The possible interdependence between sales price and sales volume variances should be obvious to you.
A reduction in the sales price might stimulate bigger sales demand, so that an unfavourable sales price variance might be counterbalanced by a favourable sales volume variance. Similarly, a price rise would give a favourable price variance, but possibly at the cost of a fall in demand and an unfavourable sales volume variance.
It is therefore important in analysing an unfavourable sales variance that the overall consequence should be considered. That is, has there been a counterbalancing favourable variance as a direct result of the
unfavourable one?
9 Operating statements
Section overview
• Operating statements show how the combination of variances reconcile budgeted profit and actual profit.
So far, we have considered how variances are calculated without considering how they combine to reconcile the difference between budgeted profit and actual profit during a period. This reconciliation is usually presented as a report to senior management at the end of each control period. The report is called an operating statement or statement of variances.
Definition
An operating statement is a regular report for management of actual costs and revenues, usually showing variances from budget.
An extensive example will now be introduced, both to revise the variance calculations already described, and also to show how to combine them into an operating statement.
Worked Example: Variances and operating statements
Sydney manufactures one product, and the entire product is sold as soon as it is produced. There are no opening or closing inventories and work in progress is negligible. The company operates a standard costing system and analysis of variances is made every month. The standard cost card for the product, a
boomerang, is as follows:
STANDARD COST CARD – BOOMERANG
$
Direct materials 0.5 kilos at $4 per kilo 2.00
Direct wages 2 hours at $2.00 per hour 4.00
Variable overheads 2 hours at $0.30 per hour 0.60
Fixed overhead 2 hours at $3.70 per hour 7.40
Standard cost 14.00
Standard profit 6.00
Standing selling price 20.00
Selling and administration expenses are not included in the standard cost, and are deducted from profit as a period charge.
Budgeted (planned) output for the month of June 20X7 was 5 100 units. Actual results for June 20X7 were as follows:
Production of 4 850 units was sold for $95 600.
Materials consumed in production amounted to 2 300 kgs at a total cost of $9 800.
Labour hours paid for amounted to 8 500 hours at a cost of $16 800.
Actual operating hours amounted to 8 000 hours.
Variable overheads amounted to $2 600.
9: Variance analysis 259 Fixed overheads amounted to $42 300.
Selling and administration expenses amounted to $18 000.
Calculate all variances and prepare an operating statement for the month ended 30 June 20X7.
Solution
$ (a) 2 300 kg of material should cost (× $4) 9 200
but did cost 9 800
Material price variance 600 (U)
(b) 4 850 boomerangs should use (× 0.5 kgs) 2 425 kgs
but did use 2 300 kgs
Material usage variance in kgs 125 kg (F)
× standard cost per kg × $4
Material usage variance in $ $ 500 (F)
$
(c) 8 500 hours of labour should cost (× $2) 17 000
but did cost 16 800
Labour rate variance 200 (F)
$
(d) 4 850 boomerangs should take (× 2 hrs) 9 700 hrs
but did take (active hours) 8 000 hrs
Labour efficiency variance in hours 1 700 hrs (F)
× standard cost per hour × $2
Labour efficiency variance in $ $3 400 (F)
(e) Idle time variance 500 hours (U) × $2 $1 000 (U)
$ (f) 8 000 hours incurring variable o/hd expenditure should cost (× $0.30) 2 400
but did cost 2 600
Variable overhead expenditure variance 200 (U) (g) Variable overhead efficiency variance in hours is the same as the
labour efficiency variance:
1 700 hours (F) × $0.30 per hour $ 510 (F)
$ (h) Budgeted fixed overhead (5 100 units × 2 hrs × $3.70) 37 740
Actual fixed overhead 42 300
Fixed overhead expenditure variance 4 560 (U) $ (i) Actual production at standard rate (4 850 x $3.70 x 2) 35 890
Budgeted production at standard rate (5 100 x $3.70 x 2) 37 740 Fixed overhead volume variance in $ 1 850 (U)
$ (j) Revenue from 4 850 boomerangs should be (× $20) 97 000
but was 95 600
Selling price variance 1 400 (U)
(k) Budgeted sales volume 5 100 units
Actual sales volume 4 850 units
Sales volume profit variance in units 250 units
× standard profit per unit × $6 (U)
Sales volume profit variance in $ $1 500 (U)
There are several ways in which an operating statement may be presented. Perhaps the most common format is one which reconciles budgeted profit to actual profit. In this example, sales and
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administration costs will be introduced at the end of the statement, so that we shall begin with 'budgeted profit before sales and administration costs'.
