Wayne Precht, University of Maryland University C- 123docz.net

Part VI: Economic Issues and Moving Forward

L. Wayne Precht, University of Maryland University College; Harvey Singh, Instancy, Inc.;

Jim Everidge, Rapid Learning Deployment; and Jane Bozarth, State of North Carolina

About This Chapter

Learning infrastructure—that is, the hardware, software, delivery mechanisms, and processes that deliver and manage learning programs—can be crucial to the success of an e- learning effort. A strong infrastructure provides access to instructional content and helps stakeholders, such as instructional designers, faculty, department heads, and

corporate executives, track usage, completion rates, assessment scores, and other outcomes of interest. The term “learning management system” (LMS) is often used synonymously with learning infrastructure, but an LMS by itself is usually only part of a learning infrastructure.

Infrastructure can deliver and track learning, but it can also block e-learning—literally. For example, if a course is

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Introduction

Imagine a group of architects, builders, and planners designing a large office building in the business area closest to where you live.

They spend hours considering the merits of fountains versus sculp- tures and considering novel interior spaces where people can work.

After the building construction has begun, someone realizes that no one has included parking spaces, elevators, electrical wiring, network wiring, or plumbing. A few members of the group suggest

available to supervisors and a specific supervisory job code has been incorrectly input into the human resources information system that talks to the learning management system, learners with that job code will not have immediate access to the course—a hassle. If an e-learning program involves streaming audio or video, and the organization’s network doesn’t have the bandwidth needed to run these programs or otherwise limits access to these types of files, these media will take forever to load or perhaps not run at all—more than a hassle.

Some infrastructure may be incompatible with other company applications and network infrastructure. And information technology (IT) folks aren’t always that happy to help with these and other learning infrastructure problems if they were not part of the learning infrastructure selection process.

This chapter answers the questions: “Why is learning infrastructure important?” “Why is learning infrastructure such a challenge?” and “What are some common mistakes that learning infrastructure purchasers make?” We start with a discussion of why learning infrastructure is such a complex issue. Next, we differentiate among learning infrastructures in corporate and academic settings. Last, we critically explore learning infrastructure challenges, by describing some of the most typical mistakes e-learning specialists have made when purchasing infrastructure components.

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looking at the much larger building next door and retrofitting their own building with the exact same things — no thinking needed. But the building next door is a medical office building and was designed for tenants with very specialized needs. Does the big office building under construction really need a biohazard waste storage room?

Laughable? Perhaps. But organizations regularly approach plan- ning their infrastructures for organizational growth and performance, and specifically for learning, in a similar manner. They too often ask others what they purchased (and assume they have the same needs), are wowed by bells and whistles (and pay for things they ’ ll likely never use), and end up locked into processes that aren ’ t sustainable; in other words, they don ’ t perform due diligence.

The moral of the story is that the infrastructure, facilities, services, and processes that support day - to - day activities, are crucial to all endeavors. In a building, infrastructure includes the foun- dation, framing, wiring, plumbing, and ductwork that makes the building habitable, and services and processes, such as replacing light bulbs, monitoring security, and making repairs to the building, so people who work in the building can do their work and not think about building infrastructure at all.

Learning infrastructure typically includes the hardware, software, delivery mechanisms, and processes that deliver and manage learning programs. This includes hardware such as servers and workers ’ desktop computers, software such as learning management systems and authoring applications, delivery mechanisms such as routers and network wiring, and services and processes such as systems maintenance and the help desk.

Learning infrastructure has an effect on other network resources, and that ’ s why it ’ s a good idea to work in concert with, not in opposition to, the people who maintain the general technology infrastructure for an organization. For example, although an instructional designer might consider a video sequence essential to learning, an organizational technology infrastructure specialist may consider it a “ bandwidth hog. ” And guess what happens when the learning designers ask for help getting the “hog” to learners ’ desks?

