemotiveforraidswasthecapture of prisonerstobeeaten.Colonialadministrationsregardedeliminatingwarfareasafirsttask,butgroupslivinginlandfromtheTinputzcontinuedcannibalraidsoncoastalvillagesuntilafterWorldWarI.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.ToaWesternobserver,traditionalTin-putulifeseemedfilledwithsupernaturalism.Mostdailyactiv-itiesinvolvedconsideration of spells,magic,andattentiontospiritbeings.Tinputzdonotseemtohaverecognizedacate-gory of supernaturalsthatmightbecalled'divinities."Byfarthemostimportantspiritswerethose of deceasedhumans.Althoughtheyweregenerallyregardedwithdread,theymightalsobepropitiatedandcalledupontoaidingardeningandotheractivities.Thesameterm,ura,wasappliedtospiritsthoughttoinhabitparticularlocales.RomanCatholicmis-sionariesbeganworkinBougainvillein19 02, andMethodistandSeventh-DayAdventistmissionariesarrivedafterWorldWar1.Methodist(nowUnitedChurch)presenceistodayverystrongintheTinputzarea.ReligiousPractitioners.Therewerenofull-timereligiousspecialists,butmanyindividualswerebelievedtohavespecialknowledgetoinfluenceevents(e.g.,everyvillagehaditsrain-maker).MissionteachersandUnitedChurchpastorsplayaroleintoday'sreligiouslife.Ceremonies.Asnoted,life-cycleceremonieswerethemostsignificantforTinputz,butalmostanyactivitymighthaveassociatedwithitspellsormagicalsubstances.Missioni-zationbroughtSundayandotherChristianobservances.Arts.Music,dance,andotheraestheticactivitieswereinti-matelyconnectedtoceremoniallife.Slitgongs,woodentrumpets,panpipes,bullroarers,musicalbows,andJew'sharpswereusedfordifferentoccasions.Utilitarianobjectslikelimepotsandcanoepaddlesweredecorated,butcarvedwoodenfigures,especially of uraspirits,weretraditionallyas-sociatedwithreligiousobservance.Medicine.TinputzdidnotmaketheWesterndistinctionbetweenmedicineandreligion.Illnesswasthoughttobebroughtbymalevolentspiritsormagicperformedbyanen-emy.Althoughplantandothermaterialswereusedforcur-ing,theirefficacywasasmuchsupernaturalaspharmacologi-cal.WesternmedicinehasstampedoutyawsandHansen'sdisease,butmalariacontinuestobeaserioushealthproblem.DeathandAfterlife.Exceptinthecase of theveryyoungorveryold,Tinputzregardedalldeathsascausedbymali-cioushumanorspiritbeings.ThedeadwerebelievedtogototheactivevolcanoatMountBalbi,butsomeremainednearthelivingintheform of ura.Tinputzlivingontheshoreorigi-nallythrewthedeadintothesea;however,burialhadbeenadoptedevenbeforeChristianitybecamedominant.Moum-ingwasenjoinedforwidowsand,inthecase of atsunaun'sdeath,forawholevillage.SeealsoNissanBibliographyAllen,Jerry,andConradHurd(1963).Languages of theBou-gainvilleDistrict.Ukarumpa,PapuaNewGuinea:SummerInstitute of Linguistics.Blackwood,Beatrice(1935).BothSides of BukaPassage.Ox-ford:ClarendonPress.Oliver,DouglasL.(1949).StudiesintheAnthropology of Bou-gainville,SolomonIslands.Cambridge,Mass.:PeabodyMu-seum,HarvardUniversity.Spriggs,Matthew(1984)."TheLapitaCulturalComplex:Origins,Distribution,Contemporaries,andSuccessors."TheJournal of PacificHistory19 :20 2 -22 3.EUGENEOGANKwomaETHNONYMS:Nukuuma,Washkuk,WaskukOrientationidentification.TheKwomaarelocatedintheAmbuntiSub-Province of theSepikRiverregion of PapuaNewGuinea.Thepeoplearedividedintotwodialectgroups.OneislocatedintheWashkukHills,arange of lowmountainsonthenorthside of theSepikadjacenttotheAmbuntiPatrolPost;theotherissituatedtothenorthandwest of theWashkukrangealongtributaries of theSepik.Members of theformeridentifythemselvesas'Kwoma,"or'hillpeople,"andrefertothelatteras"Nukuma,"or"headwaterpeople."LinguistsgivethenameKwomatothelanguageasawholeandNukuumatoitsnortherndialect."Washkuk"orWaskukisagovernmentname