ID Potential Steps Objective Success Measure Barriers Notes Contact E-mail address 1 Idea 1
2 Idea 2 3 Idea 3 4 Idea 4 5 Idea 5 6 Idea 6
project start date, and any constraints on the schedule required by the client. The steps to install the LAN remained the same. The start and finish dates, and the num- ber of resources needed to meet the schedule were adjusted for each individual client, but the adjustments were usually small. Once the schedule of a specific job was decided, the PM could determine the resources needed to meet that schedule and find the cost of the project.
Creating this kind of template is simple. The software can calculate the cost of each different project which is most helpful to the project manager if cost, prices, or sched- ules must be negotiated. If the client wants the project to be completed earlier than scheduled, the PM can add the additional resources needed and project management software can determine the costs associated with the change.
If the PM wishes to include other information in the project’s action plan, there is no reason not to do so. Some include a column to list the status of resource or personnel availability. Others list task start dates.
3.4 THE WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE AND OTHER AIDS
At times, PMs seem to forget that many of the conventional forms, charts, and tables that they must fill out are intended to serve as aids, not punishments. They also forget that the forms, charts, and tables are not cast in bronze, but, like Emeril’s recipes, may be changed to fit the PM’s taste. In addition to the project action plan just discussed, three other useful aids are the Work Breakdown Structure(WBS), the Linear Responsibility Chart(LRC), and Mind Mapping.
The project launch meeting sets the project scope, elicits cooperation of others in the organization, demonstrates managerial commitment to the project, and initiates the project plan. The plan itself is generated through a hierarchical planning process by which parts of the plan are sequentially broken down into finer levels of detail by the individuals or groups that will implement them. The result is an action plan that lists all the tasks required to carry out the plan together with task resource requirements, durations, predecessors, and identification of the people responsible for each task.
Table 3-5An MSP Template for a LAN Installation Project Template for LAN Installation Project IDTask NameDurationStartFinishPredecessorsResource Names 1Phase I—Planning and design of LAN13 days 2Project start0 days 3Technical specifications determined10 days2Project Manager, System Analysts, Systems Consultant, Writers, Chief Editor, Senior Programmer, Vice President- Management Information Systems, Senior Writers, Administrative Assistant 4Design plan developed3 days3Project Manager, System Analysts, Chief Editor, Vice President–Management Information Systems 5Phase II—Preparation for installation22 days 6Equipment ordering2 days4Administrative Assistant 7System prototype20 days6System Analysts, Systems Consultant, Programmers, Senior Programmer, Junior Programmers 8Configuration10 days6System Analysts, Programmers, Tester, Senior Testers 9Testing5 days8Tester, Senior Testers 10Site analysis5 days6System Analysts, Programmers, Tester, Junior Programmers 11Phase III—Installation13 days 12Site installation3 days7, 8, 10Tester, Project Manager, System Analysts, Systems Consultant, Senior Testers 13Documentation set-up10 days12Writers, Chief Editor, Senior Writers 14Phase IV—Installation follow-up12 days 15Orientation for client2 days13Project Manager, System Analysts, Systems Consultant, Programmers, Administrative Assistant 16Support to client5 days12 17Post-installation review3 days16Project Manager, System Analysts, Systems Consultant, Chief Editor, Vice President-Management Information Systems 18System acceptance0 days17, 15 86
3.4 THE WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE AND OTHER AIDS • 87 The Work Breakdown Structure
The WBS is simply a set of all tasks in a project, usually arranged by task levels. It is sometimes presented as a tree, much like an organization chart, as in Figure 3-4.
The project deliverable is at the top of the tree; the Level 1 tasks are below it. Below each of these are the relevant Level 2 tasks, and so on. A WBS identifier number is in each task-box. A colleague called this a “Gozinto chart.” (He said it was named after a famous Italian mathematician, Prof. Zepartzat Gozinto. The name has stuck.)
Inadequate up-front planning, especially failing to identify all important tasks, is a primary contributor to the failure of a project to achieve its cost and time objectives.
Therefore, a primary purpose for developing a WBS is to ensure that important tasks are not overlooked and thereby not accounted for and planned.
One simple approach for creating the WBS begins by gathering the project team to- gether and providing each member with a pad of sticky-notes. Team members then write on the sticky-notes all the tasks they can think of that are required to complete the project.
