As amla fruits are hard, they can be transported to long dis- tance without much loss in quality (Shankar 1969). Singh and Kumar (1997a) studied the effect of different storage conditions on the shelf life of fresh amla fruits. Ascorbic acid content decreased with extended storage period under all storage conditions, however, modified atmosphere storage in combination with zero-energy chamber were found to be effective in reducing loss of weight and ascorbic acid in fresh amla fruits. In another postharvest storage study of fresh amla fruits, Singh and Kumar (1997b) showed that treatment with 150 ppm kinetin was most effective in retaining ascorbic acid of fruits followed by treatment with 25 ppm gibberellic acid.
Due to acidic and astringent taste, fresh amla fruit is usu- ally processed with sugar or made into pickle like prod- ucts. However, formation of white specks on the interior and surface of fruit can adversely affect the acceptance of processed products. According to Premi et al. (1998), white specks are formed by the interaction of calcium with mucic acid (d-galactaric acid). In a subsequent study, Premi et al.
(1999) suggested steeping fresh amla fruit segments in a so- lution containing 10% sodium chloride and 0.04% potassium metabisulfite to control development of white specks during the storage.
High electric field (HEF) can be applied to extend the shelf life of fresh amla fruits. Bajgai et al. (2006) treated fresh amla fruits packed in open polyethylene pouches with alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) (HEF of 430 kV/m) for 2 hours to study weight loss, rotting, ascorbic acid retention, and hunter color values. HEF-treated fruits retained fresh- ness, color and ascorbic acid better than untreated fruits. In another study, wax coating of injured fresh amla fruits was re- ported to extend the shelf life by about 3 weeks under ambient storage conditions (13.3◦C, 65.6% RH) (Pathak et al. 2009).
Singh et al. (2009) evaluated use of gunny bags, corrugated fiberboard boxes (CFB), wooden crates, bamboo baskets with polyethylene liners (PL), or newspaper liners (NPL) for stor- age of fresh amla fruits under ambient conditions (21–33◦C, 65± 3% RH). As compared to control fruits, fresh amla fruits packed in CFB with NPL showed lowest spoilage at the end of 13 days of storage.
ANTIOXIDANT COMPOUNDS
Amla fruit extract has been shown to possess high antioxida- tive activity against linoleic acid oxidation or xanthine oxi- dase system (Kelawala and Ananthanarayan 2004; Asadul- Haque et al. 2006). Dried fruit rind of amla has been shown to possess nitric oxide (NO) radical scavenging activity (Ku- maran and Karunakaran 2006). Gallic acid was found to be a predominant compound in the ethyl acetate extract of amla fruit rind and geraniin (a form of tannin) showed the high- est NO scavenging activity among the isolated compounds.
Kumar et al. (2006) reported high total phenolics (129 mg GAE/g dry basis) in dried amla powder.
Using a combination of HPLC with a diode array detector (DAD) and postchromatographic 1,1-diphenyl-2- picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical derivatization, Pozharitskaya
et al. (2007) separated a number of antioxidant compounds in amla extract and evaluated their free radical-scavenging activity. They ranked the free-radical scavenging activity of these compounds as: emblicanin B⬎emblicanin A⬎gal- lic acid⬎ellagic acid⬎ascorbic acid. Saito et al. (2008) reported that even after heating, ethanol extract from amla maintained both superoxide anion and hydroxyl radical scav- enging activities. In addition to antioxidant activity, amla fruit extract has been shown to possess antibacterial activ- ity against Staphylococcus aureus (Mayachiew and Deva- hastin 2008). A patent was granted to Sakaguchi and Tee- tamu (2006) for an antioxidative composition obtained from the amla fruit using different solvent systems. The ascorbic acid and total phenolics contents in amla fruit and its pro- cessed products are presented in Table 35.7.
Liu et al. (2008b) have identified various phenolics in the methanol extract of dried amla fruits. Among these compounds, geraniin showed the highest antioxidant activ- ity (4.7 and 65.7 μM of (inhibitory concentration50) IC50 values DPPH and lipid peroxidation assay, respectively).
