Imagine this. You wake up before the alarm goes off with a feeling of joyful anticipation about the day ahead. Taking your coffee with you in the car, you arrive at the laboratory and greet your co-workers, who are also arriving early. At some point in the afternoon, you and your colleagues go to the cafeteria for a sandwich, continuing an intense discussion about the experi- ment that is being planned. Back at your desk, the time goes by so quickly that, when someone asks when you’re leaving, you notice with regret that it is already 6:20 PM.
This chapter picks up one of the major themes from the expert panel re- sponses described in Chapter 1: motivation. Scientists working for ineffec- tive leaders described themselves and their colleagues as “demoralized.” They reported that “morale collapsed in the laboratory” or that their ineffective leader “left people depressed and guilt ridden.” Positive motivation was lack- ing. On the other hand, scientists working for effective leaders described their laboratories as a “stimulating environment” in which everyone “wanted to do a good job.” Effective leaders were able to motivate positively those who worked for them. How did they do that?
As the chapter title implies, my approach to answering the question of how to motivate begins by helping you first understand some of what moti-
Managing Scientists: Leadership Strategies in Scientific Research, Second Edition, by Alice Sapienza ISBN 0-471-22614-9 © 2004 John Wiley - Liss, Inc.
vates you and, by extension, what motivates others. The beginning of wis- dom and effectiveness as a leader is self-awareness. In addition to a brief overview of relevant theories of motivation, this chapter contains what one scientist called an “eye-opening personal exercise.” It is from this exercise that greater comprehension and understanding of yourself may be derived.
And it is from these building blocks (i.e., insights) that you will be better prepared to motivate those you lead.
WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
The word motivation comes from the Latin movere, meaning “to move”—
not in the sense of picking up a beaker and moving it to the sink, but in the sense of being moved to action. This is also the root of the word motive. Mo- tives are defined as “relatively stable dispositions to strive for [in other words, be moved to action toward] certain classes of goals.”1
When the term motivated is used in this book, it means that people are moved to the enthusiastic and energetic action illustrated by the above sce- nario. When people are motivated, there is little they cannot accomplish.
Resource constraints? They will find other means. Seemingly intractable problem? They will keep turning the problem on its head and persist until they find a solution.
Being motivated implies that you love your job, literally. Certainly, some days will be closer to the ideal than others. However, in a motivated science organization, you, your colleagues, your boss, and your subordinates should feel pleasurable anticipation about what you are doing, and the time at work should pass quickly and with joy.
Behavioral science research has found that the foundation for developing a motivated group includes the following:
앫 Reasonable working conditions. Safety in the laboratory must be en- sured, space must be at least adequate and decently appointed, the re- quired equipment must be available to do the job, and so forth.
앫 Competent people trained appropriately for their job.
앫 Assurance of the link between effort and outcomes. People must believe that their effort will lead to the desired job performance (e.g., discover-
ing the genetic component of a disease), they must believe that this performance will lead to certain outcomes (e.g., project success and personal recognition by their scientific peers), and they must value those outcomes.
앫 Equity and fairness. People must be treated and paid fairly in the or- ganization, as compared with similar organizations.
앫 Appropriate challenge. People should not be asked to perform the im- possible, but they should be encouraged to go beyond what they ini- tially see as their limits.2
Given the description of conditions (and feelings) of groups working for an ineffective leader, it should be obvious that people will not be motivated if:
앫 The situation in which they work is hazardous or fundamentally prob- lematic.
앫 They are not competent or not trained properly for the job.
앫 They do not believe their effort will lead to performance or perform- ance will lead to an outcome or they do not value the outcome.
앫 Their treatment (including pay and benefits) is not fair.
앫 They are not challenged to excel.
These are commonsense propositions, and I will assume that they are not an issue in your organization. If they are, you must rectify the problems as far as you are able. Pay and benefits may not be under your control, but visibly working to improve them—and any other shortcomings—goes far to im- prove morale and motivation.
In addition to these basic conditions, behavioral research also indicates that motivation requires a fit among (1) personal competencies, (2) job de- mands, and (3) organizational characteristics, as shown in Figure 3-1.3
I have subdivided the three spheres in the Venn diagram above intotechni- cal and humanaspects. The technical aspects of personal competencies, for ex- ample, include education, training, and skills. The human aspects include (for example) willingness to take risks, tolerance of ambiguity, work motiva- tion needs, and leadership style. The technical aspects of job demands include those usually listed in the job description, such as specific responsibilities, dis- cipline knowledge, required skills, and experience. The human aspects are
usually not listed, but they might include patience, diplomacy, good listening skills, and sense of humor. Technical aspects of organizational characteristics include size, structure, and formal systems. The human aspect is culture. (Or- ganizational characteristics are discussed in Chapters 7 and 9.)
If the basic conditions described earlier are met andthere is a good fit be- tween technical and human aspects among these three spheres of influence,
Figure 3-1
then visitors should feel the motivation when they enter your laboratory.
When people are working enthusiastically and energetically, loving their jobs, the laboratory or science organization will emit an almost audible hum.
