The first part deals with 3-phase asynchronous motors, the one most usually used for driving machines. These motors have a number of advantages that make them the obvious choice for many uses: they are standardised, rugged, easy to operate and maintain and cost-effective.
b Operating principle
The operating principle of an asynchronous motor involves creating an induced current in a conductor when the latter cuts off the lines of force in a magnetic field, hence the name “induction motor”. The combined action of the induced current and the magnetic field exerts a driving force on the motor rotor.
Let’s take a shading ring ABCD in a magnetic field B, rotating round an axis xy (CFig. 1).
If, for instance, we turn the magnetic field clockwise, the shading ring undergoes a variable flux and an induced electromotive force is produced which generates an induced current (Faraday’s law).
According to Lenz’s law, the direction of the current is such that its electromagnetic action counters the cause that generated it. Each conductor is therefore subject to a Lorentz force F in the opposite direction to its own movement in relation to the induction field.
An easy way to define the direction of force F for each conductor is to use the rule of three fingers of the right hand (action of the field on a current, (CFig. 2).
The thumb is set in the direction of the inductor field. The index gives the direction of the force.
The middle finger is set in the direction of the induced current. The shading ring is therefore subject to a torque which causes it to rotate in the same direction as the inductor field, called a rotating field. The shading ring rotates and the resulting electromotive torque balances the load torque.
b Generating the rotating field
Three windings, offset geometrically by 120, are each powered by one of the phases in a 3-phase AC power supply (CFig. 3).
The windings are crossed by AC currents with the same electrical phase shift, each of which produces an alternating sine-wave magnetic field.
This field, which always follows the same axis, is at its peak when the current in the winding is at its peak.
The field generated by each winding is the result of two fields rotating in opposite directions, each of which has a constant value of half that of the peak field. At any instant t1 in the period (CFig. 4), the fields produced by each winding can be represented as follows:
- field H1 decreases. Both fields in it tend to move away from the OH1 axis, - field H2 increases. Both fields in it tend to move towards the OH2 axis, - field H3 increases. Both fields in it tend to move towards the OH3 axis.
The flux corresponding to phase 3 is negative. The field therefore moves in the opposite direction to the coil.
3.1 Three phase asynchronous motors
3. Motors and loads
AFig. 1 An induced current is generated in a short-circuited shading ring
AFig. 2 Rule of three fingers of the right hand to find the direction of the force
AFig. 3 Principle of the 3-phase asynchronous motor
AFig. 4 Fields generated by the three phases
3.1 Three phase asynchronous motors
3. Motors and loads
3
If we overlay the 3 diagrams, we can see that:
- the three anticlockwise fields are offset by 120° and cancel each other out,
- the three clockwise fields are overlaid and combine to form the rotating field with a constant amplitude of 3Hmax/2. This is a field with one pair of poles,
- this field completes a revolution during a power supply period. Its speed depends on the mains frequency (f) and the number of pairs of poles (p). This is called “synchronous speed”.
b Slip
A driving torque can only exist if there is an induced current in the shading ring. It is determined by the current in the ring and can only exist if there is a flux variation in the ring. Therefore, there must be a difference in speed in the shading ring and the rotating field. This is why an electric motor operating to the principle described above is called an “asynchronous motor”.
The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and the shading ring speed (N) is called “slip” (s) and is expressed as a percentage of the synchronous speed.
s = [(Ns - N) / Ns] x 100.
In operation, the rotor current frequency is obtained by multiplying the power supply frequency by the slip. When the motor is started, the rotor current frequency is at its maximum and equal to that of the stator current.
The stator current frequency gradually decreases as the motor gathers speed.
The slip in the steady state varies according to the motor load. Depending on the mains voltage, it will be less if the load is low and will increase if the motor is supplied at a voltage below the rated one.
b Synchronous speed
The synchronous speed of 3-phase asynchronous motors is proportional to the power supply frequency and inversely proportional to the number of pairs in the stator.
Example: Ns = 60 f/p.
Where: Ns: synchronous speed in rpm f: frequency in Hz
p: number of pairs of poles.
The table (CFig. 5)gives the speeds of the rotating field, or synchronous speeds, depending on the number of poles, for industrial frequencies of 50Hz and 60Hz and a frequency of 100Hz.
In practice, it is not always possible to increase the speed of an asynchronous motor by powering it at a frequency higher that it was designed for, even when the voltage is right. Its mechanical and electrical capacities must be ascertained first.