The sticky-notes can then be placed on the wall and arranged in various ways. One advan- tage of this approach is that it provides the entire team with a better understanding of the work needed to complete the project. The fact that it is a cooperative exercise also helps the project team to bond. Finally, this exercise is just as applicable to the construction of an action plan as it is to a WBS tree.
MSP will make a WBS list (but not a tree-chart) at the touch of a key. The task levels are appropriately identified; for example, the WBS number “7.5.4” refers to the
“Level 3, task Number 4” that is needed for “Level 2, task 5” that is a part of “Level 1, task 7.” (The PM has the option of using any other identification system desired, but must enter the identifiers manually.)
Task levels are appropriately organized on the MSP printout, with Level 1 tasks to the left and others indented by level. If one uses a tree diagram and each task is represented by a box with the WBS identifier number, one can add any information one
Figure 3-4 A partial WBS (Gozinto chart) for an Annual Tribute Dinner project.
wishes—given that it will fit in the box. Such an entry might be the proper account number to charge for work done on that task, or the name of the individual (or depart- ment) with task responsibility, or with a space for the responsible party’s signature de- noting that the person has accepted accountability by “signing-off.”
Table 3-6 shows the MSP printout for the entire Tribute Dinner project. The WBS identifier numbers are on the left, followed by tasks, predecessors, estimated durations and costs, and the individuals or groups responsible for the respective tasks.
The process of building an action plan and the resulting WBS is meaningful. Boss- subordinate pairs (remember that the boss-subordinate relationship is defined only in regard to the project and often does not exist outside the project) may differ on the tech- nical approach to working on the task, the type and quantity of resources needed, or the duration for each subtask. If so, negotiation is apt to accompany the planning process. As usual, participatory management and negotiation often lead to improved project perfor- mance and better ways of meeting the project’s goals. We have described the process to construct the project action plan above, but it bears repeating.
1. All project activities will be identified and arranged in successively finer detail, that is, by levels.
2. For each activity, the type and quantity of each required resource (including person- nel) are identified.
3. For each activity, predecessors and task duration are estimated.
4. All project milestones are identified and located on the project schedule following their predecessor activities.
5. For each activity, the individual or group assigned to perform the work is identified.
Acceptance of the assignment is noted by “signing-off.”
In addition, we can determine several other pieces of information from the items previously listed.
6. If project milestones, task durations, and predecessors are combined, the result is the project master schedule. (The master schedule is illustrated in Chapter 5.) Additional time allowances for contingencies may be added, though we will later argue against this way of dealing with uncertainty.
7. The master schedule allows the PM to compare actual and planned task durations and resource usage at any level of activity, which is to say that the master schedule is also a control document. The need for such comparisons dictates what information about project performance should be monitored. This gives the PM the ability to control the project and take corrective action if the project is not proceeding ac- cording to plan. (More information on project control is in Chapter 7.)
The project action plan is the baseline document for managing a project. If all of the above information is contained in a WBS, the WBS is not distinguishable from the project action plan. WBSs, however, rarely contain so much information. Instead, they are typically designed for special purposes; for example, ensuring that all tasks are iden- tified, and perhaps showing activity durations, sequencing, and due dates.
