Proper nouns, as we discussed on page 356, are names or titles of people, places, or entities (such as the U.S. Congress) and are capitalized. They have set singular or plural forms that do not change:
President Obama is visiting Los Angeles this week.
The United States has trade partnerships with the Netherlands.
In the fi rst example, the highlighted proper noun phrases refer to a specifi c person or place and are singular. Although the noun president can be made plural (as in There have been forty- four presidents in U.S. history), when the word is attached to the name of a specifi c president, it becomes a proper noun, is capitalized, and cannot be made plural in that form.
In the second sentence, the United States is the name of a country that consists of a collection of individual states. Although States is plural, United States is singular (the United States have would be incorrect), and the same holds true for the Netherlands.
Dan Quayle was vice president of the United States from 1988 to 1992, serving with President George H. W. Bush. Quayle was infamous for his errors in En glish usage, including his misspelling of the word potato as potatoe.
Considering our topic of noun plurals in this tutorial, can you think of a possible explanation as to why Quayle added an e to potato?
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For this activity, use a paper you are working on now or have recently com- pleted. Were there any errors in noun plural usage? Go through the paper (at least the fi rst page, but more if you have time), mark every noun you used, and ask yourself:
1. Is this noun countable or uncountable?
2. If it is countable, did I intend it as a plural?
3. If I intended it as a plural, did I use the correct plural form?
4. If it is uncountable, did I incorrectly mark it as a plural noun? What should the correct form be?
If you’re not sure how to answer these questions for certain nouns, consult an online or print En glish learner’s dictionary. When you have fi nished, write a paragraph of analysis responding to the following questions: Now that you have reviewed the material on noun plurals, what do you think might be sources of error in your own writing? For example, are you confused about the countable/uncountable distinction? Are you unsure of the plural forms of some nouns? Does the proper/common noun distinction ever cause you problems? Having refl ected on this, what do you think is the best strategy for editing your writing: consulting a dictionary while you are writing or editing, editing fi nished text more carefully, noting how plurals are used in texts you read, or some other idea?
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Wrap- up: What you’ve learned
✓ You’ve learned that there are diff erent types of nouns and that the type aff ects whether the noun may or may not have a plural ending attached to it. (See pp. 356– 60.)
✓ You’ve learned several rules and tests for using noun plurals correctly in your own writing. (See pp. 362– 66.)
✓ You’ve analyzed your own use of noun plurals and analyzed possible problems to note for your future writing. (See p. 367.)
Next steps: Build on what you’ve learned
✓ For basic information on nouns and noun phrases, review Tutorials 1, 2, and 3.
✓ To understand how articles and other determiners work with nouns, work through Tutorial 23.
✓ To understand how noun plural issues can aff ect subject- verb agreement, review Tutorial 20.
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369 On the surface, En glish articles are not complicated. The list of
articles is short and easy to remember:
a/an: indefi nite article, singular the: defi nite article, singular or plural some: indefi nite article, plural
Even though articles seem simple, you may fi nd chapters on article usage in En glish grammar texts that cover forty or more distinct rules! Many of these rules apply only to special cases, such as the rule for article use with bodies of water (Lake Michigan needs no article, whereas the Pacifi c Ocean requires an article). This tutorial keeps things simple by addressing just three key rules for article use. If you master these rules, you will rarely make article errors in your writing.
The Big Three Article Rules
T utorial 23
Ask yourself
• How do I know when an article is required? (See pp. 371– 74.) • What is the diff erence between defi nite and indefi nite articles?
(See pp. 372– 74.)
• How can I tell when an article should not be used? (See pp. 378– 79.) • How can I research article use for new vocabulary? (See p. 383.)
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Tutorial 23
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See what you already know about article use. Read the following text. Use the chart to analyze article use in each underlined example. In the “Why?”
column, try to explain why an article is used or not used and why that par- tic u lar one. Just take your best guess. The fi rst one is done for you.
In addition to meeting rooms, the Danforth University Center offers a variety of spaces for groups. These spaces, including Tisch Commons, Café Bergson, the Goldberg Formal Lounge, the Fun Room, the Orchid Room, and the IE Millstone Visitors Center help departments, student organizations, or visiting groups fi nd a place for their event or activity.
Noun Article used? Why?
meeting rooms none plural and nonspecifi c
Before going on, analyze your chart on your own or discuss it with a classmate.
Can you generalize from the chart to state any rules for how articles are used?
Write a short paragraph summarizing your analysis.
