A case essay can be organized to answer three simple questions: What?
Why? How?
• What? Your position statement that responds to the question.
• Why? Your argument that supports your position statement.
• How? Your action plan detailing what needs to be done based on your position statement and argument.
Your Position Statement: What?
A sharply focused position statement at the beginning of an essay answers the reader’s fi rst question: What is your answer? Without one, the essay has no purpose or direction as far as the reader is concerned. One of the most common failings of case exams is that writers don’t off er the reader a clear- cut position statement. A variant is to say that there are a number of possible positions but not commit to any. To the reader, an essay that begins this way makes the writer look evasive and afraid to take a position, which is probably an accurate impression most of the time. Tell the reader what you think because that’s what the reader wants to know.
Notice that I said your position statement should be at the beginning of the essay. Stating your position there has several advantages. First, the reader expects you to answer the question you have been asked. Why make the reader wait for it? Second, critical readers evaluate an argument as they read it. Readers can’t assess an argument until they know what it’s trying to prove. If your conclusion appears at the end of the essay, they must go back to the beginning and compare the proof to the position. Their reading will be more effi cient if they know the position before the proof.
Finally, and probably most important, a position statement at the begin- ning of an essay provides a statement of intention for both the reader and you, the writer. That statement is the focal point of the rest of the essay. Your organizational choices for the essay have been narrowed
considerably: the essay structure needs to deliver the proof of the position statement to the reader. And that is the single purpose of the essay.
The paragraph below is from an essay on the case “Allentown Materials Corporation: The Electronic Products Division (Abridged).” The writer was responding to this prompt, “Explain the recent decline of the Elec- tronic Products Division.”
Don Rogers faces an array of diffi culties. The Electronic Products Division’s performance is currently declining and their reputation for delivery and service has been slipping. Employees have low morale, don’t trust those from other groups, and are participants in unending confl ict. Many of these problems can be traced to external causes, Rogers’s poor leadership, the dysfunction of EPD teams, a clash of cultures, and the lack of corporate support.
The paragraph concisely states a position on the question. The fi nal sentence lists reasons for the problems cited in the paragraph and creates an expectation in the reader that each of those reasons is going to be described and proved. From reading just four sentences, the reader knows both the author’s position (the “what”), a summary of what led her to this conclusion (the “why”), and the overall organization of the essay.
In some cultures, opening an essay with a direct statement of opinion—
particularly when that opinion is directed at an older and more knowledge- able or powerful person— could be perceived as arrogant and aggressive.
Absent any cultural or status norms for deferring statements of opinion, the vast majority of readers want writers to tell them what they think at the beginning of an essay.
Your Argument: Why?
The term “argument” in this book means a way of presenting your think- ing to persuade a reader that your position is likely to be true. The qual- ifi cation “likely to be true” may be pedantic, but it’s intended to remind us that proof of unconditional truth is very diffi cult. An example is the paragraph above about Don Rogers and the EPD. Proving the causes cited in the paragraph to a scientifi c certainty would be next to impossible. But the “likely to be true” standard can be satisfi ed by a reasonable amount of high- value evidence.
An argument can be a few sentences intended to prove something very specifi c. “Don Rogers was unprepared for the leadership of a large orga- nization” is a position that needs a few points to show that it’s likely to be true: he had no general management experience, apparently no leadership training, no business education, and no coaching.
The questions you’re asked about cases usually require more extensive responses that can’t be proven in a few sentences. It often takes multiple paragraphs to do it. Each reason provided in the Don Rogers paragraph—
the stresses of rapid change in the external environment, Rogers’s poor leadership and decision making, the dysfunction of key groups in the division, a clash of cultures, and no corporate support— requires separate proof. So, the overall argument of an essay written about the “Allentown”
case would consist of multiple constituent arguments.