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This chapter explores issues associated with learning infrastructure. It starts with a discussion of why learning infrastructure is such a complex issue. Next, it differentiates among infrastructures in corporate and academic settings. Last, this chapter critically explores infrastructure challenges by describing some of the most typical mistakes made when purchasing infrastructure components.

What Makes Learning Infrastructure Such a Complex Issue?

Consider the following situations. In the early days of computer - based training, one instructional designer who knew a lot about the design of online learning — but little about its technology components — purchased a minicomputer (which, by today ’ s standards, is the size of a super computer). Not realizing that mini- computers had special environmental requirements, he placed the computer in an empty office. Unfortunately, to dissipate the heat generated by the system unit, the computer required a spe- cially air - conditioned room (more than typical requirements).

Eventually, the circuitry of the computer fried from the heat. More recently, the information technology (IT) department of a large government agency halted the purchase of e - learning management applications because no one had conducted an assessment of the impact of these applications on the agency ’ s network. The IT department had difficulty making sure that the network could meet response time targets and, with the addition of a bandwidth - intensive applications, that challenge would become more difficult. In a university, students who were trying to use an online video - based lecture from an outside organization could not do so.

The IT department prevented video files from coming through the network during regular working hours because, in the past, files brought the network to a standstill.

Little of the learning literature explores the impact of e - learning infrastructure on existing technology frameworks. This may be because analyzing infrastructure needs and constraints is not in a typical training director ’ s or department head ’ s skill set. During the early days of computer - based training (CBT), infrastructure wasn ’ t

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an issue because CBT ran on computers that were not connected to a network and, in many cases, were solely dedicated to CBT. But now, most e - learning typically runs on an intranet (an internal network within an organization), on the Internet, or on computers that are used for a variety of purposes, including learning.

The next section expands on the description of learning infrastructure provided earlier in this chapter. Then, it describes key parts of a learning infrastructure. It closes by identifying the key components of a learning infrastructure.

What Is Infrastructure?

When used as an information technology term, infrastructure refers to the underlying technical components and processes (generally hardware, software, and delivery mechanisms) that are used to deliver information technology services. When used for learning, the term infrastructure primarily refers to applications that create, deliver, manage, personalize, and evaluate learning programs. The hardware, delivery mechanisms, and processes are usually in place and part of the organization ’ s existing technology infrastructure.

Although hardware may already be in place, it needs to be analyzed again for learning purposes, because existing technology infrastructure components, such as PC operating systems, available media players (such as Flash or Windows Media Player), and bandwidth (how much data can be transmitted at a time), become constraints on the e-learning that the organization can support and, ultimately, its strategy for providing learning online.

Table 5.1 shows some of the key factors contributing to the complexity of learning infrastructures.

In addition to these complexities, the requirements of different stakeholders within a single organization may vary, necessitating the addition of infrastructure components to meet different (and sometimes mutually exclusive) business needs. These stakeholders include trainers, designers, developers, faculty, instructors, admin- istrators, and learners.

Organizations that get their infrastructure needs right often do so by first identifying and addressing the needs of their constituencies.

Most do so by creating committees and advisory groups with

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Table 5.1. Factors Contributing to the Complexity of the Infrastructure for Learning

Factor How It Contributes to the Complexity of the Infrastructure for Learning

Technology Successful implementation of an infrastructure for learning Dependencies almost always requires the full support and expertise of the IT

department, which will usually have primary responsibility for installing, maintaining, and upgrading the infrastructure. Making sure that the chosen applications run efficiently and effectively on the network involves assessing how the proposed technology interacts with the existing technology infrastructure within the organization, including hardware devices, client workstations, computer networks, servers, disk space, and band-width support. For example, a learning group might be interested in implementing video-based learning, but if the IT department has limited or prevented access to video files, this will be difficult. Similarly, the organization might be interested in implementing a particular learning management system (LMS), but it might require use of related applications that the organization does not have.

In other words, when making decisions about learning infrastructure applications, the organization needs to consult with the IT group to determine whether the applications are compatible with the organization’s technology infrastructure and, if they are, to assess the impact of the applications on the technology infrastructure.

