CHAPTER 3: Impact of Temperament and Character on Action to Improve
3.2. Literature Review and Hypotheses
3.2.3 Temperament and Character Dimensions
Temperament and character dimensions are widely applied personality typologies (Cloninger et al., 1994), which consist of four temperament dimensions and three character dimensions. Specifically, temperament
dimensions include novelty seeking (tendency to initiate exploratory behavior), harm avoidance (tendency to avoid uncertainty), reward dependence (tendency to seek others’ approval), and persistence (individual perseverance regardless of challenges and frustration). On the other hand, the character dimensions reflect individual goals and values (Devebakan et al., 2018), including
self-directedness (inclination to be autonomous), cooperativeness (considering oneself as an integral part of a group), and self-transcendence (the spiritual force guiding one’s life).
Temperament and character dimensions have been used to understand nurses’ personality profiles (Eley et al., 2010). Moreover, these dimensions address individuals’ tendency to approach or withdraw, fitting the research need and thus supporting their inclusion in our study. The personality theory defines
self-directedness as the individual inclination to be autonomous and direct time and energy to achieving goals (Teng, 2011). Such an inclination to be
autonomous directs nurses’ time and energy toward achieving nursing goals.
Nursing goals require nurses to have upgraded skills and knowledge (McAllister et al., 2014), strengthening their intention to improve their professional capabilities. Hence, we hypothesize:
H3: Self-directedness is positively related to the intention to improve professional capabilities.
Self-directedness refers individuals’ tendency to be autonomous (Cloninger et al., 1994). Self-directedness motivates individuals to allocate their time and energy to achieving their goals (Teng, 2011). In nursing context, nursing goals should guide nurses to allocate time and energy to engage in activities which aim to achieve such goals. i.e., engaging in activities aimed at upgrading their professional skills and knowledge (McAllister et al., 2014). Such engagement is at the core of the definition of action to improve professional capabilities.
Thus, we hypothesize:
H4: Self-directedness is positively related to action to improve professional capabilities.
Personality theory defines cooperativeness as the inclination to
acknowledge oneself as an integral part of a relevant group (Cloninger et al., 1994). In nursing contexts, such groups would consist of peers working in the same unit. Therefore, highly cooperative nurses should regard themselves as a necessary part of their peer group, thus being obligated to share the workload and be helpful to their peers (Eley et al., 2010). If cooperative nurses allocate time and energy elsewhere, e.g., upgrading their skills and knowledge, they may be creating a heavier workload for their peers. The tendency contradicts the sense of being an integral part, reducing the intention to improve
professional capabilities. Hence, we hypothesize:
H5: Cooperativeness is negatively related to intention to improve professional capabilities.
A highly cooperative individual would regard themselves as an integral part of a relevant group (Cloninger et al., 1994). In nursing context, highly cooperative nurses tend to perceive themselves as an integral part of a group of workplace peers, and therefore, they would be empathic and helpful (Eley et al., 2010). These highly cooperative nurses tend to avoid leaving their workplace peers for any reason. Specifically, such highly cooperative nurses may avoid engaging in activities aimed at upgrading their skills and knowledge (which they perceive as leaving workload to their nursing peers). That is, such nurses would be unlikely to take action to improve their professional capabilities.
Hence, we hypothesize:
H6: Cooperativeness is negatively related to action to improve professional capabilities.
Self-transcendence has been defined as the perception of a spiritual force guiding one’s life (Cloninger et al., 1994). Self-transcendence in nursing has been described using patience and humility (Eley et al., 2010), thus assisting nurses to humbly evaluate their capabilities and thus have strong intention to upgrade their skills and knowledge. Thus, we hypothesize:
H7: Self-transcendence is positively related to intention to improve professional capabilities.
The personality theory defines self-transcendence as life guidance by a spiritual force (Cloninger et al., 1994). Self-transcendence in nursing has been described using patience (Eley et al., 2010). Patience has been verified as facilitator that helps overcoming challenges in learning new skills and knowledge (Karp & Lee, 2011). Therefore, nurses having high levels of self-transcendence would patiently take up the challenge to allocate time and energy to upgrading their professional skills and knowledge. That is, high
levels of self-transcendence would inspire nurses to engage in activities aimed at improving their professional capabilities. Thus, our study hypothesizes:
H8: Self-transcendence is positively related to action to improve professional capabilities.
Novelty seeking has been defined as the tendency to initiate exploratory behavior (Teng, 2011). In the nursing profession, exploratory behavior could be the upgrading of professional skills and knowledge. Therefore, high levels of novelty seeking would enhance nurses’ tendency to explore more by allocating more time and energy to upgrading their skills and knowledge (McAllister et al., 2014), i.e., the intention to improve professional capabilities. Thus, the present study hypothesizes:
H9: Novelty seeking is positively related to the intention to improve professional capabilities.
Personality theory defines reward dependence as an individual’s tendency to seek others’ approval (Cloninger et al., 1994). In nursing contexts, approval could result from upgraded skills and knowledge. Therefore, high levels of reward dependence would motivate nurses to allocate time and energy to
upgrading their professional skills and knowledge (McAllister et al., 2014), i.e., intention to improve professional capabilities. Hence, we hypothesize:
H10: Reward dependence is positively related to the intention to improve professional capabilities.
Persistence indicates an individual’s perseverance regardless of challenges and frustration (Teng, 2011). In nursing contexts, upgrading skills and
knowledge may take substantial time and energy, and be highly challenging, and thus likely frustrate. In this case, high levels of persistence could motivate nurses, regardless of challenges and frustration (Eley et al., 2010), to engage in activities aimed at upgrading their professional skills and knowledge, i.e., taking action to improve professional capabilities. Hence, we hypothesize:
H11: Persistence is positively related to action to improve professional capabilities.
Harm avoidance indicates an individual’s tendency to avoid uncertainty (Cloninger et al., 1994). In nursing contexts, harm avoidance could lead nurses to avoid uncertainty in all aspects around which they feel doubt and uncertainty (Eley et al., 2010), including the uncertainty of the success of engagement in activities aimed at upgrading their professional skills and knowledge. Therefore, high levels of harm avoidance might hinder nurses from taking action to
improve their professional capabilities. Hence, we hypothesize:
H12: Harm avoidance is negatively related to action to improve professional capabilities.
Figure 3.1 illustrates the research framework. This study proposed two new constructs, i.e., intention and action to improve professional capabilities.
Therefore, the hypotheses pertaining to those constructs are new to the
literature. To increase analytical rigor, we included six control variables, i.e., gender, age, tenure, education, nursing accreditation level, and average number of patients under care.
Figure 3.1: Research Framework
Note. Dotted lines represent the links that are not hypothesized. All hypotheses had positive links, except for H2, H5, H6, and H12 that had negative links.