An argument consists of a conclusion or position statement, criteria or causes, and evidence. Each criteria or cause and the evidence related to it contributes to the proof of the position statement. To help you visualize an essay- length argument, see exhibit 8-A. The number of criteria/causes in the exhibit (three) is arbitrary, but be cautious about relying on one cri- terion or cause or many of them. Using one criterion to prove something complicated is rarely persuasive, and using many fragments complicates the argument to a degree that makes it diffi cult to understand.
In case- based essays, most of your sentences will provide evidence.
Evidence comprises case facts, including numbers; calculations based on numbers in the case; opinions expressed by characters in the case; data extrapolated from exhibits; and inferences made from any or all of these.
Evidence can also be categorized as quantitative and qualitative. When writing about a case, most professors want you to confi ne yourself to
E X H I B I T 8 - A
Structure of an argument
Evidence
Evidence
Evidence Criteria/Cause
Position statement
Evidence
Evidence
Evidence Criteria/Cause
Evidence
Evidence
Evidence Criteria/Cause
evidence in the case, not from outside sources (unless your professor says otherwise).
Inference requires a brief explanation. Inferences aren’t stated in the case. They are statements that follow logically from statements that are stated. The following is an example from the “Allentown” case:
Case fact: The high- margin government market for the Electronic Products Division’s products is declining.
Case fact: The commercial market is extremely competitive.
Case fact: Commercial prices are declining.
Case fact: EPD costs are increasing.
Inference: The EPD is having more and more diffi culty making money.
Students often fi nd that the most diffi cult aspect of developing and writing arguments is using evidence. Gathering evidence as opposed to just accumulating facts requires that you know what you’re looking for.
To develop an argument, you need to have reasons to direct your selection of evidence. Say, for example, you’re creating an argument for a position statement that a retailer, Smyth & Company, should not receive more fi nancing from a manufacturer because it could be a long- term credit risk.
One of your criteria is that you think the retailer’s future liquidity does not look good and could jeopardize its ability to repay the manufacturer.
You must give your reader evidence proving the criterion. Here is what that might look like:
Because of its liquidity situation, Smyth & Company could be a long- term credit risk. Admittedly it has a current ratio of 2.53, and the acid test shows that its current assets minus inventories can cover 1.26 times its current liabilities. Both are good signs that the company can meet its short- term liabilities, such as the accounts payable it owes us. Nevertheless, when we look at the accounts receivable, the collection period has worsened. In 1998, Smyth & Company took an average of 82 days to collect its accounts receiv- ables versus an average of 62 days in 1996. At the same time, the days payable measure also increased from an average of 53 days in 1996 to 70 days in 1998. However, the accounts payable did not increase as much as the collection period. That puts pressure on the company’s cash fl ow because the gap between the time Smyth & Company gets paid versus the time it needs to pay its bills increased from 9 days to 12.
In an essay, reasoning is carried out sentence by sentence. Illustrating this visually is diffi cult because each sentence has a role. To try to give you a sense of how the author uses evidence in the paragraph you just read, here is an annotated version of it. All of the calculations come from numbers in the case.
A N N O TAT E D V E R S I O N:
Because of its liquidity situation, Smyth & Company could be a long- term credit risk. [← Statement of criterion] Admittedly it has a current ratio of 2.53 [← Evidence: result of calculation], and the acid test shows that its current assets minus inventories can cover 1.26 times its current lia- bilities. [← Evidence: result of calculation] This is a good sign that the company can cover its short- term liabilities, such as the accounts payable it owes us. [← Inference from evidence] Nevertheless, when we look at the accounts receivable, the collection period has worsened. [← Inference from evidence] In 1998, Smyth & Company took an average of 82 days to collect its accounts receivables [← Evidence: result of calculation]
versus an average of 62 days in 1996. [← Evidence: result of calculation]
At the same time, the days payable measure also increased from an average of 53 days in 1996 to 70 days in 1998. [← Evidence: results of calculations] However, the accounts payable did not increase as much as the collection period. That puts pressure on the company’s cash fl ow
[← Inference from evidence] because the gap between the time Smyth &
Company gets paid versus the time it needs to pay its bills increased from 9 days to 12. [← Evidence: result of calculation]
This paragraph relies heavily on quantitative evidence, as you would expect because the position statement is about a fi nancial issue. It weaves together relevant calculations based on case numbers with inferences that tell the reader what the numbers mean and connect the evidence to the reason stated in the fi rst sentence. The paragraph illustrates how numbers and calculations can be powerful pieces of evidence.
This brings us to an issue that often plagues students: how to work with numbers. In a written argument, some students will cite numbers from the case or give calculations but not explain what they mean. They assume that the professor, an expert, doesn’t need to be told what they mean. In fact, telling the expert what they mean could insult his or her intelligence! The fl aw in this assumption is that the professor wants you to show her that you know what the numbers mean. Here’s an example using numbers from the paragraph on Smyth & Company. You say that
the retailer’s future liquidity doesn’t support off ering more credit. You then say that the following numbers prove your point:
The Smyth & Company current ratio is 2.53 and the acid test is 1.26.
Accounts receivable in 1996 were 62 days and in 1998 were 82 days.
Accounts payable in 1996 were 53 days and in 1998 were 70 days.
The diff erence between accounts payable and accounts receivable in 1996 versus 1998 was +3 days.
If you state the numbers as a list with no explanation, your professor has no idea whether you understand how they support your position. (In the real world, your boss might question your knowledge and be unhappy that you’ve made him responsible for interpreting the numbers.) So, when you use numbers in an argument, make sure you tell your readers what they mean and how they’re relevant to your position.
The other major category of evidence is qualitative. Let’s say you’re writing about why Don Rogers’s poor leadership has been one of the causes of his division’s disappointing performance. One of your argu- ments about his leadership is that he has made organizational changes that have hurt the division. That argument uses qualitative facts and inferences drawn from them. As in the previous example, the paragraphs are pro- vided twice, with the second one annotated to indicate the statements of evidence and inferences.
Rogers made organizational changes that created obstacles to getting work done at the Electronic Products Division. He moved the division headquarters to corporate, which took him away from two of the functional groups and prevented him from building relationships with them. New product development has suff ered because he physically scattered the people who have to work together. He moved the manager of product develop- ment to corporate headquarters but kept the product development groups at the plants.
In addition, he separated sales and marketing with no consideration for their complementary nature or buy- in from them. Sales is not simply selling, but is the source of market information. The marketing people can’t collab- orate eff ectively with sales, because they do not have the skills needed to do their job (they are all recent graduates or have one or two years of experi- ence) or the market expertise. They desperately need the market knowledge of sales.
A N N O TAT E D V E R S I O N:
Rogers made organizational changes that created obstacles to getting work done at the Electronic Products Division. [← Statement of cause] He moved the division headquarters to corporate [← Evidence: fact], which took him away from two of the functional groups [← Inference from evidence]
and prevented him from building relationships with them. [← Inference from evidence] New product development has suff ered because he physically scattered the people who have to work together. [← Inference from evidence] He moved the manager of product development to corporate headquarters but kept the product development groups at the plants. [← Evidence: fact]
In addition, he separated sales and marketing [← Evidence: fact]
with no consideration for their complementary nature or buy- in from them.
[← Inference from evidence] Sales is not simply selling, but is the source of market information. [← Evidence: fact] The marketing people can’t collaborate eff ectively with sales, [← Inference from evidence]
because they do not have the skills needed to do their job (they are all recent graduates or have one or two years of experience) or the market expertise.
[← Evidence: fact] They desperately need the market knowledge of sales.
[← Inference from evidence]
The paragraphs are worth rereading to understand how they accumu- late evidence, point by point, that proves the statement made in the fi rst sentence. The facts have been carefully selected from various parts of the case and inferences connect them to the statement they’re proving.