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Tutorial 23 The Big Three Article Rules
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Understanding nouns
Nouns are words that describe a person, place, thing, or idea. (See Tutorials 1, 2, and 3 for more about nouns.) Nouns (or noun phrases) can function in several different ways in a sentence: as the main subject (what the sentence is about), as the direct or indirect object of a verb, and as the object of a pre position. Nouns can also be subdivided into several classes or subcate- gories:
• Common nouns (milk)
• Proper nouns (President Obama, Nebraska)
• Concrete nouns (pencils)
• Abstract nouns (truth)
• Collective nouns (furniture)
• Countable nouns (chairs)
• Uncountable nouns (sugar)
Tutorial 22 discusses noun subcategories in depth and explains that the use of noun plurals can be infl uenced by these different categories. The rules for article use are affected by different types of nouns as well. We will return to this point when we talk about the Big Three article rules later in this tutorial.
Noun phrases can include one or more adjectives (an old white house), but in most instances you will focus on the noun itself to determine how or whether an article should be used. Pronouns can also substitute for noun phrases, but since pronouns do not take articles, they are not the focus of this tutorial.
(See Tutorials 2 and 3 for more about noun phrases.)
Understanding the relationship between articles and nouns
You know that the list of articles is short: a or an, the, and some. But what are the differences among them, and which articles go with which nouns?
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Use a or an only with singular nouns.
A and an are the indefi nite articles used with singular nouns. What does indefi nite mean? It simply means that the noun being described is not specifi c, unique, or known from the context. The fi nal sentence of the Discover activ- ity text on page 370 includes an indefi nite article:
These spaces . . . help departments, student organizations, or visiting groups fi nd a place for their event or activity.
The place where these groups may hold their event or activity is not specifi c in this sentence.
But how do writers know whether to use a or an? If the word following the indefi nite article begins with a vowel sound, use an rather than a. The vowels in En glish are a, e, i, o, u. However, do not be misled by spelling. The impor- tant factor is the sound, not the spelling. Consider these examples, in which the word that affects the choice between a and an is underlined:
President Abraham Lincoln was considered an honest man.
I would never want to be a university president.
Why is an used in the fi rst sentence? The word honest does not begin with a vowel. However, the h in honest is silent (not pronounced), so the fi rst sound in the word is the vowel o. In the second example, the opposite is true: though university begins with the vowel u, the sound is pronounced y (as in the word you). Thus, both examples follow the advice about when to use a or an, even though they might at fi rst appear to counter it.
Use some to introduce plural nouns or indefi nite uncountable nouns.
Some is also an indefi nite article. It can be used in two ways. First, it can intro- duce the plural form of a noun phrase that would use a or an in its singular form, as in the examples at the top of page 373.
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When I entered the classroom, I saw a student sitting quietly in the back.
When I entered the classroom, I saw some students sitting quietly in the back.
In both examples, the noun student is indefi nite because it does not refer to a specifi c student or students. Readers would not be able to identify which student or students are being described.
Second, some is also used before an indefi nite uncountable noun. (See Tutorial 22 for more details on uncountable nouns.)
The water in this country is not safe for travelers to drink.
Some water in this country is not safe for travelers to drink.
In the fi rst example, the defi nite article the is very specifi c. The reader would understand that all the water in the country is unsafe for travelers. In the second example, however, the use of some makes the noun indefi nite. We know that some water is safe for travelers to drink and other water is unsafe — but not necessarily which water. That is why we call this article indefi nite.
Use the with both singular and plural nouns.
The is a defi nite article, and it is used for both singular and plural forms of nouns. Use the when referring to something or someone unique:
The campus president was sitting at the next table.
A campus president usually earns a very high salary.
In the fi rst example, the sentence refers to a unique individual, the only presi- dent of a specifi c college campus, so using the is appropriate. In the second sentence, the noun phrase describes any (nonspecifi c) campus president — it is a general statement about campus presidents rather than a reference to a par tic u lar individual.
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Use the when referring to something or someone specifi c or already men- tioned:
I saw a student sitting quietly in the back. The student was reading something on her Kindle.
This example takes us from the fi rst mention of a previously unknown stu- dent to a reference to the same student, now specifi c because of the context.
On fi rst mention, the article is indefi nite because the noun has not been previously introduced. When that noun is later repeated, the article is defi nite, because it is associated with a specifi c student — the student mentioned in the previous sentence.
PRACTICE 1
Find a short online news article. Note all uses in the text of a/an, the, or some.
Relate those article choices to the rules, defi nitions, and examples on pages 372– 74. Write a short paragraph describing appropriate uses of articles in the text and identifying any article uses that surprised you.
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Tutorial 23 The Big Three Article Rules
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Applying the big three rules for article use
Now that we have defi ned the purposes for indefi nite and defi nite articles, we will look more closely at the three most relevant and commonly applied rules for their correct usage.
Article Rule 1: A singular countable noun must have an article (or other determiner).
Writers sometimes omit necessary articles. The following noun uses are incorrect:
✗ Please don’t put your feet on table.
✗ Dog is barking.
✗ Sunset is beautiful over ocean.
In these examples, table, dog, sunset, and ocean are all singular countable nouns.