From experience, I emphasize the necessity of fit between the human as- pects of personal competencies and job demands in this and the following chapters. I have found that most of us are sufficiently adept at matching the technical aspects of person and job. Job descriptions and systematic organi- zational processes can adequately match people to jobs on the basis of edu- cation, training, skills, and experience. However, I have observed numerous times that we are generally less adept at recognizing (let alone ensuring) what it means to match human aspects of person and job.
Consider the job of leader of scientists. If I were to write a description of some of the required human aspects (based on the expert panel responses in Chapter 1, Exhibit 1), I might say:
Required:Able to inspire and enliven. Caring and compassionate—rec- ognizes that scientists and technicians are individuals. Listens and com- municates well. Patient, tactful, enthusiastic. Sense of humor and sense of fairness. Skilled in resolving conflicts. Well organized and energetic.
Able to make tough decisions and stick to them. Content with working behind the scenes in successful times and willing to take the blame up- front in difficult times. Calm, supportive, relaxed, informal. . . . Or for the job of project leader (discussed again in Chapter 8):
Required: Collegial and collaborative at all times. Able to balance the apparently irreconcilable demands made by the functional managers involved in the project. Adept at living within a matrix structure. Able to handle difficult team members with grace and good humor. Appre- ciates and deals effectively with the emotionally charged termination of successful as well as unsuccessful projects. . . .
Or for the job of lead scientist:
Required: Able to focus single-mindedly on the problem, no matter what the distractions. Passionate about the science and able to generate
similar enthusiasm in others. Can sustain hope under conditions of failure and inspire co-workers to persist. Never lets the organization get him or her down. . . .
Helping you better understand how to match the human aspects of the job to those of the person, beginning with yourself, is the objective of this chapter.
UNDERSTANDING WHAT MOTIVATES YOU
Being an effective leader starts with a better understanding of oneself and one’s own strengths and weaknesses. We gain wisdom when we learn from mistakes made on the job. We also gain wisdom by being mindful, that is, by means of reflective self-analysis.4
Note:Construct validity requires that the exercise that follows be completed and interpreted before reading the subsequent explanation and discussion.
Ensure that you have an uninterrupted 60 minutes (at least) to complete the instrument.
Work-Related Needs
There are a number of exercises by which people gain insight into their per- sonality. The one I use in this chapter is based on the work of a number of psychologists, particularly David McClelland. McClelland and colleagues proposed that each individual has a unique ordering of three work-related needs.5Each of us has a need for power, defined as a desire to have an im- pact on people, to influence or to affect the behavior or feelings of others.6 Each of us has a need for achievement, defined as a concern for doing things better, for surpassing standards of excellence.7And each of us has a need for affiliation, defined as a concern for establishing, maintaining, or restoring positive affective relationships with another person or group of persons.8
Before you read further, take a piece of paper and graphically portray (us- ing whatever image comes to mind) what you believe is your unique order- ing of these needs. Save this illustration.
Look at each of the pictures below and think about the following ques- tions:9
1. What is happening? Who are the people?
2. What has led up to this situation? What has happened in the past?
3. What is being thought? What is being wanted? By whom?
4. What will happen? What will be done?
Then, for each picture, write a story that is continuous and imaginative—do not attempt to answer each question. Try to write the stories in a relaxed and informal setting, spending about 5 to 10 minutes on each story. There are no right or wrong “answers.”
Figure 3-3 Figure 3-2 Publisher's Note:
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Figure 3-4
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Thematic Apperceptive Measures
The six pictures provided are examples of thematic apperceptive measures of work motivation needs. They provide story-based measures of motives that
Figure 3-7 Figure 3-6 Publisher's Note:
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have demonstrated “greater validity for predicting long-term trends in be- havior than have self-reported desires as recorded in questionnaires” (in case you wonder why I did not include a questionnaire).10
Thematic apperceptive measures are projective instruments—you project in your writing, or imagine as if objective (e.g., your story), that which actu- ally reflects your internal psychological content. Formal administration of projective instruments probably originated with Hermann Rorschach. In use since the 1920s, the now-famous inkblot Rorschach series has also influ- enced developments of thematic apperceptive measures such as the Themat- ic Apperception Test (TAT).
The TAT was developed by Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan. Con- sisting of a series of black-and-white pictures, the TAT provided the subject with images about which to write a story. A contemporary of Murray, David McClelland is perhaps best known for elaborating Murray’s framework and developing a testable theory of work motivation needs described (in Mur- ray’s terms) as the need for power (nPOW), achievement (nACH), and affil- iation (nAFF). Some of the same black-and-white pictures that Murray used were revised and others have been added to the corpus of techniques to elic- it stories of work motivation needs as well as other dynamics.