Customization Off-the-shelf, the applications used in an e-learning infrastructure rarely work together as desired, nor do they exactly match the technology requirements of the organization purchasing them.

In many cases, the organization needs to customize the reports generated by learning infrastructure applications. In other cases, programming changes are needed. For example, consider the organization that wanted to purchase an LMS to track learners and learning assessments for a certification program. Although the LMS could generate randomized multiple-choice questions, it could not randomize questions by objective, reducing the validity of the test. So the testing module of the LMS needed to be modified to match the organization’s testing needs.

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When considering applications to be used in learning infrastructure applications, match the needs of the organization with func- tions and features of applications that best meet those needs.

Also determine how much the “extras,” such as additional programming and function, will cost to get a total picture of functionalities and cost.

Integration If e-learning in corporate environments is going to be truly Challenges integrated into the work environment, as many experts advocate,

then it must also be integrated with other applications used in the enterprise, including human resource information systems (HRIS), customer relationship management (CRM) systems, financial systems, enterprise content management systems (ECMS), and existing web portals. Similarly, in academic environments, e-learning must be integrated with systems like student information systems (SIS), existing web portals, and financial systems. In addition, if an organization purchases several learning infrastructure components, these must be integrated with one another. Despite the existence of standards for exchanging data (called interoperability), when the different applications come from different vendors, each of whom uses a different underlying technology, such as Enterprise Java, Microsoft.NET, and various database technologies, integration is often difficult.

Analyze integration needs, including the technology underlying the components that are supposed to be integrated and assess the ease of integrating content and information among these systems. Add integration costs to additional costs for programming and function.

Standards One of the purposes of standards for e-learning is to increase the likelihood of interoperability among platforms. But e- learning standards work better on paper than in reality. Key for promoting interoperability among e-learning applications ( especially LMSs and learning content management systems (LCMS)) is the

Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) and Package Exchange Notification Services (PENS). Although great strides Table 5.1. Factors Contributing to the Complexity of the

Infrastructure for Learning, (Continued)

Factor How It Contributes to the Complexity of the Infrastructure for Learning

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have been made with standards, interoperability challenges persist.

In the next chapter in this book, Pat Brogan provides an in-depth exploration of standards issues. When implementing e-learning standards, plan for that fact that integration won’t be a slam dunk.

Vendors Because few organizations design their own systems for creating and managing e-learning, the majority depend on vendors to provide these applications and related services. In many instances, vendors also host the resulting e-learning.

But the large number of vendors in this field (at one point, industry analyst Bryan Chapman counted 128 different learning management systems, although the number in early 2008 is closer to sixty- five), as well as their varying levels of size and maturity create a number of problems. To lock in customers, many vendors of e-learning applications have tried to create a proprietary aspect to their applications that makes migration to competing applications difficult. (This has been an ongoing practice in learning applications, predating the current e-learning wave.) In other instances, to create demand for their class of product in general—and their own products in particular—vendors have misrepresented their products to nạve consumers (Carliner, 2003). In other instances, vendors are financially weak and may go out of business, leaving an organization without support for a product on which it has become dependent.

Before an organization makes learning infrastructure purchases, it needs to perform due diligence on its vendors, verifying both the claims that they make, as well as their financial health.

Consumers Many decision makers and influencers involved in teaching and learning have limited experience using technology, much less making technology purchases. Yet the complexity of the technology, the interrelationships among the different technology components of a learning infrastructure, and the arrangements for related services demand that decision makers and influencers Table 5.1. Factors Contributing to the Complexity of the

Infrastructure for Learning, (Continued)

Factor How It Contributes to the Complexity of the Infrastructure for Learning

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have a minimum level of knowledge. But too many don’t know what they need, provide vendors with incomplete or incorrect information, and cannot critically develop adequate requests for information from vendors or analyze vendors’ responses. As a result, many consumers make weak decisions, sometimes because a vendor took advantage of their naiveté, but more often because they were too uninformed to make good decisions. For example, one vendor complains that potential clients too frequently use standard requests for proposals (RFPs) from well-known industry analysts, which often identify requirements that these potential client organizations do not really have. As a result, the vendor prepares a proposal that meets the stated requirements but not the actual needs.