The Linear Responsibility Chart—and Derivatives
Like the WBS, linear responsibility charts (LRC) come in all sizes and shapes. Typi- cally, the LRC is in the form of a matrix with the project tasks listed in the rows and departments or individuals in the columns. Thus, some people refer to the LRC as a responsibility matrix. PMBOK refers to it in Chapter 9 as a “responsibility assignment
Table 3-6 MSP Action Plan for an Annual Tribute Dinner Project Foundation Annual Tribute Dinner
M. Stewart
Estimated Estimated Resource
WBS Task Name Predecessor Duration Cost Names
1 Begin preparations for tribute dinner 0 days $0.00
2 Select date & secure room 1 2 wks $0.00 Event Coordinator
3 Obtain corporate sponsorships for event 2 20 days $150.00
3.1 Identify potential businesses to sponsor event 2 wks $0.00 CEO, VP Marketing
3.2 Phone/write businesses 3.1 2 wks $150.00 CEO, Event Coordinator
4 Event hosts/MC 2 46 days $0.00
4.1 Identify and secure honoree of event 3 wks $0.00 CEO, PR
4.2 Identify and secure master of ceremonies 3 wks $0.00 CEO, Event Coordinator, PR
4.3 Identify and secure person to introduce honoree 3 wks $0.00 CEO, Event Coordinator, PR 4.4 Identify and secure event hosts and hostesses 3 wks $0.00 CEO, Event Coordinator, PR
5 Invitations 179 days $4,300.00
5.1 Secure mailing lists 2 wks $0.00 Secretary
5.2 Design invitation with PR firm 2, 3 4 wks $1,500.00 PR, Marketing,
Event Coordinator
5.3 Print invitation 5.2 3 days $2,500.00
5.4 Mail invitation 5.3 0 days $300.00
5.5 RSVP’s back 5.4 9 wks $0.00 Secretary
6 Event entertainment secured 2 2 wks $1,000.00
7 Food and drink 15 days $750.00
7.1 Finalize menu 5 days $750.00
7.1.1 Identify menu options 2 1 wk $0.00 Secretary
7.1.2 Trial menus 7.1.1 1 day $0.00 Secretary, Event
Coordinator, CEO
7.1.3 Select final menu 7.1.2 1 wk $750.00 Event Coordinator
7.2 Identify company to donate wine 3 3 wks $0.00 Event Coordinator
8 Table decorations, gifts, cards, flowers, etc. 30 days $2,800.00
8.1 Identify and have made event gift to attendees 1 6 wks $2,500.00 Event Coordinator, Secretary
8.2 Find florist to donate table arrangements 1 4 wks $0.00 Event Coordinator
8.3 Hire calligrapher to make seating cards 5.5 2 wks $300.00 Secretary
9 Develop PR exhibit to display at event 4.1 4 wks $150.00 PR
10 Event and honoree publicity 3, 4.1 2 wks $325.00 PR
11 Hire event photographer 2 1 wk $450.00 Secretary
12 Finalize seating chart 5.5 3 wks $0.00 Secretary, Event
Coordinator, CEO
13 Hold tribute dinner 12 0 days $0.00
14 Send out ‘thank you’ notes to sponsors and donators 13 1 wk $150.00 Secretary
All task details shown
89
matrix.” (We use the term LRC to refer to any structured way of showing the roles and accountability existing between various people and project tasks.) For an example of a simple LRC, see Figure 3-5.
In Figure 3-5 shapes are used to indicate the nature of the responsibility link be- tween a person and a task. Note that there must be at least one solid triangle, , in every row, which means that someone must be accountable for completion of each task.
For example, examine the row with the task “Solicit quotations.” In this case the Proj- ect Engineer is accountable for carrying out the task. If needed, the Field Manager will support the process, helping the Project Engineer gather information or prepare the solicitation documents. The project’s Contract Administrator must be kept informed about the solicitation process, and the PM must approve the documents before they are sent to potential vendors. The approval of the Compliance Officer and/or Risk Manager may also be required. Both risk and compliance have been the subject of increasing attention, particularly by firms engaging in projects for outside clients. Involvement of compliance/risk managers in project contracts is now being mandated by an increasing number of firms.
One can create as many different duties or responsibility links in an LRC as seem relevant to the situation. One can, for instance, indicate that some individuals or depart- ments need to be notified about every task undertaken by a project, while other de- partments require notification only if certain conditions exist (e.g., an activity start will be delayed).
While one can construct LRCs manually, there are software packages that interact seamlessly with MSP that have several different LRC designs. All the PM needs to do is choose the types of linkages and fill in the blanks. As is the case with all of these tools, the purpose is to assist those who either work on the project or interface with it. One can use symbols or numbers to refer to different responsibility relationships, and the ref- erences may be to departments, job titles, or names. Only imagination and the needs of the project and PM bound the potential variety.
A final observation is needed on this subject. When we speak to functional man- agers about project management, one comment we often hear is anger about changes in the project plan without notification to the people who are supposed to conduct the tasks or supply services to the project. One quote from the head of a statistics lab in a large consulting firm is typical. The head of the lab was speaking of the manager of a Figure 3-5 A lin-
ear responsibility chart.
3.4 THE WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE AND OTHER AIDS • 91 consulting project for a governmental agency when he said, “I pulled three of my best people off other work to reserve them for data analysis on the XYZ Project. They sat for days waiting for the data. That jerk [the PM] knew the data would be late and never bothered to let me know. Then the *%$#@% had the gall to come in here and ask me to speed up our analysis so he could make up lost time.”