In a subsequent study, Liu et al. (2008a) reported that total phenolics in amla fruit ranged from 81.5 to 120.9 mg GAE/g; flavonoids, 20.3 to 38.7 mg quercetin equiv- alents (QE)/g; and proanthocyanidins, 3.7 to 18.7 mg cat- echin equivalents (CE)/g. Luo et al. (2009) identified cin- namic acid, quercetin, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, gallic acid,
-daucosterol, and ellagic acid in ethanol extract of air-dried amla fruit.
MEDICINAL PROPERTIES
In India, for centuries, amla has been used in Ayurvedic system of medicine. Kamal and Aleem (2009) reported the
Table 35.7. Ascorbic Acid and Total Phenolics Content of Fresh Amla Fruit and Its Processed Products
Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) Reference Total Phenolics Content Reference
206.8–468.8a Raghu et al. (2007) 439.9 mg/g extract Liu et al. (2008a)
589–596a Verma et al. (1984) 81.5–120.9 mg GAE/g extract Liu et al. (2008b) 591a Verma and Palod (1983) b4.0–12.1 g/100 g dry weight basis Mishra et al. (2009)
1846.31c Sethi (1986) a174.0–176.6 mg/100 g Mishra et al. (2009)
463–560a Mishra et al. (2009) a24.5–32.3 g/100, dry weight basis Mishra et al. (2009) 3006–5432d
624a Mehta and Tomar (1979) 1.8% (eChyawanprash) Garg et al. (2008)
751.1–932.1a Pathak et al. (2009) d12.9% Kumar et al. (2006)
31.0–41.7 (eChyawanprash) Garg et al. (2008) f2.9% Garg et al. (2008)
5.12–26.36 (Amla preserveg) Sethi and Anand (1982) d4.6% Mehta and Tomar (1979)
aFresh amla fruit basis.
bIn the residue after juice extraction.
cFresh amla fruit (dry weight basis).
dDried amla fruit powder.
eAn Ayurvedic preparation.
fPreserved amla juice.
gCanned whole fruit in thick syrup.
cholesterol lowering activity of amla fruit and ginger among hyperlipidemic patients.
Amla fruit is rich not only in ascorbic acid but also in bioactive polyphenols. The ability of the amla fruit to elimi- nate harmful effects of oxidative stress and toxicity has been investigated by Anilakumar et al. (2004). Feeding rats with 5% or 10% amla reduced the oxidative stress and toxicity in- duced by dimethyl hydrazine (DMH). Amla reduced DMH- induced formation of micronuclei by 58% and the DMH- induced increase in renal␥-glutamyl transpeptidase by 50%.
They suggested that amla is able to detoxify DMH partly by modulating the multicomponent antioxidant system.
A process for obtaining an amla fruit-based␣-glucosidase inhibitor for preventing and improving obesity and diabetes was patented by Kihira (2006). Kihira and Teetamu (2006) were granted a patent for a beverage based on amla extract to control obesity. Sakaguchi et al. (2006) patented a preparation based on the enzymatic treatment of amla fruit, its juice, or extract for control of diabetic nephropathy.
Yokozawa et al. (2007) showed the effect of amla on the renal dysfunction during aging of rats. Ethyl acetate extract of amla fruit was able to reduce the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 expression levels by inhibiting nuclear factor-B (NF-B) activation in aged rats. The polyphenol-rich fraction of amla fruit has been suggested to provide a protective role against the fructose- induced metabolic syndrome in rats (Kim et al. 2010).
Reddy et al. (2009) investigated the modulatory role of amla extract against the alcohol-induced biochemi- cal and biophysical changes in rat erythrocyte mem- branes. The following references reported potential medici- nal benefits of amla fruit against various disease/metabolic conditions.
Control of hypercholesterolemia (Jacob et al. 1988); pro- tection against cytotoxic effects of arsenic (Biswas et al.
1999); reduction of oxidative stress in streptozotocin-induced diabetes (Rao et al. 2005); antiinflammatory activities (As- mawi et al. 1993); benefits for inflammatory bowel diseases (Deshmukh et al. 2010); antiinflammatory agent against al- lergic rhinitis (Pratibha et al. 2004); management of diabetic and cataract (Suryanarayana et al. 2004; Mishra et al. 2010);
prevention of paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity (Vidhya Malar and Mettilda Bai 2009); cytoprotective activity against chromium (IV) induced oxidative injury (Ram et al. 2003);
modification of clastogenicity of lead and aluminum (Dhir et al. 1990; Roy et al. 1991); antifungal activity (Dutta et al.