Sales variances are reported first, and the total of the budgeted profit and the two sales variances results in a figure for 'actual sales minus the standard cost of sales'. The cost variances are then reported, and an actual profit before sales and administration costs calculated. Sales and administration costs are then deducted to reach the actual profit for June 20X7.
SYDNEY – OPERATING STATEMENT JUNE 20X7
$ $
Budgeted (planned) profit before sales and administration costs 30 600
Sales variances: price 1 400 (U)
volume 1 500 (U)
2 900 (U)
Actual sales minus the standard cost of sales 27 700
(F) (U)
Cost variances $ $
Material price 600
Material usage 500
Labour rate 200
Labour efficiency 3 400
Labour idle time 1 000
Variable overhead expenditure 200
Variable overhead efficiency 510
Fixed overhead expenditure 4 560
Fixed overhead volume 1 850
4 610 8 210 3 600 (U)
Actual profit before sales and
administration costs 24 100
Sales and administration costs 18 000
Actual profit, June 20X7 6 100
Check:
Sales 95 600
Materials 9 800
Labour 16 800
Variable overheads 2 600
Fixed overhead 42 300
Sales and administration 18 000
89 500
Actual profit 6 100
9: Variance analysis 261
Key chapter points
• A variance is the difference between a planned, budgeted, or standard cost and the actual cost incurred. The same comparisons can be made for revenues. The process by which the total difference between standard and actual results is analysed is known as the variance analysis.
• The direct material total variance can be subdivided into the direct material price variance and the direct material usage variance.
• Direct material price variances are usually extracted at the time of receipt of the materials, rather than at the time of usage.
• The direct labour total variance can be subdivided into the direct labour rate variance and the direct labour efficiency variance.
• If idle time arises, it is usual to calculate a separate idle time variance, and to base the calculation of the efficiency variance on active hours, when labour actually worked, only. It is always an
unfavourable variance.
• The variable production overhead total variance can be subdivided into the variable production overhead expenditure variance and the variable production overhead efficiency variance, based on active hours.
• The fixed production overhead total variance can be subdivided into an expenditure variance and a volume variance.
• There are many possible reasons for cost variances arising, including changes in the price or use of material, the availability of labour and the efficiency of machinery.
• Materiality, controllability, the type of standard being used, the interdependence of variances and the cost of an investigation should be taken into account when deciding whether to investigate reported variances.
• The selling price variance is a measure of the effect on expected profit of a different selling price to standard selling price.
• The sales volume profit variance is the difference between the actual units sold and the budgeted (planned) quantity, valued at the standard profit per unit. In other words, it measures the increase or decrease in standard profit as a result of the sales volume being higher or lower than budgeted (planned).
• Operating statements show how the combination of variances reconcile budgeted profit and actual profit.
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Quick revision questions
T
Th he e f fo ol ll lo ow wi in ng g i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n r re el la at te es s t to o q qu ue es st ti io on ns s 1 1 t to o 3 3
A company expected to produce 200 units of its product, the Bone, in 20X3. The actual number produced was 260 units. The standard labour cost per unit was $70 (10 hours at a rate of $7 per hour). The actual labour cost was $18 600 and the number of hours worked was 2 200 hours although 2 300 hours were paid.
1 What is the direct labour rate variance for the company in 20X3?
A $400 (U)
B $2,500 (F)
C $2,500 (U)
D $3,200 (U)
2 What is the direct labour efficiency variance for the company in 20X3?
A $400 (U)
B $2,100 (F)
C $2,800 (U)
D $2,800 (F) 3 What is the idle time variance?
A $700 (F)
B $700 (U)
C $809 (U)
D $809 (F)
4 A company has budgeted to make and sell 4 200 units of product X during a period.
The standard fixed overhead cost per unit is $4.
During the period covered by the budget, the actual results were as follows:
Production and sales 5 000 units
Fixed overhead incurred $17 500
The fixed overhead variances for the period were:
Fixed overhead Fixed overhead expenditure variance volume variance
A $700 (F) $3,200 (F)
B $700 (F) $3,200 (U)
C $700 (U) $3,200 (F)
D $700 (U) $3,200 (U)
5 A company has a budgeted material cost of $125,000 for the production of 25,000 units per month.
Each unit is budgeted to use 2 kgs of material. The standard cost of material is $2.50 per kg.
Actual materials in the month cost $136,000 for 27,000 units and 53,000 kgs were purchased and used.