Make sure that the LRC has a “notify” category, and that it is properly used, not simply to report progress, but also to report changes in due dates, resource requirements, and the like.
A Whole-Brain Approach to Project Planning
In today’s fiercely competitive environment, project teams are facing increasing pres- sure to achieve project performance goals while at the same time completing their projects on time and on schedule. Typically project managers and project team mem- bers rely on the “left” side or the analytical part of the brain to address the challenges.
Indeed, if you are a business or engineering student, the vast majority of techniques that you have been exposed to in your studies relies on the logical and analytical left side of your brain. On the other hand, art students and design students tend to be exposed to techniques that rely more on imagination and images which utilize the creative “right”
side of the brain. Importantly, many activities associated with project management can be greatly facilitated through the use of a more balanced whole-brain approach (Brown and Hyer, 2002).
One whole-brain approach that is particularly applicable to project management in general, and project planning in particular, is mind mapping. Mind mapping is essentially a visual approach that closely mirrors that way the human brain records and stores infor- mation. In addition to its visual nature, another key advantage associated with mind map- ping is that it helps tap the creative potential of the entire project team, which, in turn, helps increase both the quantity and quality of ideas generated. Because project team members tend to find mind mapping entertaining, it also helps generate enthusiasm, helps get buy-in from team members, and often gets quieter team members more involved in the process.
To illustrate the creation of a mind map, consider a project launched at a graduate business school to improve its part-time evening MBA program for working profession- als. The mind mapping exercise is initiated by placing a large sheet of paper (e.g., 6 ft 3 ft) on a wall. It is recommended that the paper be oriented in landscape mode to help stimulate the team’s creativity as people are used to working in portrait mode. In addi- tion, team members should stand during the mind mapping exercise.
The process begins by writing the project goal in the center of the page. As is illus- trated in Figure 3-6, the part-time MBA project team defined the goal for the project as generating ideas for breakthrough performance in the part-time MBA program. In par- ticular, notice the inspirational language used in defining the project goal which helps further motivate team members and stimulate their creativity.
GENERATE IDEASFOR
BREAKTHROUGH
PERFORMANCE IN PART-
TIME PROGRAM Figure 3-6 Begin mind mapping with statement of project’s objective.
Once the project goal is defined, team members can brainstorm to identify the major tasks that must be done to accomplish this goal. In developing the mind map for the project, the MBA team initially identified four major tasks: (1) define the role of working professional programs (WPPs), (2) generate ideas for improving current pro- grams, (3) generate ideas for diversification, and (4) evaluate the ideas generated. As il- lustrated in Figure 3-7, these major tasks branch off from the project goal.
Developing the mind map proceeds in this fashion whereby components in the mind map are continuously broken down into more detailed tasks. For example, Figure 3-8 illustrates how the define role of the WPPs task was broken down into more detailed tasks. Figure 3-9 provides the final map for the MBA project.
A couple of comments regarding the process of mind mapping are in order. First, color, word size, word shape, and pictures should all be used to add emphasis. In fact, team members should be encouraged to use pictures and images in the mind map over using words. The brain processes and responds to symbols and pictures differently than it does to words. When using words, key words as opposed to full sentences should be used.
Also, it should be noted that it is OK to be messy when developing the original mind map. Indeed, one should not expect the original mind map to resemble something as polished as the mind map shown in Figure 3-9. Rather, the mind map will typically need to go through several iterations of polishing and refining. It should also be noted that the polishing and refining can be greatly facilitated with the use of a computer graphics program.
In addition, multiple team members can and should contribute to the mind map simultaneously. In fact, one team member should be formally designated as the facilitator to ensure that all team members are contributing to keep team members focused on the project, and to ensure that team members are focusing on project tasks—not goals. Finally, at the most detailed level, tasks should be expressed using a noun and a verb (e.g., develop measures, generate ideas, define output).
Unfortunately, it is all too common for projects to go over budget and/or be completed late. In many cases insufficient upfront planning is the major culprit. With inadequate
GENERATE IDEAS FOR BREAKTHROUGH PERFORMANCE IN PART-
TIME PROGRAM
Generate Ideas for Improving Current Programs
Generate Ideas for Diversification Define role
of WPPs Evaluate Ideas
!
Figure 3-7 Major tasks branch off from project goal.