2.5. Related studies and research gaps
2.5.1. Studies about the representation of cultural content in English textbooks
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designing materials should enhance cross-cultural competence among learners.
Several studies have thus been carried out to analyse different types of cultural content in textbooks and compare how cultural contents are represented in locally- designed textbooks versus imported ones.
In the global setting, Paige et al. (1999) conducted a study and found that the cultural information provided in most studies relating to the cultural contents in English as a foreign language/English as a second language (EFL/ESL) textbooks is rather superficial and simple concerning their treatment of culture, making it insufficient to teach cultural specifics in the deeper sense with aspects including values, norms, or beliefs. Additionally, some researchers point out that target culture is dominant in the analysed textbook. For instance, Ashrafi and Ajideh (2018) looked into three advanced textbooks used by the Iran Language Institute and discovered that the dominant cultural category was the target culture, with little attention given to the source culture. Similarly, Lee and Li (2020) investigated the depth of cultural representation in textbooks from Hong Kong and mainland China, respectively, and found that both textbooks primarily focused on inner circle cultures while neglecting foreign cultural aspects.
On the other hand, a large number of studies recently indicate that the main focus of cultural contents in textbooks is source culture. To be specific, Indriani (2017) analyses the cultural contents in two textbooks in Indonesia, “English in Focus” and “Think Globally, Acts Locally,” and concludes that source culture is more dominant in these English textbooks compared to other types of culture. It is also suggested in Diana's (2021) study of the English textbook for senior high school published by the Ministry of Education in Indonesia that the representation of source culture is the most significant in the target textbook, which is presented in the form of historical facts and names chosen for characters, public figures and locations in the textbook.
There are also different findings related to the distribution of cultural categories in English textbooks. The research conducted by Kim and Paek (2015)
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examines how culture-related content is presented in five English textbooks used by second-year middle school students in Korea from a multicultural standpoint. It reveals that, when it comes to the analysis of cultural categories, none of the five textbooks offer substantial intercultural interaction elements. On the other hand, Fauza's (2018) research used two English textbooks titled “Bahasa Inggris 2017 Revised Edition,” specifically designed for senior high school students in grades 10 and 11. The results show that in the textbook for grade 10, there is a dominant presentation of the source culture, while in the textbook for grade 11, the content predominantly focuses on the target culture. In addition, Zhang and Chang (2022) examined three national English textbook sets currently used in China and found that American and British cultures are the most prevalent cultures from the inner circle countries, with the least representation of international culture in all three textbooks.
They also report that Chinese culture is represented more than the cultures of inner circle countries in two sets of textbooks.
In Vietnam, a few efforts have been made to identify the representations of cultural contents in English textbooks. Nguyen (2022) examined the English 9 Textbook in the 10-year Curriculum and found that Vietnamese culture and Universality across cultures are the textbook's most frequently referenced cultural elements. In contrast, target culture and intercultural interactions receive limited attention. Concerning English textbooks for high school students, a study by Vu (2016) examining the current English 12 textbook reveals that the target culture contents were significantly more frequent than those related to the source and international cultures. The analysis also shows that the cultural information presented regarding English-speaking countries is concentrated mostly on the United Kingdom and the United States of America. In contrast, the study's main findings by Nguyen (2018) revealed that Vietnamese and international target cultures gained the highest proportion of cultural references in the books, while target culture was also densely referenced. Another study by Kiều (2019), “An investigation into intercultural components in three piloted English textbooks for Vietnamese high schools under
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National Foreign Language 2020 project,” shows that the three piloted English textbooks for Grades 10, 11, and 12 integrate cultural information from various sources, but the dominant contents are culture-neutral. Concerning the same textbook series in question, Linh (2021) arrived at different conclusions indicating that target culture makes up the ƒFest portion across all grades, whereas international culture achieved the highest percentage, except in grade 12. Additionally, source culture received average attention across grades 10 and 11.
Regarding the themes presented in English textbooks, several authors have attempted to study this aspect in English textbooks. For instance, an examination of the cultural themes in Korea illustrates that there is a visible imbalance in the portrayal of big “C” and little “c” in the textbooks, suggesting a preference for culture as little “c” when it comes to presenting Korean cultures (Kim & Paek, 2015).
Similarly, the findings in Matic's (2015) study showed there are more occurrences of little “c” cultural topics than big “C” topics in course books used by English majoring university students in Serbia. In contrast, according to Ashrafi and Ajideh (2018), while the frequency of little “c” cultural themes in advanced textbooks 2 and 3 In Iran was somewhat higher than that of big “C” cultural themes, there was a significant disparity between the two dimensions in advanced textbook 1, which leaned heavily towards big “C” culture. Common little “c” themes such as living conditions, social convention, and body language were absent.
In the Vietnamese context, Vu (2016), in her analysis of Grade 12 English Textbook, pointed out that particular cultural elements, including education, sports, and lifestyles, receive more attention compared to other themes, while information regarding politics, literature/art, architecture, music, food, and holidays were not touched upon. The study of Nguyen (2018) on the three English textbooks of Grades 10, 11, and 12 revealed slightly different results, as only education and social norms received the highest frequency of references among the big “C” themes, while lifestyle, literature/art, and values were the most frequently referenced among the little “c” themes. Additionally, the textbooks had only minimal references to
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economy and politics. Regarding the English 9 Textbook in the 10-year Curriculum, the findings in Nguyen's (2022) study show a balanced distribution of both big “C”
and little “c” cultural themes across the two volumes of the textbook with geography, architecture, and social norms as the most commonly mentioned themes in big “C”
culture, and value, food, and customs the most prevalent themes under the little “c”
culture.