What was the favourable material usage variance?
A $2,500 B $4,000 C $7,500 D $10,000
9: Variance analysis 263
T Th he e f fo ol ll lo ow wi in ng g i in nf fo or rm ma at ti io on n r re el la at te es s t to o q qu ue es st ti io on ns s 6 6 a an nd d 7 7
A company operating a standard costing system has the following direct labour standards per unit for one of its products:
4 hours at $12.50 per hour
Last month when 2 195 units of the product were manufactured, the actual direct labour cost for the 9,200 hours worked was $110,750.
6 What was the direct labour rate variance for last month?
A $4,250 favourable B $4,250 unfavourable C $5,250 favourable D $5,250 unfavourable
7 What was the direct labour efficiency variance for last month?
A $4,250 favourable B $4,250 unfavourable C $5,250 favourable D $5,250 unfavourable
8 PQ Limited currently uses a standard absorption costing system. The fixed overhead variances extracted from the operating statement for November are:
$
Fixed production overhead expenditure variance 5 800 unfavourable Fixed production overhead volume variance 2 800 favourable PQ Limited is considering using standard marginal costing as the basis for variance reporting in future. What variance for fixed production overhead would be shown in a marginal costing operating statement for November?
A no variance would be shown for fixed production overhead B expenditure variance: $5,800 unfavourable
C volume variance: $2,800 favourable D total variance: $3,000 unfavourable
9 List the factors which should be taken into account when deciding whether or not a variance should be investigated.
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Answers to quick revision questions
1 C
2 300 hours should have cost (× $7) 16 100 $
but did cost 18 600
Rate variance 2 500 (A)
Option A is the total direct labour cost variance.
If you selected option B you calculated the correct dollar value of the variance but you misinterpreted its direction.
If you selected option D you based your calculation on the 2 200 hours worked, but 2 300 hours were paid for and these hours should be the basis for the calculation of the rate variance.
2 D 260 units should have taken (× 10 hrs) 2 600 hrs
but took (active hours) 2 200 hrs
Efficiency variance in hours 400 hrs (F)
× standard rate per hour × $7
Efficiency variance in $ $2 800 (F)
Option A is the total direct labour cost variance. If you selected option B you based your calculations on the 2,300 hours paid for; but efficiency measures should be based on the active hours only, i.e. 2 200 hours.
If you selected option C you calculated the correct dollar value of the variance but you misinterpreted its direction.
3 B Idle time hours (2 300 – 2 200) × standard rate per hour = 100 hrs × $7
= $700 (U)
If you selected option A you calculated the correct dollar value of the variance but you misinterpreted its direction. The idle time variance is always unfavourable.
If you selected options C or D you evaluated the idle time at the actual hourly rate instead of the standard hourly rate.
4 C Fixed overhead expenditure variance
Budgeted fixed overhead expenditure (4 200 units × $4 per unit) 16 800 $
Actual fixed overhead expenditure 17 500
Fixed overhead expenditure variance 700 (U)
The variance is unfavourable because the actual expenditure was higher than the amount budgeted.
Fixed overhead volume variance
Actual production at standard rate (5 000 × $4 per unit) 20 000 $ Budgeted production at standard rate (4 200 × $4 per unit) 16 800
Fixed overhead volume variance 3 200 (F)
The variance is favourable because the actual volume of output was greater than the budgeted volume of output.
If you selected an incorrect option you misinterpreted the direction of one or both of the variances.
9: Variance analysis 265 5 A
27 000 units should use (× 2 kg) 54 000 kg $
but did use 53 000 kg
1 000 kg (F)
× standard cost per kg 2.5
Material usage variance 2 500 (F)
6 A
$
9 200 hours should have cost (× $12.50) 115 000
but did cost 110 750
Direct labour rate variance 4 250 (F)
7 D 2 195 units should have taken (× 4 hours) 8 780 hours
but did take 9 200 hours
Direct labour efficiency variance (in hours) 420 hours (A)
× standard rate pre hour × 12.50
5 250 (A) 8 B The only fixed overhead variance in a marginal costing statement is the fixed overhead
expenditure variance. This is the difference between budgeted and actual overhead expenditure, calculated in the same way as for an absorption costing system.
There is no volume variance with marginal costing, because under or over absorption due to volume changes cannot arise.
9 Materiality, controllability, type of standard being used, interdependence between variances and costs of investigation.