Pay attention to one more feature of the examples. The fi rst sentence of both the Smyth & Company and EPD paragraphs tells the reader the point the paragraph is going to prove. It also notifi es the reader what the subsequent sentences have in common. It may seem mechanical and unimaginative to start each proof paragraph with the same type of sen- tence, but not if you consider how helpful they are to the reader.
Do you always need the same amount of evidence as in the examples?
The answer depends on many variables, including the content of the case, the time you have available, your experience with the case content and analytical tools, and your reader’s expectations. The best advice is to set a high standard of proof for yourself. Erring on the side of more evi- dence instead of less is the better alternative because professors are likely to reward you for that.
Because developing and writing paragraphs is so important to writing about cases, I want to include the outline of a short argument about a deci- sion: whether to continue a free- trade policy or impose protectionism.
See exhibit 8-B. It begins with a question you might be asked on a case
exam or assignment about international trade. (On an actual exam or assignment, you would probably want more criteria and evidence to back them.) The exhibit shows the logical fl ow of the elements of an argument and the use of quantitative and qualitative evidence. Note that the orga- nization is surprisingly simple. I hope the exhibit allows you to visualize that simplicity when you write your own arguments.
Your Action Plan: How?
An action plan has four elements:
• It states specifi c goals.
• It translates the key points of the argument into action.
E X H I B I T 8 - B
Outline of an argument
Question Should the United States continue to support free trade or revert to protectionism?
Position statement The United States should continue to support free trade . Criteria Trade increases the standard of living for lower-income Americans
and eliminates few US jobs.
PROOF
Criterion 1 Free trade increases the standard of living for lower-income Americans.
Evidence Studies show that free trade increases the purchasing power of people who are in the lower 10% of income by 62%.
They also show that free trade increases the purchasing power of middle-income people by about 30%.
Free trade primarily increases purchasing power because it lowers the cost of consumer goods that make up a large percentage of the purchases of poorer people. An example is clothing.
Criterion 2 Free trade eliminates few US jobs.
Evidence About 80% of US employment is in the service industry, which is unaffected by international trade.
In manufacturing, imports account for a relatively small percentage of job losses.
By far, the largest cause of job losses in manufacturing is the sub- stitution of technology for labor.
• It consists of a series of specifi c action steps.
• It puts the action steps in chronological order.
States Specifi c Goals
The goals of an action plan briefl y describe the desired result or end state of the plan. In other words, what will the situation look like when the action plan has been implemented? The general purpose of an action plan is to improve the situation that is the subject of the argument.
Here is an example of a goal statement:
The short- term objective is to develop a clear vision for the company and a plan for realizing that vision. In the medium and long terms, the goal is to restructure the organization and its culture to focus on the customer.
Translates Key Points of the Argument into Action
This is the element of action planning that seems hardest for students to grasp. Where do the steps in an action plan come from? Your argument lays out your position and the evidence supporting it. Your action plan goals describe a desired end state. Your action plan is the bridge between the two. It answers the question, How do you get from what you have argued to the situation you envision in your goals? What needs to be accomplished to truly achieve that state?
In the previous section, you read two paragraphs about the leader- ship of Don Rogers. Those paragraphs begin with the sentence, “Rogers made organizational changes that created obstacles to getting work done at the Electronic Products Division.” The paragraph argues that when Rogers changed the locations of managers and altered the organiza- tional structure of EPD, he created obstacles to getting work done. What actions do you think would improve this situation? The simplest action is for Rogers to reverse some of the changes he’s made. One action plan step could say this:
Rogers should arrange a meeting with marketing and sales managers and ask them how they can best work together. He should propose bringing together marketing and the top management of sales in the same location and ask them to suggest other ways that will help sales and marketing exchange information and ideas.
All the actionable content in an argument should be included in the action plan. For instance, say that your evaluation argument reveals three areas in which a leader’s performance is defi cient. The action plan should