of uncertainderivationforthelanguageandthepeople.Location.Thetotalareathepeopleoccupycoincidesroughlywiththat of theWashkukHillsCensusDistrict,anarea of 485kilometerslocatedbetween4°and5°Sand1 42 and143°E.Climateis of thetropical-foresttype.14Kerakiexchangepartners,andtheyperformritualservicesforeachother'schildren.Othermales of approximatelythesameagebecomekamat(sisters'husbandsorwives'brothers),offeringhospitalityandfriendshiptotheircounterpartsintheoppo-sitelocalgroup.PoliticalOrganization.TheKerakirecognizehereditaryheadmen of thelocalgroupsdescribedabove.However,sincetheselocalgroupsarepatrilineallyorganizedandtypicallyverysmall,consisting of onlyaboutthirtypersons,theheadmanisusuallytheeldestactivemale.Leadershippassestoayoungerbrotherandthentotheeldestson of theoriginalheadman.Theheadmanexercisesverylittlerealauthority.His'decisions"merelyreflectthegeneralconsensus of opin-ion.Thereisnoformalleadershipabovethelocalgrouplevel.SocialControlSocialcontrolwithinthegroupismain-tainedlargelythroughasense of conformity,knowledge of theimportance of reciprocity,feelings of in-groupsolidarityandsupport,andgeneralconservatism.Thesearebolsteredbyfears of publicreprobationorridicule,retaliationthroughviolenceorsorcery,andthepossibility of supernaturalretribution.Conflict.Conflictwithinthelocalgroupisrare,owingtothesocialcontrolmechanismsdescribedabove.Occasionaltheftsandsexualjealousiesarethemostcommonexceptions.FightingwithKerakipeoplefromoutsidethelocalgroupiscalledguwari,inwhichthemenfromonevillagedescendinopeninvasiononthemenfromanothervillage.Loud,wordyquarrelsmightdevelopintogeneralbrawls,sometimeswithsticksandarrowsusedasweapons,butthesefightsusuallyendinreconciliation.Incontrasttothiswasthemoku,orhead-huntingraid,directedagainstnon-Kerakipeople,mostcommonlytheGunduman.Theseraidstooktheform of un-expected,oftenpredawnraids.Headswerequicklyseveredwithbambooknivesandattachedtocaneheadcarriers,whereupontheentirepartyfled.Onceintheircamp,theraid-erscookedtheheads,ofteneatingabit of flesh,usuallyfromthecheek,andcleanedtheskulls,whichtheyerectedonpolesastrophies.Menwhohadtakenheadsachievedstatusandsomemeasure of influencewithinthegroup.TheKerakiwerecomparativelypeaceful,however,moreoftenbeingthevic-tims of theaggressiveMarindorWirampeoplethanthevic-torsthemselves,andtheirhead-huntingraidswereratherinfrequent.stimulusforfoodproductionandbringtogetherotherwisedisparategroups.Hostsprovidesociability,food,andsexualpartnersformaleguests;thesefavorsarethenreciprocatedatareturnfeast.Attheindividuallevel,byfarthemostimpor-tantceremony of maleyouthistheperiod of seclusionandin-itiationmentionedabove,whereyoungboysaretaughtritualandmythologicallore.InapracticenotuncommonintheTrans-Fly,theinitiatesaresodomizedbymenfromtheoppo-sitemoietyinordertopromotetheboys'growth.Arts.Kerakiartsincludewoodcarving,textilemaking,andaspects of musicandperformanceassociatedprimarilywithritual.Medicine.Sicknessanddeathareoftenascribedtosor-cery.Treatmentsforsorceryvary,buttheyoftenincludebleedingortheextraction of someobjectintroducedintothebody.DeathandAfterlife.Deceasedareburiedinahouse,oftenayamhouse.Thecorpseiswrappedinbarkandshallowlyinterredinasupinepositionwithfeetfacingthesouth(towardthesea).Roughlyayear of formalmourningandfoodavoidancefollows,particularlyforwomen,whocuttheirhairandthenletitgrow,refrainfromwashing,andwearmakamaka,elaboratecostumesconstructed of multiplelayers of plaitedswampgrass.Afterinterment,thereisasmallburialfeast,followedbytheerection of asmallmemorialandtheburning of personalbelongings.Alargerfeastsignalstheend of formalmourning.Womenthenremovethemakamaka,andthememorialisuprooted.Thereisabeliefinasoulthatindependentlycontinuestheexistence of apersonafterdeath,butwhereitabidesisunclear.SeealsoMarind-animBibliographyWilliams,FrancisEdgar(1 929 )."RainmakingontheRiverMorehead."Journal of theRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute of GreatBritainandIreland59:379-397.Williams,FrancisEdgar(1936).Papuans of theTrans-Fly.Territory of PapuaAnthropologyReportno.15.Oxford:Cla-rendonPress.RICHARDSCAGLIONReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.CertainKerakireligiousbeliefsareem-bodiedinmythandactuallynotknownbyasignificantpro-portion of thepopulation.ThereisanOriginatorandhisfamily,whoconstitutetheSkyBeings of gainjantimes,whencreaturesweregreaterthantheyaretoday.TheseSkyBeingscangrantorwithholdfavorstopresent-dayhumanbeings,andtheymaycausesicknessbycapturingaperson'sspirit.Theymaybeappealedtothroughprayersorexhortations.ReligiousPractitioners.Theactions of Keralireligiouspractitionersarelinkedtothebeliefinmagic,particularlysympatheticmagic.AllKerakipracticemagic of variouskinds,butspecialistpractitionersare of twomaintypes:therainmakersandthesorcerers.Ceremonies.Keraldrituallifeisquitevaried.Atthegrouplevel,exchangefeastsareextremelyimportant:theyprovideaKewaETHNONYMS:Kewapi,Pole,SouthMendiOrientationIdentification.TheKewaliveintheSouthernHighlandsProvince of PapuaNewGuineaandspeakthreemajor,mutu-allyintelligibledialects.Thename'Kewa"isnotindigenous,inthatareasareknownonlybythenames of theclansthatoccupythemandnotbymoregenericterms.Itmeans,liter-Koiari 12 7themimia.Theh6riomuisconnectedwiththecult of thedeadandisheldeachyearatthebeginning of thedryseason(inAprilorMay).Theceremonylastsseveralweeks,occupy-ingafewhourseachdaybeforesunset.Themoguruisthemostsecretandmostimportantceremony of theKiwaipeo-ple.Traditionally,itwasheldonceortwiceayearinthedarirno.Thetwomainpurposes of themog6ruarethesexualinstruction of boysandgirlswhohavereachedpubertyandthepreparation of amagicalconcoctionmade of herbsandsemencollectedfromthevaginas of womenfollowingpromis-cuoussexualintercourse.Themimiaorfireceremonyiscon-nectedwiththeinitiation of youngmen.Duringthecere-mony,theyoungmenareburnedandbeatenandgivenmagicalsubstancesthatarebelievedtomakethemstrong.Arts.TheKiwaiproduceagreatdeal of representationalart,andeventheirutilitarianwoodenimplements(e.g.,dig-gingorwalkingsticks)areoftencarvedtorepresentahumanfaceorbody.Musicalinstrumentsincludehourglassandcy-lindricaldrums,rattlesmadefromseedpods,reedwhistles,panpipes,bambooandreedflutes,shelltrumpets,Jew'sharps,andbullroarers.TheKiwaialsomakeelaboratecere-monialmasksfromwoodandturtleshells.Medicine.Illnessisbelievedtobecausedbycomets,earthquakes,sorcery,ortheabduction of aperson'ssoulbyaspirit.Menstrualbloodisbelievedtobeparticularlydeleteri-oustomen'shealth.Inthecase of fever,thepatientisbledfromthepart of thebodywheretheillnessisthoughttobelo-cated.Sickpeoplearegivenfoodthatisconsidered"strong'suchaspigmeat,sharkmeat,taro,orsago.Bananasarenoteatenbecausetheyaresoft,anddugongandturtlemeatmaynotbeeatenbecausetheyareassociatedwiththespiritworld.Itisalsobadifasickpersoncomesintocontactwithsome-one(manorwoman)whohasrecentlyhadsexualintercourse.DeathandAfterlife.Wailingbeginsimmediatelyafterapersondiesandcontinuesthroughthenight.Thenextmorning,thedeadperson'sfaceispaintedblack,white,andredandthebodyisdressedinaheaddressandshellorna-ments.Thebodyisthenplacedinasittingpositionnearthedoor of thehouse.Afterbeingdisplayed,thebodyisplacedonaboardandcarriedashortdistancefromthevillagewhereitisplacedonaplatform.Ifthepersonwasmurderedandrevengehasalreadybeentaken,themurderer'sheadmaybecutoffandplacedasapillowunderthehead of thedeceased.Waterispouredoverthebodydailytospeedde-composition.Whenonlybonesremain,theyarewashedandthenburiedinagardenbelongingtothedeadperson.Some-timestheskull of thedeceasediskeptanddecoratedbyhiswidow.Thewidowspendsaperiod of timesecludedinanenclosure of matsinthem6to.Awidowerwillnotgointose-clusion,buthewillspendseveraldayscryingforhiswifeandwillrefrainfromhuntingandfishingforalongtime.Bothwidowsandwidowerswearamourninggarbmade of grassandconsisting of acapwithlongfringeandafringedcover-ingforhisorhershoulders,chest,arms,andlegs.Nodrumsmaybebeatenuntilafeastisheldafewweekslatertoendtheperiod of mourning.Ordinarilythespirits of thedeadareinvisible,butsometimestheycanbeseenandtouched.Aghostmaynotalwaysstartitsjourneytotheland of thedeadimmediatelybutmayinsteadlingerforatimenearitsformerhome.TheKiwaiareparticularlyafraid of theghosts of sorcerersandpersonswhohavemetaviolentdeathorhavediedinanunusualway.Evenafterspiritshavegonetotheland of thedead,theymayreturntogivemessagestothelivingeitherthroughdreamsorappearingtothemdirectly.Ghostsmayalsopossesslivingpeople.SeealsoMarind-anim,TorresStraitBibliographyLandtman,Gunnar(1917).TheFolk-Tales of theKiwaiPa-puans.ActaSocietatisScientiarumFennicae,vol.47.Hel-sinki:FinnishSociety of Literature.Landtman,Gunnar(1 927 ).TheKiwaiPapuans of BritishNewGuinea.London:Macmillan.Wurm,Stefan(1951).StudiesintheKiwaiLanguages,FlyDelta,Papua,NewGuinea.ActaEthnologicaetLinguistica,no .2. Vienna:InstitutffirV5lkerkundederUniversititWien.Wurm,Stefan(1973)."TheKiwaianLanguageFamily."InTheLinguisticSituationintheGulfDistrictandAdjacentAr-eas,PapuaNewGuinea,editedbyKarlFranklin, 21 9 -26 0.PacificLinguistics,SeriesC,no. 26 .Canberra:AustralianNationalUniversity.MARKBUSSEKoiariTheKoiari(GrassKoiari)numberedabout1,800in1973.Theyliveatabout9°Sand148°EinPortMoresbySubpro-vince,CentralProvince of PapuaNewGuinea.TheyarecloselyrelatedtotheMountainKoiali(MountainKoiari)whoarefoundfartherinlandandathigherelevations.SeealsoMotuBibliographyGroves,Murray,etaL(1957).'BloodGroups of theMotuandKoitaPeoples."Oceania 28 :22 2 -23 8.Lawes,W.G.(1879)."EthnologicalNotesontheMotu,Koitapu,andKoiariTribes."Journal of theRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute8:369-377.1 12 1MUIL&youngmansettingoutonalongjourney (of severalmonths),whichoftenwilltakehimbeyondtheborders of hisownsection'straditionalterritoryandmayevenbringhimintocontactwithnon-Karieragroups.Throughoutthecourse of thisjourneyheacquiresknowledge of thesurroundinglandsand,moreimportantly,isgraduallyintroducedintotheritualloreassociatedwiththeterritory.Onthisjourney,theyoungmanseeksawife,buthealsoestablishestheroughoutline of the"road,"thespecificportion of territoryinwhichhewill,asanadult,travelandhunt.BibliographyRadcliffe-Brown,A.R.(1930)."TheSocialOrganization of AustralianTribes,PartI."Oceania1:34-63.Radcliffe-Brown,A.R.(1930)."TheSocialOrganization of AustralianTribes,PartII."Oceania1 :20 6 -25 6; 322 -341.Radcliffe-Brown,A.R.