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Answers to chapter questions
1 Material price variance
33 600 kg should have cost (× $10/kg) 336 000 $
and did cost 336 000
– Material usage variance
9 000 units should have used (× 4kg) 36 000 kg
but did use 33 600 kg
2 400 kg (F)
× standard cost per kg × $10
24 000 (F) The correct answer is therefore A
2 C
Direct labour rate variance
16 500 hrs should have cost (× $4) 66 000 $
but did cost 68 500
2 500 (U) Direct labour efficiency variance
9 000 units should have taken (× 2 hrs) 18 000 hrs
but did take 16 500 hrs
1 500 (F)
× standard rate per hour (× $4) × $4 6 000 (F)
3 C $
Fixed production overhead absorbed ($7.50 × 9 000) 67 500
Fixed production overhead incurred 70 000
2 500 (U) 4 C
If a target standard rather than a current standard is used, unfavourable variances will occur until the target is achieved. Poor quality materials may slow down work, and possibly increase
wastage/rejection rates. This will cause labour inefficiency. Using expensive skilled labour should be expected to result in favourable efficiency variances. There should be no connection between labour efficiency and whether work is done in normal time or overtime.
5 D
Sales revenue for 620 units should have been (× $30) $18 600
but was (× $29) $17 980
Selling price variance $620 (U)
Budgeted sales volume 600 units
Actual sales volume 620 units
Sales volume variance in units 20 units (F)
× standard profit per unit ($(30 – 28)) × $2
Sales volume profit variance $40 (F)
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Chapter 10
Capital expenditure
Topic list
1 The process of investment decision making 2 Post audit
3 The payback method
4 The accounting rate of return method 5 Risk and uncertainty in decision making
Learning objectives Reference
Capital expenditure LO10
Analyse capital expenditure decisions in organisations and apply related tools and techniques
LO10.1 Apply capital expenditure analysis to project planning and managing uncertain
scenarios through scenario analysis
LO10.2
Decision-making LO2 Identify the quantitative and qualitative criteria involved in accepting a project LO2.3
Analyse the challenges posed by differences between a project and an organisation’s risk profiles
LO2.4 Explain the impact of cash flows and risks on project decision making LO2.5
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Introduction
This chapter is an introduction to the appraisal of projects which involve the outlay of capital.
Capital expenditure differs from day to day revenue expenditure for two reasons:
• Capital expenditure often involves a bigger outlay of money.
• The benefits from capital expenditure are likely to accrue over a long period of time, usually well over one year and often much longer. In such circumstances the benefits cannot all be set against costs in the current year's income statement.
For these reasons any proposed capital expenditure project should be properly appraised, and found to be worthwhile, before the decision is taken to go ahead with the expenditure.
We begin the chapter with an overview of the investment decision-making process, before moving on to examine two capital investment appraisal techniques, the straightforward payback method and the slightly more involved accounting rate of return method.
We conclude by looking at uncertainty and risk. Decision making involves making decisions now about what will happen in the future. Ideally, the decision maker would know with certainty what the future
consequences would be for each choice faced. But, in reality, decisions must be made in the knowledge that their consequences, although perhaps probable, are rarely totally certain.
10: Capital expenditure 269
Before you begin
If you have studied these topics before, you may wonder whether you need to study this chapter in full. If this is the case, please attempt the questions below, which cover some of the key subjects in the area.
If you answer all these questions successfully, you probably have a reasonably detailed knowledge of the subject matter, but you should still skim through the chapter to ensure that you are familiar with everything covered.
There are references in brackets indicating where in the chapter you can find the information, and you will also find a commentary at the back of the Study Manual.
1 A typical model for investment decision making has a number of distinct stages. (Section 1.2) What are they?
2 What are steps involved in the analysis stage of investment decision making? (Section 1.5)
3 What is a post-completion audit? (Section 2)
4 Why perform a post-completion appraisal? (Section 2.1)
5 Which projects should be audited? (Section 2.2)
6 Who should perform a post-completion audit (PCA)? (Section 2.4) 7 Define the payback method of investment appraisal. (Section 3) 8 What are the disadvantages of the payback method? (Section 3.2)
9 What are the advantages of the payback method? (Section 3.2)
10 What are the formulae that can be used for ARR? (Section 4)
11 What are the drawbacks and advantages to the ARR method of project appraisal? (Section 4.2)
12 What are risk and uncertainty? (Section 5.1)
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1 The process of investment decision making
Section overview
• A typical model for investment decision making has a number of distinct stages. During the project's progress, project controls should be applied.