The various theories of motivation are usually divided into content theories and process theories. The former attempt to ‘develop an understanding of fundamental human needs’ (Cooper et al., 1992: 20). Among the most significant are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, McClellan’s achievement theory and Herzberg’s two- factor theory. The process theories deal with the actual methods of motivating workers, and include the work of Vroom, Locke and Adams.
Content Theories
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory was first published in 1943 and envisages a pyramid of needs on five levels, each of which has to be satisfied before moving up to the next level. The first level is physiological needs such as food and drink, followed by security, love, esteem and self-fulfilment (Rollinson, 2005: 195–196). This theory was later revised by Alderfer, who reduced the needs to three: existence, relatedness and growth, and re-named it the ERG theory. In addition, he suggested that all three needs should be addressed simultaneously (Steers et al., 2004: 381).
McClelland had a slightly different emphasis when he argued that individuals were primarily motivated by three principal needs: for achievement, affiliation and power (Mullins, 2006: 199).
In contrast, Herzberg suggested, on the basis of multiple interviews with engineers and accountants during the 1950s, a two-factor theory: that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction had differing roots. He claimed that so-called hygiene factors such as conditions and pay were likely to cause negative attitudes if inadequate, while positive attitudes came from the nature of the job itself. In other words, workers were satisfied if they found their work intrinsically interesting, but would not be
(a) How many types of motivation theory are described?
(b) How many different theorists are mentioned?
(c) How many sources are cited?
(d) Why has the writer not referred to the work of the theorists directly but used secondary sources instead?
motivated to work harder merely by good salaries or holiday allowances. Instead workers needed to be given more responsibility, more authority or more challenging tasks to perform (Vroom and Deci, 1992: 252). Herzberg’s work has probably been the most influential of all the theories in this field, and is still widely used today, despite being the subject of some criticism, which will be considered later.
Process Theories
Vroom’s expectancy theory hypothesises a link between effort, performance and motivation. It is based on the idea that an employee believes that increased effort will result in improved performance. This requires a belief that the individual will be supported by the organisation in terms of training and resources (Mullins, 2006).
In contrast, Locke emphasised the importance of setting clear targets to improve worker performance in his goal theory. Setting challenging but realistic goals is necessary for increasing employee motivation: ‘goal specificity, goal difficulty and goal commitment each served to enhance task performance’ (Steers et al., 2004: 382).
This theory has implications for the design and conduct of staff appraisal systems and for management by objective methods focusing on the achievement of agreed performance targets.
Another approach was developed by Adams in his theory of equity, based on the concept that people value fairness. He argued that employees appreciate being treated in a transparently equitable manner in comparison with other workers doing similar functions, and respond positively if this is made apparent (Mullins, 2006).
This approach takes a wider view of the workplace situation than some other theories, and stresses the balance each worker calculates between ‘inputs’, i.e. the effort made, and ‘outputs’, which are the rewards obtained.
4.2: Literature Reviews and Book Reviews 213
3 Book reviews
Writing a book review gives a student the opportunity to critically examine a topic in detail.
Journals normally specify the length they require (often about 400 words). In general, a review should contain two parts:
(a) A description of the scope and organisation of the book. Who is the author, and what has he or she written before? What kind of reader is the book aimed at? In the case of an edited volume, who are the editors and principal contributors?
(b) The second part should evaluate how successful the book is in its aims. It is better to avoid excessive praise or criticism, and to mention both positive and negative features. Is the book breaking new ground and adding significantly to current debates? It is also worth commenting on the author’s style, and how easy it is to read for specialist or non-specialist readers.
Writers are recommended to first read a selection of reviews in their subject area before attempting their own.
4 Model book review
䊏 Study the following review and discuss with a partner whether there is anything else that you think the reviewer should have included.