They must have an article, and leaving one out makes these sentences ungrammatical. This rule is straightforward — if you understand the defi - nitions of the different subcategories of nouns that we discussed on pages 371– 74. (See Tutorial 22 for more about noun subcategories.)
What about plural countable nouns? Article use in those cases depends on the context. Look at these two sentences:
I knew the pizza guy was here because the dogs were barking.
Dogs usually bark when strangers ring the doorbell.
Defi nite and indefi nite article choices seem like small things, but they can make a big difference in meaning. What is the difference, for example, between saying “I live in a white house” and “I live in the White House”?
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Both sentences are correct, and both contain the same plural, countable noun dogs. What is the difference? In the fi rst example, the noun refers to specifi c dogs (probably the writer’s own dogs). The second example is a more general statement about what (nonspecifi c) dogs usually do. In these two examples, the writer’s intent — to discuss specifi c dogs or make a general statement — determines whether or not an article is needed.
Before we move on from this rule, here is one occasional exception: Proper nouns (names of specifi c people, places, or things) typically do not require articles, even if they are singular and countable. Consider the following examples:
The President Ronald Reagan was very pop u lar.
The France is a very beautiful country.
However, there are a few exceptions to this exception! Large bodies of water such as seas and oceans have their names preceded by the article the (the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean), but smaller bodies of water such as lakes and creeks do not (Lake Louise, Juniper Creek). There are a few other examples of proper nouns that take articles, and their use tends to be idiomatic (that is, case by case rather than governed by rules). For instance, Colorado State University does not precede its name with an article, but The Ohio State Uni- versity has chosen to do so.
Generally speaking, if you are using a proper noun in something you are writing, you are safe in omitting an article. If you are not sure, you can use a common search engine such as Google or a dictionary to investigate how the word is used and determine whether or not you should use an article.
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PRACTICE 2
Look at the following list of nouns. For each one, try to determine whether or not it requires an article or whether an article is optional. If you are not sure, try looking it up in a print or online dictionary or using Google or some other search engine to fi nd texts illustrating typical uses.
Noun Article required? (yes, no, or optional)
dog optional
book salt Americans equipment UCLA sheep basketball couch freedom players
If you determine that an article is optional, try to compose two correct sentences, one in which you use an article and one in which you do not.
Example:
With an article: I knew the pizza guy was here because the dogs were barking.
With no article: Dogs usually bark when strangers ring the doorbell.
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Article Rule 2: Certain nouns do not require or allow an article.
Given our discussion of Article Rule 1, it might seem safer to insert an article before every noun, just to avoid errors. However, that would not be correct either. It is just as incorrect to insert an article in some noun constructions as it would be to omit it in others. Several categories of nouns (see Tutorial 22) are typically not preceded by articles:
Uncountable nouns:
Too much sugar is bad for your teeth.
Electronic equipment can be diffi cult to move.
I have homework to do before the party to night.
Abstract nouns:
Gratitude is the key to contentment.
Thomas Jefferson said in the Declaration of In de pen dence that everyone should have the right to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”
Most proper nouns:
Professor Smith is a hard grader.
Lincoln is the capital of Nebraska.
My favorite TV channels are ESPN and HBO.
Plural countable nouns in general statements:
Dogs usually bark when someone rings the doorbell.
Students often write their assigned papers at the last minute.
Professors are usually very strict about accepting late papers.
Look back at your chart for the Discover activity at the beginning of this tutorial. You should note that for some nouns, you wrote “none,” meaning that no article is used. What explanations did you come up with for those nouns without articles? Did they fall under one of the categories on the pre- ceding list?
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In a couple of the above subcategories, you can probably think of sentences in which some of the nouns would be used with articles (for example, The math homework was very hard). As with the example about dogs on pages 375–76, sometimes a writer might use the to refer to a specifi c idea (specifi c dogs, specifi c homework, and so on). As a writer, you will have to think about what the noun is doing in that par tic u lar sentence to determine whether or not you can, should, or must use an article.
Although people’s names do not take an article, there is a certain idiomatic use in which an article before a person’s name is allowed. Consider this example:
“That guy over there looks like George Clooney.”
“The George Clooney? Where?”
Why do you think there is an article in the second question?
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Article Rule 3: Use the right article, defi nite or indefi nite.
Use the defi nite article (the) to refer to nouns that are unique or specifi c. Use an indefi nite article (a, an, or some) to refer to general, nonspecifi c nouns.
Once you have determined that the noun you have chosen requires or allows an article, your next task is to decide whether to use a defi nite or indefi nite article. If the appropriate article is indefi nite, you will also have to determine the correct form to use.
Asking the following questions can help you select the right article:
• Is this noun unique? (the president, the moon, the highest score on the test)
• Is this noun specifi c? Will my reader know from the context which person or thing I’m referring to? (I have to feed the dog. The neighbor’s house is painted bright green.)
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