As already mentioned, on account of the slip, the rotation speeds of loaded asynchronous motors are slightly lower than the synchronous speeds given in the table.
v Structure AFig. 5 Synchronous speeds based on number
of poles and current frequency Number
Speed of rotation in rpm of poles
50 Hz 60 Hz 100 Hz
2 3000 3600 6000
4 1500 1800 3000
6 1000 1200 2000
8 750 900 1500
10 600 720 1200
12 500 600 1000
16 375 540 750
3.1 Three phase asynchronous motors
3. Motors and loads
The plates have notches for the stator windings that will produce the rotating field to fit into (three windings for a 3-phase motor). Each winding is made up of several coils. The way the coils are joined together determines the number of pairs of poles on the motor and hence the speed of rotation.
v Rotor
This is the mobile part of the motor. Like the magnetic circuit of the stator, it consists of stacked plates insulated from each other and forming a cylinder keyed to the motor shaft.
The technology used for this element divides asynchronous motors into two families: squirrel cage rotor and wound slip ring motors.
b Types of rotor v Squirrel cage rotors
There are several types of squirrel cage rotor, all of them designed as shown infigure 6.
From the least common to the most common:
• Resistant rotor
The resistant rotor is mainly found as a single cage (see the definition of single-cage motors below). The cage is closed by two resistant rings (special alloy, reduced section, stainless steel rings, etc.).
These motors have a substantial slip at the rated torque. The starting torque is high and the starting current low (CFig. 7).
Their efficiency is low due to losses in the rotor.
These motors are designed for uses requiring a slip to adapt the speed according to the torque, such as:
- several motors mechanically linked to spread the load, such as a rolling mill train or a hoist gantry,
- winders powered by Alquist (see note) motors designed for this purpose,
- uses requiring a high starting torque with a limited current inrush (hoisting tackle or conveyors).
Their speed can be controlled by changing the voltage alone, though this function is being replaced by frequency converters. Most of the motors are self-cooling but some resistant cage motors are motor cooled (drive separate from the fan).
Note: these force cooled asynchronous high-slip motors are used with a speed controller and their stalling current is close to their rated current; they have a very steep torque/speed ratio. With a variable power supply, this ratio can be adapted to adjust the motor torque to the requisite traction.
• Single cage rotor
In the notches or grooves round the rotor (on the outside of the cylinder made up of stacked plates), there are conductors linked at each end by a metal ring. The driving torque generated by the rotating field is exerted on these conductors. For the torque to be regular, the conductors are slightly tilted in relation to the motor axis. The general effect is of a squirrel cage, whence the name.
The squirrel cage is usually entirely moulded (only very large motors have conductors inserted into the notches). The aluminium is pressure-injected and the cooling ribs, cast at the same time, ensure the short-circuiting of the stator conductors.
These motors have a fairly low starting torque and the current absorbed when they are switched on is much higher than the rated current (CFig. 7).
AFig. 6 Exploded view of a squirrel cage rotor
AFig. 7 Torque/speed curves of cage rotor types (at nominal voltage)
3.1 Three phase asynchronous motors
3. Motors and loads
3
On the other hand, they have a low slip at the rated torque. They are mainly used at high power to boost the efficiency of installations with pumps and fans. Used in combination with frequency converters for speed control, they are the perfect solution to problems of starting torque and current.
• Double cage rotor
This has two concentric cages, one outside, of small section and fairly high resistance, and one inside, of high section and lower resistance.
- On first starting, the rotor current frequency is high and the resulting skin effect causes the entire rotor current to circulate round the edge of the rotor and thus in a small section of the conductors. The torque produced by the resistant outer cage is high and the inrush is low (CFig. 7).
- At the end of starting, the frequency drops in the rotor, making it easier for the flux to cross the inner cage. The motor behaves pretty much as though it were made from a single non-resistant cage. In the steady state, the speed is only slightly less than with a single-cage motor.
• Deep-notch rotor This is the standard rotor.
Its conductors are moulded into the trapezoid notches with the short side on the outside of the rotor.
It works in a similar way to the double-cage rotor: the strength of the rotor current varies inversely with its frequency.
Thus:
- on first starting, the torque is high and the inrush low,
- in the steady state, the speed is pretty much the same as with a single-cage rotor.
v Wound rotor (slip ring rotor)
This has windings in the notches round the edge of the rotor identical to those of the stator (CFig. 8).
The rotor is usually 3-phase. One end of each winding is connected to a common point (star connection). The free ends can be connected to a centrifugal coupler or to three insulated copper rings built into the rotor.
These rings are rubbed by graphite brushes connected to the starting device.
Depending on the value of the resistors in the rotor circuit, this type of motor can develop a starting torque of up to 2.5 times the rated torque.
The starting current is virtually proportional to the torque developed on the motor shaft.
This solution is giving way to electronic systems combined with a standard squirrel cage motor. These make it easier to solve maintenance problems (replacement of worn motor brushes, maintenance of adjustment resistors), reduce power dissipation in the resistors and radically improve the installation’s efficiency.
AFig. 8 Exploded view of a slip ring rotor motor