1998); antibacterial activities (Godbole and Pendse 1960);
gastroprotective effects like antisecretory, antiulcer, and cy- toprotective properties (Al-Rehaily et al. 2002); antitumor activity (Jose et al. 2001); hyperthyroidism and hepatic lipid peroxidation (Panda and Kar 2003); anti-pyretic and anal- gesic activity (Perianayagam et al. 2004; Gupta et al. 2008);
antitussive (control of coughing) activity against mucus se- cretion in the airways (Nos´al’ov´a et al. 2003); antiprolifera- tive activity (Zhang et al. 2004). Further, Alam and Gomes
(2003) looked at amla root extract for snake venom neutral- ization.
PROCESSED PRODUCTS
Jain and Khurdiya (2002) suggested blanching amla fruits and separating segments for achieving highest soluble com- ponents and ascorbic acid in the juice. A number of mixed fruit juice beverages have been developed using amla fruit as one of the important ingredients (Deka et al. 2001; Deka et al. 2004). A patent was issued for a process for carbonated nonalcoholic beverage based on amla juice and certain herbs (Prakash 2009).
The initial vitamin C content of 624 mg/100 g in fresh amla fruit was shown to reduce to 121 mg/100 g in a preserve preparation (Mehta and Tomar 1979). Heat-resistant spore formingBacillus cereus is a spoilage organism commonly found in amla preserves. Sethi and Anand (1984) suggested use of a number of chemical preservatives, such as, sulfur dioxide (692 ppm), sodium benzoate (800 ppm), sodium propionate (2800 ppm), or potassium sorbate (3000 ppm) for the control of this spoilage organism. Garg and Yadav (2007) detected the presence of osmophilic microorganisms (Eurotium repensandSaccharomyces bailii) in spoiled amla preserves, both of these fungi could be controlled with the use of 100 ppm of sulfur dioxide.
The fresh amla pulp’s ascorbic acid content of 766 mg/
100 g, was reduced by about 30% during sun drying to make amla powder having moisture of 9.1% (Ramasastri 1974).
In the course of storage of amla powder at room tempera- ture, the ascorbic acid content declined to 9.9 mg/g after 48 weeks. However, using a solar dryer for drying fresh amla fruit flakes, a higher retention of ascorbic acid (about 76.6%) was reported (Verma and Gupta 2004). Further, Murthy and Joshi (2007) reported better retention of ascorbic acid by flu- idized bed drying of amla fruits than by solar or hot-air tray drying methods. Soaking amla fruit shreds in 70◦Brix sugar syrup for 5 minutes before drying in a hot-air cabinet dryer to a moisture of 5%, resulted in better quality (color, flavor, texture, and overall quality) ready-to-eat finished product af- ter storage for 6 months at 7±2◦C (Sagar and Kumar 2006;
Kumar and Sagar 2009).
Rathore et al. (2006) described design specification and performance of a solar dryer vis-`a-vis an electric dryer for handling about 1-ton batch amla pulp. Among the four dryer systems, namely, osmo-air drying, sun drying, indirect solar drying, and oven drying, a minimal amount of browning of amla powder was obtained by the osmo-air drying (Pragati et al. 2003).
SUMMARY
As discussed in this chapter each of the six super fruits pos- sess specific bioactive compounds. Many health benefits such
as attenuation of oxidative stress, support to heart health, im- mune health, digestive health, eye health, anti-inflammatory, etc. are reported to be some of the benefits of consuming these fruits. Besides various compounds of interest, pomegranate contains punicalgins (the most abundant ellagitannins); wolf- berry or goji berry is rich in zeaxanthin and other carotenoids;
most of the health benefits of noni fruit are attributed to xe- ronine and anthraquinones; acai berries are rich in antho- cyanins, monosaturated fatty acid, and vitamin A; choke- berry (aronia) is rich in anthocyanins and polyphenols; amla fruit, a rich source of vitamin C contains a unique compound geraniin.
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