Cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies- 123docz.net

PART II: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW

1.2.3. Cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies

Reading strategies are divided into two major categories: metacognitive and cognitive reading strategies.

 Metacognitive strategies

Metacognitive strategies involves thinking about the learning process, planning for learning, monitoring of comprehension or production while it is taking place, and self-evaluation of learning after the language activity is completed (Skehan, 1989, p. 87). Baker & Brown (1984) propose in details six metacognitive strategies namely checking the outcome of any attempt to solve a problem, planning one's next move, monitoring the effectiveness of any attempted action, testing, revising, and evaluating one's strategies for learning (p. 354).

 Cognitive strategies

Williams and Moran (1989) state that cognitive strategies are seen as mental processes directly concerned with the processing of information in order to obtain, store, retrieve or use information (p. 148). They are more limited to specific learning tasks and involve more direct manipulation of the learning material itself.

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In other words, cognitive strategies concern interacting with learning tasks, manipulating materials mentally or physically, or applying a specific technique to the learning task: such as note-taking, summarization, imaginary, making inferences.

Cognitive strategies aid the reader in constructing meaning from the text (Salataci &

Akyel, 2002). In general, studies in both first language and second language provide a binary division of cognitive strategies into bottom-up and top-down strategies such as Carrell‟s (1989), and Davis & Bistodeau‟s (1993) (cited in Salataci &

Akyel, 2002) . Davis & Bistodeau‟s (1993) define bottom-up strategies as those readers employ when processing information at the sentence level. In other words, they focus on the identification of meaning and grammatical category of a word, sentence syntax, text details, and so forth. Differently, as they process information that each sentence gives them, they check to see how this information fits, using top-down strategies such as background knowledge, prediction, getting the gist of a text, and skimming (cited in Salataci & Akyel, 2002).

Zhang and Wu (2009) categorize cognitive strategies into global strategies (e.g., checking how content fits purpose and using typographical aides, such as italics), problem-solving strategies (e.g., reading slowly and carefully and visualizing information), and support strategies (e.g., underlining and reading aloud when text becomes difficult) (p. 58). Anderson (1991) classifies five categories, namely supervising, support, paraphrasing, establishing coherence, and testing.

On the way of searching for an appropriate classification, the researcher has found out a more teacher-friendly one that is the grouping of cognitive reading strategies in accordance with pre-, while-, and post-reading phases. In other words, the behaviors, which are designed to help students before, during, and after they read, categorize the cognitive reading strategies. This classification has been preferred by many researchers such as Bezci (1998), Ozek & Vivelek (2006), Yurdaisik (2007).

However, they propose different strategies under the three stages, which results from the involvement of some strategies in more than one stage such as predicting,

asking comprehension questions, etc. As a result, in the scope of the study, the researcher aims to put forward the major reading strategies commonly recommended by various scholars. These are mainly based on Bezci (1998)‟s, Yurdaisik (2007)‟s and Yigiter et al (2005)‟s classifications.

 Pre-reading strategies assist students to overcome the common urge to begin reading a text closely right away. They also prepare students for actual reading with four specific strategies.

 Activating already-known knowledge about the topic

Prior knowledge should be discussed before reading the text to help set the stage for what is coming. During reading, students should be encouraged to make connections to the text from their experience and the teacher should model this process using his or her own connections. After reading, the discussion should center on how the connections helped students to better understand the text and how the text helped them to build their foundation of prior knowledge.

 Previewing the text

Previewing enables readers to get a sense of what the text is about and how it is organized without actually reading the main body of the text. To preview, students can read the title, author details, main headings and sub headings, chapter summaries, any highlighted text, any illustrations.

 Make predictions about the probable meaning of the text

When a student makes a prediction, he or she is making a guess about what is going to happen next in a story or what a character is going to do or think. Predicting also helps students become actively involved in reading and highly interested when they can compare their predictions with the content of the text.

 Finding the text structure

Text structure refers to how the information within a written text is organized. This strategy helps students understand that a text might present a main idea and details;

a cause and then its effects; and/or different views of a topic. Teaching students to

recognize common text structures can help students monitor their comprehension.

The text structure can be modeled using a graphic organizer to chart.

 While-reading strategies will help students cope with problematic and greyer areas of the text. Due to the fact that students need different strategies to acquire the proficiency level, while-reading strategies are sometimes difficult to teach and learn so they are considered as challenging strategies (Alvarez & Risko, 1989). The seven while-reading strategies are proposed.

 Skimming to get the overall meaning of the text

Skimming involves running your eye very quickly over large chunks of text. It is different from previewing because skimming involves the paragraph text.

Skimming allows students to pick up some of the main ideas without paying attention to details.

 Scanning to find specific information

Scanning involves moving eyes quickly down the page seeking specific information

 Using context to guess meaning of unknown words

This strategy helps to figure out what the word means by thinking about the words around it.

 Taking notes or marking text

Teaching students text-marking strategies accomplishes two objectives. First, students are more focused on what they are reading because they are making decisions about what to mark. Second, they are emphasizing words and phrases that will allow them to quickly find information in the passage to answer test questions.

 Questioning while reading the text

Some questions may be asked to clarify confusion about the content of the text.

Strategically asking and answering questions while reading helps students with difficulties engage with text in ways that good readers do naturally, thus “improving their active processing of text and their comprehension” (National Reading Panel, 2003, p. 51).

 Meaning inferences

This strategy involves students‟ ability to draw meaning from text through explicit details and implicit clues. Furthermore, they can connect prior knowledge and experiences to the text in order to make good guesses about what is happening, may have happened, or will happen in the future.

 Mapping the text

Ideas are recorded during reading. Students can see the relationships among ideas, and distinguish between main ideas and supporting details.

 Post- reading strategies help students deepen their understanding of the content, build further connections, and expand their prior knowledge of the subject matter. There are four major post-reading strategies.

 Summarizing

The main ideas are identified and restated in student‟s own words

 Evaluating

Students express personal responses (opinions, comments) to beliefs and values stated in the text

 Drawing conclusions

The conclusion is made based on both the text information and student‟s evaluation.

 Extend understanding in critical and creative ways in follow-up activities.

To extend the reading, students may participate in activities such as speaking, drama, writing, art, or more reading

Cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies

Teachers’ beliefs about cognitive reading strategies

Summary of the main findings