Although definitely in the category of soft science, work motivation need theory and the thematic apperceptive measures are quite robust and parsi- monious. There has been an enormous amount of research dating from the 1940s, when Murray first began using the TAT and including the longitudi- nal studies of McClelland and colleagues. From this research, we can be as- sured of “satisfactory test-retest reliability.”11In addition, comparison stud- ies of subjects who completed thematic apperceptive measures (stories) and questionnaires showed greater validity of the stories for predicting long-term behavior.12The general theory of work motivation needs proposes that “a person will engage repeatedly in motive-relevant behavior . . . over the long term” because motives “affect the kinds of situations (activities, careers) peo- ple choose to be in.”13The theory and technique also meet the third criteri- on described in Chapter 1: They have proved tremendously helpful to lead- ers of scientists. In my 15 years of using these tools, they have consistently worked well, and I am confident they will benefit your development as a leader.
Interpreting the Stories
To interpret the thematic apperceptive measures, first read through each sto- ry and then examine it in light of the guidelines provided, which are derived from the empirical scoring system. The purpose of the scoring system is to indicate which, if any, of the three work motives is present in a story. Actual stories written by scientists to whom I have administered the TAT are pro- vided as illustration. You may discover that your story contains more than one of these motives or none at all.
Power.14 One or more characters in the story are concerned with attaining, maintaining, or restoring their impact, control, or influence over another person (or group or the world at large). There are three ways in which power can be expressed:
1. A character’s actions in themselves express power (such as providing unsolicited advice, affecting another’s life by firing or transferring them, or trying to influence or persuade another to change his or her opinion).
2. A character does something that arouses strong positive or negative emotions in others, even if the emotion was not intended by the char- acter (such as a student listening intently to an instructor or a person feeling crushed by a supervisor’s feedback).
3. A character is described as having a concern for her or his reputation or position (such as concerned about being perceived as slow and awk- ward in laboratory techniques or keeping one’s title and status in the organization). To “score” as power, a character must be concerned about position or prestige, rather than showing positive or negative emotions about successful or unsuccessful striving.
The following story (of the man at a drafting table in the picture above) reflects the theme of power:
Mr. Foley is an engineer in an architectural design firm. He was re- cently promoted to be partner in the firm and, with this new responsi-
bility, he is working extra hard. He puts in a lot of additional hours, and sometimes he is still busy working late at night. When that hap- pens he misses his family.
The need for power is expressed in this story as concern for position. The writer describes the character’s action, working extra hard, as prompted by the new responsibility of being promoted to a partner in the firm. Mr. Fo- ley misses his family “sometimes,” when he is “still busy working late at night.” In other words, the character is not described as feeling positive or negative about what has been successful striving for that new position of partner.
Another story (of the man sitting with glasses/paper in his lap in the pic- ture above) also reflects nPOW:
Paul is sitting on a return flight, exhausted after his business meeting in another state. He is happily reminiscing about how he confidently pitched his ideas in front of more than a dozen of his peers and won his company a $15 million contract. He can’t wait to get home to his family to celebrate his finest accomplishment thus far.
The second sentence, describing Paul’s confident pitch (a strong nPOW im- age) and win (another strong image), is key. Note that the accomplishment, the $15 million contract, is in support of his company. Paul’s success will have an impact on the firm.
Achievement.15 One or more characters in the story are concerned with ac- complishing a goal, excelling, or striving toward a long-term feat. Stories that reflect achievement motivation contain explicit or implicit descriptions of a need for mastery as well as affect (positive or negative) related to the possibility of personal success or failure. There may be obstacles to be over- come or something that blocks achievement, and another character may support or encourage the person striving for achievement. Ways in which achievement can be expressed are as follows16:
1. A character is concerned about a standard of excellence, such as want- ing to do well in competition. Standards are self-imposed, or the per-
son is emotionally invested in attaining the goal. The character states a desire (or a determination or want) for achievement.
2. A character is involved in an activity that is unique, such as an inven- tion or artistic creation. The description indicates an actual striving relevant to that invention or creation.
3. A character is determined to accomplish a long-term goal, such as at- taining high scores on medical school admissions tests and receiving a medical degree. One or more characters perform an activity that is in- strumental in attaining the goal (or think about what action will be in- strumental).
This story of the man at the drafting table reflects the theme of achieve- ment:
Jim is a brilliant architect who works in a very elegant studio on a high floor. He is still young—35–40. Today, Jim is working a difficult proj- ect. He has to get his own ideas to fit under the constraints of the client. The project is dicey, because they are on opposite sides. This is also a very important project with deadlines. Yesterday there was a de- manding project as well, for which it was difficult to find a solution.
And tomorrow?
In this story, the character of Jim is concerned with accomplishing a goal: a design project with constraints and deadlines. There is an obstacle to be overcome, which is the opposing view of the client. Each of his design proj- ects is unique, demanding, and difficult. Note that there is no mention, in this scientist’s story, of the photo of the family (implied, above, by Mr. Fo- ley’s missing his family).
Affiliation.17 One or more of the characters express concern over establish- ing, maintaining, or restoring a positive affective relationship with another person. There is a warm, companionate quality to the relationship described in the story. The story may also contain a description of one character being separated from another, but the character wants the relationship restored.
Ways in which affiliation can be expressed are as follows: