... social participation and a lack of normative integration. • A distinction can be made between traits that describe the actual state of social exclusion (status characteristics) and risk factors ... financial (see Nolan & Whelan, 1996). In the case of social exclusion, by contrast, there may be other causes than a lack of financial means, such as illness, old age, neighbourhood factors and ... level of formal and informal organisations and social settings, and at the macro level of government and society at large. Figure 1 shows the conceptual model. The various aspects of social exclusion...