Atlantic Crossing: A Comparison of European and American Society by Marcus Montero (ed.) York: York University Press, 2008. 378 pp., £35.00, ISBN 987-0-15-980456-3
This useful and important edited volume partly fills a gap in the comparative political science literature. The book compares the society and politics of the European Union (treated here as a single state) with the United States. The book examines ‘convergences and divergences’ between these two global powers, similar in size and economic weight ‘but asymmetric in terms of political influence and military might’ (p. 1).
The book has eight chapters. The introductory and concluding chapters, which hold the volume together, are written by the editor. The first briefly outlines the adopted comparative approach and methodological challenges faced in producing this study.
Montero then goes on to argue that the EU and the US offer two contrasting models of Western modernity. The final chapter argues that the process of constructing the EU has led to convergence, not divergence, between the EU and the US. In between
are six sectoral chapters; of particular interest is the third, by Kuhl, which argues that the qualityof the democratic experience is in decline on both sides of the Atlantic.
This is a well-written work that breaks new ground in treating the EU as a single state. However, the book was published in 2008, a year after the EU had enlarged to 27 states. The authors fail to deal fully with this ‘geographic boundary’ problem.
This neglect of the newest member states is repeated throughout the volume and brings into question the validity of the book’s wider conclusions.
4.2: Literature Reviews and Book Reviews 215
1 Planning your work
Longer assignments are normally set many weeks before their deadline, which means that students should have plenty of time to organise their writing. However, it is worth remembering that at the end of a semester, you may have to complete several writing tasks, so it may be a good idea to finish one earlier.
You should also check the submission requirements of your department. These include style of referencing, method of submission (i.e. electronic, hard copy or both) and place and time of submission. Being clear about these will avoid last-minute panic.
(a) The first thing is to prepare a schedule for your work. An eight-week schedule might look like this:
Writing Longer Essays
4.3
Long essays of 2,500–5,000 words may be required as part of a module assessment.
These require more research and organisation than short essays, and this unit provides a guide to how such an assignment can be tackled.
Week Stages of Work Relevant Units in
Academic Writing 1 Study title and make first outline. Look for and evaluate
suitable sources. 1.5
2 Reading and note-making. Keep record of all sources
used. 1.2, 1.3, 1.6, 1.8
3 Reading, note-making, paraphrasing and summarising.
Modify outline. 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7
(b) How you actually plan your schedule is up to you, but the important thing is to organise your time effectively. Leaving the writing stage until the last minute will not lead to a good mark, however much research you have done. Although you may be tempted to postpone writing, the sooner you start the sooner you will be able to begin refining your ideas. Remember that late submission of coursework is usually penalised.
(c) Longer papers may include the following features, in this order:
4.3: Writing Longer Essays 217
Week Stages of Work Relevant Units in
Academic Writing
4 Write draft of main body. 1.10
5 Write draft introduction and conclusion. 1.11
6
Rewrite introduction, main body and conclusion, checking for logical development of ideas and relevance to title.
1.12
7 Organise list of references, contents, list of figures and
appendices if required. Check all in-text citations. 1.8 8 Proofread the whole essay before handing it in. Make
sure that the overall presentation is clear and accurate. 1.12
Title page Apart from the title, this usually shows the student’s name, module title and number.
Content page This should show the reader the basic organisation of the essay, with page numbers.
List of tables or figures If the essay includes visual features such as graphs, these need to be listed by title and page number.
Introduction
Main body
If a numbering system is used, the chief sections of the main body are normally numbered 1, 2, 3 and then subdivided 1.1, 1.2, etc.
Conclusion
List of references
This is a complete list of all the sources cited in the text.
Writers occasionally also include a bibliography, which is a list of sources read but not cited.
Appendices (singular – appendix)
These sections are for data related to the topic that the reader may want to refer to. Each appendix should have a title and be mentioned in the main body.
2 Example essay
䊏 Read the following essay on the topic of nuclear energy. In pairs or groups, discuss the following points:
(a) What is the writer’s position on this issue?
(b) How does the writer make his or her position clear?