(1930).'TheSocialOrganization of AustralianTribes,PartIII."Oceania1: 426 -456.KerakiETHNONYMS:Morehead,Nambu,Trans-FlyOrientationIdentification.Theterm"Keraki"generallyreferstoone of severalsmalltranshumantculturalgroupslivingneartheMoreheadRiverintheTrans-Flyregion of PapuaNewGuinea,applyingprincipallytoNambuspeakersbutalsoin-cludingsome of theirimmediateneighbors.Thenamealsoreferstoone of theroughlyninesmall"tribes"intowhichtheKerakiaredivided.Location.Kerakiterritoryliesinthesouthwesternpart of PapuaNewGuinea,justtotheeast of theMoreheadRiver,atabout9°Sby1 42 E.Theareaischaracterizedbyextremes of climate.Duringaconsiderablepart of therainyseason,espe-ciallybetweenJanuaryandMarch,much of thelandisunderwater,andtheKerakiareobligedtotakeupresidenceinsemi-permanentvillagesinone of afewlocationsalonghighground.TherainsabateinMayorJune,thecountrydriesup,thelandbecomesparched,andtheKerakimovetolocationsalongone of thelagoonsorlargerstreams,withinreach of water.Attheheight of thedryseason,thepeopleoftenliveinsmallclearingsintheforesttoescapetheconsiderableheat.Demography.In1931,theethnographicpresentforthisreport,F.E.WilliamsestimatedtheentireKerakipopulationatabout700-800.Recentestimatesindicated700Nambuspeakersandanother800speakers of theTondaandLowerMoreheadlanguages.LinguisticAffiliation.Nambu,Tonda,andLowerMore-headarethree of thesevensmallNon-Austronesianlan-guagesthatmakeuptheMoreheadandUpperMaroRiversFamily.HistoryandCulturalRelationsOwingtoitssparseandscatteredpopulation,inhospitableclimate,andapparentlack of potentialfordevelopment,theMoreheadareawaslittleaffectedbyEuropeancontactinthe1 920 sand1930swhenF.E.Williamsconductedhisbasicethnographicresearch.Eventoday,theregionissomewhatisolated,withverylittleeconomicdevelopment.Culturalre-lationsandcommunicationsamonggroupsarehamperedbyflooding of theareainthewetseason,lack of waterinthedryseason,and,intheprecontactandearly-contactera,bytheconstantraiding of powerfulheadhuntersfromacrossthebordertothewest.SettlementsThesemipermanentvillagesareusuallylocatedinorontheedge of aforestarea,onhighground.Thevillageitselfisaclearing,plantedwithcoconutpalms,withhousesirregularlyscatteredabout.Gardensringthevillage,anddecorativeplantsandflowersgrowwithin.Housesare of severaltypes.Themongo-vivi,or"proper"house,isalong,oblongbuildingwitharidgedroof,stampedandhardenedclayfloor,andsemicircularverandasoneitherend.Agood-sizedhouseisabout9meterslong,3.6meterswide,and 2. 4metershigh,al-thoughdimensionsvaryconsiderably.Thesehousesareusedprimarilyforfoodstorage,especiallyforyams.Typically,vil-lagesalsocontainanumber of shelters,calledgua-mongo,underwhichKerakispreadtheirmats.Thesesheltersaresim-pleopen-sidedstructuresconsisting of fourpolessupportingaridgedroof.Incontrasttothesemipermanentvillages,thetemporaryvillages-whichmightbeusedasdry-seasonset-tlements,headquartersforlargehuntingparties,orothertemporaryencampments-usuallycontainonlyhaphazard,roughlybuilthouses,shelters,andlean-tos,withlittleat-temptmadetoclearthebrush.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheKerakiaresubsistencefarmerswhopracticeswiddenorslash-and-burnhorticulture.Theirstaplecropisthelesseryam(Dioscoreaes-culenta).Gardensarepreparedattheend of thedryseasonandcompletedbyOctoberorNovember,whenthefirstsounds of thundersignalthebeginning of theplantingsea-son.Severalfamiliesusuallycooperateinclearingatract of land,whichissubsequentlydividedintoindividuallyownedplots of about45meterssquare,separatedfromoneanotherbytimbermarkerslaidalongtheground.Theentireareaiscustomarilyfencedagainstwildpigs,wallabies,etc.ByJunetheyamvines,attachedto 2- meter-longpoles,havebeguntoturnyellow,andtheharvestbegins-desultorilyatfirst,thenmoreseriouslyasthevineswither.Yamsareleveredupordugoutwithheavyspatulatediggingsticks,thenpickedoutbyhand,andlatersortedintopilesforcooking,replanting,orforfeasts.Otherimportantrootcropsaretaro,manioc,andsweetpotatoes.Sugarcane,coconuts,andbananasarealsogrown,andvariousotherfruits,especiallypapayas,comple-menttheKerakidiet.Sagoisrareandhighlyprized,thrivingonlyinthefewsagoswampsthatexistinKerakiterritory. 104 Kalulilaterrecoveredandhungupintheeaves of thelonghouse.Since1968,governmentedicthasrequiredthatbodiesbeburiedinacemetery.Survivors of adeceasedpersonassumefoodtaboosduringtheperiod of mourning.Thesetaboosareobligatoryforthesurvivingspouseandchildren,buttheyareoftenvoluntarilytakenonbyclosefriendsandotherkinaswell.SeealsoFoi,GebusiBibliographyFeld,Steven(19 82) .SoundandSentiment:Birds,Weeping,PoeticsandSonginKaluliExpression.Philadelphia:University of PennsylvaniaPress.Rev.ed.1990.Schieffelin,Bambi(1990).TheGiveandTake of EverydayLife:LanguageSocialization of KalulbChildren.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Schieffelin,EdwardL.(1976).TheSorrow of theLonelyandtheBurning of theDancers.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Schieffelin,EdwardL.(1985)."TheRetaliation of theAni-mals:OntheCulturalConstruction of thePastinPapuaNewGuinea."InHistoryandEthnohistoryinPapuaNewGuinea,editedbyDeborahGewertzandEdwardSchieffelin,40-57.OceaniaMonographno. 28 .Sydney:OceaniaPublications.NANCYE.GRATTONKamilaroiest.Atthemostgenerallevel of socialorganization,theKamilaroiwereorganizedintoexogamousmatrimoities.Bothmoitiesweredividedintofourmarriageclasses.Alsopresentwithinthemoitieswerevarioussibsandlineages,eachrepre-sentedbyseveraltotemsandsubtotems.Descentwasmatri-lineal.TheKamilaroihadafour-classmarriage system. Ex-ogamywastheruleforeachkingroup,fromthelineagethroughthemoiety.Paternalhalf-sistermarriagewasreport-edlythepreferredformamongtheEuahlayi.Theprimaryeco-nomicunitswerethebands,whichwerecomposed of severalhouseholds.Matrilineageswererepresentedbysubtotemsandorganizedintoamatrisib,whichhaditsowntotem.Thesibsweremembers of oneortheothermatrimoieties.Inter-sectingwiththesegroupsbasedonkinshipanddescentwerethefourmarriageclasses,all of whichwerecommontobothmatrimoieties.Riteswereheldtoencouragethepropagation of totems.Therewereinitiationceremoniesforbothsexes,withcircum-cisionforboys.Shamans(wireenun)concernedthemselveswithcuringillnessandcommunicatingwiththeirdreamspir-its,whowereoftensentoutoninformation-gatheringmis-sions.TheKamilaroibelievedinan"AllFather,"themoralandkindlydeityintheskywhoreceivedthesouls of goodAb-originesupontheirdeath.Eachindividualwasbelievedtohaveasoul,adreamspirit,andashadowspirit.Sicknessordeathwasbelievedtoresultifone'sshadowspiritweremo-lestedorcapturedbyashaman.Someindividualsalsohadtheaid of aspirithelper.BibliographyFison,Lorimer,andA.W.Howitt(1867).KamilaroiandKurnai:GroupMarriageandRelationship,andMarriagebyElopement.Oosterhout,theNetherlands:AnthropologicalPublications.Parker,K.Langloh(1905).TheEuahlayiTribe:aStudy of Ab-originalLifeinAustralia.London:ArchibaldConstable.ETHNONYMS:Camileroi,Euahlayi,GunilroyTheKamilaroiwereanAboriginalgrouplocatedinNewSouthWales,Australia,alongtheBarwon,Bundarra,Balonne,andupperHunterriversandintheLiverpoolplains.Theyarenownearlyextinctandonlyasmallnumberremain.TheKamilaroilanguage,whichisnolongerspoken,isclassi-fiedinthePama-NyunganFamily of Australianlanguages.TheKamilaroiwerenomadichuntersandgathererswithaband-levelsocialorganization.Importantvegetablefoodswereyamsandotherroots,aswellasasterculiagrain,whichwasmadeintoabread.Insectlarvae,frogs,andeggs of severaldifferentanimalswerealsogathered.Variousbirds,kanga-roos,emus,iguanas,opossums,echidnas,andbandicootswereamongtheimportantanimals...

... sulfatePulv.DryBoxedBoxedHangingPulv.Pulv.Pulv.LumpyPulv.PulvStringyGranularPulv.GranularGranularGranularPulv.Pulv.GranularPulv.Pulv.Pulv.Pulv.GranularGranularPulv.Pulv.StringyGranularGranularPulv.Pulv.85–95451 20 015550 100 20 –30 110 42 45 110 505075–9590– 110 90– 110 15 20 6080 10 20 25 –3555–653030–4055–6550–555550–60 25 4818 20 20 –35701,360–1, 520 720 16–3 ,20 0 24 080800–1,600 320 –4801,760670 720 1,7608008001 ,20 0–1, 520 1,440–1,7601,440–1,760 24 0– 320 9601 ,28 0160– 320 400–560880–1,040480480–640880–1,040800–880880800–960400770 29 0– 320 320 –5601, 120 SluggishAbrasiveMay ... pebbleDampGranularPulv.Pulv.DampPulv.GranularStickyPulv.Pulv.GranularGranularGranularPulv.Pulv.LumpyGranularLumpyGranularPulv.GranularPulv.Pulv.GranularGranularGranularGranularPulv.Pulv.GranularGranularPulv.GranularPulv.LumpyStringyPulv.Granular9060–6560 62 65ϩ 100 35–4045–5055–6050–7016 20 554090–11835–6050–5450–6050–6050–6070–7540–45405–154535–4080 100 45 100 35–4580ϩ454095–13560 100 ϩ15–3060–15055–801,440960–1,0409609901,040ϩ1,600560–640 720 –800880–960800–1, 120 26 0– 320 8806401,440–1,890560–960800–860800–960800–960800–9601, 120 –1 ,20 0640– 720 64080 24 0 720 560–6401 ,28 0–1,600 720 1,600560– 720 1 ,28 0ϩ 720 6401, 520 2, 1609601600ϩ 24 0–480960 2, 400880–1 ,28 0AdheresAbrasiveAbrasiveHygroscopicAdheresHeavyAbrasiveAbrasiveAbrasiveCorrosiveAdheresMay ... Horizontal centers, cm30.540.645.760.9 29 .940.045.160.0 28 .638.743 .2 57.5 26 .435 .2 39.753.0 23 .531.135 .2 46.719.7 26 .4 28 .939.415 .2 20.3 22 .930.5chain pull, lb (kg); L ϭ conveyor...

... sulfatePulv.DryBoxedBoxedHangingPulv.Pulv.Pulv.LumpyPulv.PulvStringyGranularPulv.GranularGranularGranularPulv.Pulv.GranularPulv.Pulv.Pulv.Pulv.GranularGranularPulv.Pulv.StringyGranularGranularPulv.Pulv.85–95451 20 015550 100 20 –30 110 42 45 110 505075–9590– 110 90– 110 15 20 6080 10 20 25 –3555–653030–4055–6550–555550–60 25 4818 20 20 –35701,360–1, 520 720 16–3 ,20 0 24 080800–1,600 320 –4801,760670 720 1,7608008001 ,20 0–1, 520 1,440–1,7601,440–1,760 24 0– 320 9601 ,28 0160– 320 400–560880–1,040480480–640880–1,040800–880880800–960400770 29 0– 320 320 –5601, 120 SluggishAbrasiveMay ... pebbleDampGranularPulv.Pulv.DampPulv.GranularStickyPulv.Pulv.GranularGranularGranularPulv.Pulv.LumpyGranularLumpyGranularPulv.GranularPulv.Pulv.GranularGranularGranularGranularPulv.Pulv.GranularGranularPulv.GranularPulv.LumpyStringyPulv.Granular9060–6560 62 65ϩ 100 35–4045–5055–6050–7016 20 554090–11835–6050–5450–6050–6050–6070–7540–45405–154535–4080 100 45 100 35–4580ϩ454095–13560 100 ϩ15–3060–15055–801,440960–1,0409609901,040ϩ1,600560–640 720 –800880–960800–1, 120 26 0– 320 8806401,440–1,890560–960800–860800–960800–960800–9601, 120 –1 ,20 0640– 720 64080 24 0 720 560–6401 ,28 0–1,600 720 1,600560– 720 1 ,28 0ϩ 720 6401, 520 2, 1609601600ϩ 24 0–480960 2, 400880–1 ,28 0AdheresAbrasiveAbrasiveHygroscopicAdheresHeavyAbrasiveAbrasiveAbrasiveCorrosiveAdheresMay ... Horizontal centers, cm30.540.645.760.9 29 .940.045.160.0 28 .638.743 .2 57.5 26 .435 .2 39.753.0 23 .531.135 .2 46.719.7 26 .4 28 .939.415 .2 20.3 22 .930.5chain pull, lb (kg); L ϭ conveyor...

... 1.90 2. 510.5 1.41 1.73 2. 24 3.160.6 1. 52 1.93 2. 45 3.980.7 1. 62 2.16 3.09 5.010.8 1.74 2. 41 3. 62 6.310.9 1.86 2. 69 4 .26 7.941.0 2. 00 3.00 5.00 10. 001.1 2. 14 3.35 5.87 12. 590.7 when it actually ... VAϭ 1, 825 ,000,000/ 1100 ϭ 1,659,091 yd3(1 ,26 9 ,20 5 m3).With a 20 -ft (6-m) height for the landfill, the annual area required would be1,659,091ϫ 27 /20 ϫ 43,560 ϭ 51.4 acres (20 8,0 02 m 2 ; 20 .8 ... the Size of a Plantas a Function of Exponent RR valueCost ratios for size multiples 2 times 3 times 5 times 10 times0 .2 1.15 1 .25 1.38 1.580.3 1 .23 1.39 1. 62 2.000.4 1. 32 1.55 1.90 2. 510.5...

... required area of 1363.6ϫ 27 ft3/yd3ϭ36,817 .2 ft3 /20 ft high ϭ 1840.8 ft 2 (171.0 m 2 ), or 1840.9 ft 2 /43,560 ft 2 /acre ϭ0.0 42 acre (169.9 m 2 ; 0.017 ha) per year. With a 10- year life ... VAϭ 1, 825 ,000,000/ 1100 ϭ 1,659,091 yd3(1 ,26 9 ,20 5 m3).With a 20 -ft (6-m) height for the landfill, the annual area required would be1,659,091ϫ 27 /20 ϫ 43,560 ϭ 51.4 acres (20 8,0 02 m 2 ; 20 .8 ... direction, m 2 .Forthis building, assuming a critical wind speed of 1 m/s (3 .28 ft / s), and a cross-sectional area of 10 mϫ 5mϭ 50 m 2 (538 .2 ft 2 ), C ϭ 0. 526 g/s/[(1.5)(1 m/s)(50 m 2 )] ϭ 0.007...

... Analysis 22 .22 Bearing Type Selection of a KnownLoad 22 .23 Shaft Bearing Length and HeatGeneration 22 .28 Roller-Bearing Operating-Life Analysis 22 .31Roller-Bearing Capacity Requirements 22 . 32 Radial ... constant Akϭ 12[ 2 Ϫ⑀/(1 Ϫ⑀) 2 ] ϭ 12[ 2 Ϫ 0.667/ (1 Ϫ 0.667) 2 ]ϭ 144.6. A second eccentricity constant B is given by Bkϭ 12{ ⑀(4 Ϫ⑀ 2 )/ [2( 1 Ϫ⑀ 2 ) 2 ] ϩ 2 ϩ⑀ 2 /(1 Ϫ⑀ 2 ) 2. 5ϫ arctan ... Bearings 22 . 32 Roller-Bearing Capacity and Reliability 22 .34Porous-Metal Bearing Capacity andFriction 22 .35Hydrostatic Thrust Bearing Analysis 22 .37Hydrostatic Journal Bearing Analysis 22 .39Hydrostatic...