Table 5.1. Factors Contributing to the Complexity of the Infrastructure for Learning, (Continued)

Factor How It Contributes to the Complexity of the Infrastructure for Learning

representatives from each stakeholder unit to define requirements, business needs, learning processes, standards, guidelines, and selection criteria, and vendor evaluation checklists. When such organizations feel overwhelmed, they often hire experts who have no stake in the resulting choice to assist them through the process of defining requirements and selecting components of the e-learning infrastructure.

Key Issues to Address in a Learning Infrastructure

A learning infrastructure needs to address several key issues. The first is the underlying learning strategy, which describes how learning will support business needs and strategies.

Although a critical part of the learning infrastructure, strategy is often given far less thought than required. As a result, the organization might purchase technology for its learning infrastructure that doesn ’ t provide the support or data needed or ties their hands in building the types of learning that can be provided. For example, without a strategy, a university might choose the least expensive

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course management system (CMS), which would be more difficult to use or have fewer needed features than a seemingly more costly CMS. As a result, usage of the CMS falls way below expectations, resulting in an expense that appears to be unjustified. As Van Buren and Sloman (2003) note, organizations that prepare a strategy for e - learning are more likely to be satisfied with the results.

The second key issue that learning infrastructure must address is the technology components and related support elements needed to help the organization realize the underlying strategy. The technology components of a learning infrastructure typically include:

Hardware, including not only the physical network hardware, such as the servers and routers, but also the performance of that hardware, including the target uptime and reliability of the network, as well as provisions for backing up network resources

Applications, including operating systems, learning management systems, learning content management systems, enterprise content management systems, course management systems, and databases, as well as related issues, such as security

Processes, including provisions for training end users, faculty, trainers, and others on how to use the technology, as well as provisions for technical support, requesting changes to the network, and similar operational issues

The range of technologies that address these needs can be classified broadly into three categories:

Those that support teaching and learning, such as learning management systems (LMS) and learning content management systems (LCMS)

Those that can be used to support teaching and learning, such as peer - to - peer (P2P) applications, blogs, wikis, workflow management applications, and performance support and help tools Those that are needed to support the teaching and learning technologies named in the first two bullet points, such as networks, servers, firewalls, and Internet protocols

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Broadly speaking, learning infrastructure requirements and models tend to vary dramatically between the following two environments:

Corporate training (public, private, and military), including workforce development, training new employees, job - task - related training, and product or service training for internal and external customers and partners

Academic, including colleges and universities and similar educational institutions, and online programs, including support for online and hybrid courses for degree and non - degree programs

The differences between the requirements for these two environments or markets are significant enough that most infrastructure vendors have chosen to focus on one or the other. Although some started by focusing on one market and tried to expand into the other, few have been successful in penetrating both, although the infrastructure needs of these two markets differ, the broader needs do not. The next major section of this chapter specifically explores the different learning infrastructures needed for these two markets. More immediately, the next sub-section explores terminol- ogy associated with technology infrastructures.

Descriptions of the Key Components of a Learning Infrastructure

Before considering the key components of the learning infrastructure, one should first familiarize oneself with the most common terms used to describe a learning infrastructure. Following are these terms and some concise definitions, as they are being used in this chapter.

Interoperability is the capacity of content and systems to work with other content and systems. For learning content, this commonly means that content developed to work in one vendor ’ s learning infrastructure component, such as an LMS, is expected to also work in a similar learning infrastructure component sold by another vendor.

Learning standards , when applied to learning infrastructure, typically means adherence to technical standards that are intended to assure that learning content will be run on similar “ standards com- pliant ” infrastructure components and might be interoperable.

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