is initiated by European vehicle manufacturers and partners include Audi, BMW, Daimler, Fiat, Honda, Opel, Renault, and Volkswagen. Its objec- tive is to further increase road traffic safety and efficiency by means of inter-vehicle communica- tions. The schedule for the official agreements of consortium is from July 2005 for the basic concept till December 2010 for frequency allocation.
Network on Wheels, Germany
Network on Wheels (NoW) (2008) was founded in 2004 and the current partners include Daimler AG, BMW AG, Volkswagen AG, Fraunhofer In- stitute for Open Communication Systems, NEC Deutschland GmbH, IMST GmbH and embedded wireless GmbH. Besides the partners, the Uni- versities of Mannheim, Karlsruhe and Munich and the Carmeq GmbH also cooperate within NoW. NoW is a German research project which is supported by Federal Ministry of Education and Research. Its main objectives are to solve technical problems on communication protocols and data security for car-to-car communica- tions and to submit the results to the Car 2 Car Communication Consortium. On May 8, 2008, NoW presented its results in a final workshop at the Daimler Research & Development Center in Ulm (Germany).
SAFESPOT
SAFESPOT (2008) integrated research project was co-funded by the European Commission Information Society Technologies under the
initiatives of the 6th Framework Program. The objective is to understand how intelligent vehicles and intelligent roads can cooperate to produce a breakthrough for road safety based on V2V and V2I communications.
eSafety
eSafety (2008), the first pillar of the Intelligent Car Initiative (i2010 Intelligent Car Initiative, 2008), brings together the European Commission, public authorities, industry and other stakehold- ers with an aim to accelerate the development, deployment and use of Intelligent Vehicle Safety Systems that use information and communication technologies. The main target is to contribute to the European Commission’s 2001 goal of reducing the road fatalities by 50% by 2010 (from 54 000 to 27 000 – between 2001 and 2010) (European Commission, 2008).
PReVENT
PReVENT (2008) is a European automotive in- dustry activity co-funded by the European Com- mission to contribute to road safety by developing and demonstrating preventive safety applications and technologies. Membership in its Core Group consists of seven vehicle manufacturers (Daim- lerChrysler, BMW, Renault, PSA Peugeot Citroen, Ford, CRF, Volvo Technical Development), four automotive suppliers (Siemens VDO, Delphi, SAGEM and Bosch) and one research institute (INRETS). One goal of PReVENT is also to con- tribute to the European Commission’s 2001 goal of halving the number of fatalities on Europe’s roads by 2010 as specified in eSafety for Road and Air Transport. IP PReVENT Final Report can be found in PReVENT web site.
EASIS
The EASIS (Electronic Architecture and Sys- tem Engineering for Integrated Safety Systems)
Introduction
(2007), which was part of the European Com- mission’s 6th Framework Programme launched in 2004, is a partnership of 22 European vehicle manufacturers, automotive suppliers, tool sup- pliers and research institutes with the aim to develop technologies for the realization of future ISS (Integrated Safety Systems).
SEVECOM
SEVECOM (Secure Vehicular Communica- tion) (2008), an EU-funded project launched in 2006, focuses on providing a full definition and implementation of security requirements for ve- hicular communications. A liaison with security activities in EASIS supported the activities of SEVECOM. Its members include TRIALOG, Bosch, Budapest University of Technology &
Economics, Daimler, EPFL, CRF-Fiat Research Center, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, and Ulm University. The SEVECOM project will end by January 1, 2009.
Vehicle Safety Communications Consortium
The Vehicle Safety Communications (VSC) Proj- ect was a 2.5 year program started in May 2002.
Vehicle Safety Communications Consortium (2008) members, including BMW, DaimlerChrys- ler, Ford, GM, Nissan, Toyota and Volkswagen, participated with the U.S. Department of Trans- portation in this cooperative program. The objec- tive was to identify vehicle safety applications enhanced or enabled by external communications, determine their respective communication re- quirements, evaluate the emerging 5.9 GHz DSRC vehicle communications technology and align the proposed DSRC communications protocols to meet the needs of vehicle safety applications.
UsDOT
The U.S. Department of Transportation’s (US- DOT, 2008) ITS program focuses on intelligent
vehicles, intelligent infrastructure and the creation of an intelligent transportation system through the integration of these two components. The Federal ITS Program Initiatives in 2004 included Vehicle Infrastructure Integration, Cooperative Intersection Collision Avoidance Systems, and In- tegrated Vehicle Based Safety Systems. Through the Integrated Vehicle-Based Safety Systems initiative, the USDOT is seeking to establish a partnership with the automotive and commercial vehicle industries to accelerate the introduction of integrated vehicle-based safety systems into the Nation’s vehicle fleet.
VII Consortium (VIIC)
VII (Vehicle and Infrastructure Integration) Consortium (VIIC) (VIIC and VII Program Over- view, 2005; Robinson, 2006) was incorporated in November 2004, and cooperative agreement was signed in December 2005. Current member participation includes Ford, DCX, Nissan, Honda, VW and BMW. The objective is to create an enabling communication infrastructure to save lives using intelligent warning systems, improve mobility and congestion, enhance driving expe- rience with new services and enhance roadway maintenance and planning. VIIC provides single voice to USDOT and joint pre-competitive tech- nology development environment.
California PATH
California Partners for Advanced Transit and Highways (California PATH, 2008) was founded in 1986 and is administered by the Institute of Transportation Studies, and University of Cali- fornia, Berkeley, in collaboration with Caltrans (California Department of Transportation). PATH is a multi-disciplinary and cooperative program for staffs, faculties and students from universities statewide to engage in cooperative projects with private industry, state and local agencies, and non-profit institutions. Its mission is to develop
8
Introduction
solutions to the problems of California’s surface transportation systems. Current PATH research projects are divided into four program areas:
Policy and Behavioral Research, Transportation Safety Research, Traffic Operations Research, and Transit Operations Research.
CALM Continuous Communications for Vehicles
CALM (2008) is under ISO TC 204 Working Group 16 Wide Area Communications-Protocols and Interfaces. The scope of CALM is to provide a standardized set of air interface protocols and parameters for medium and long range, high speed ITS communication including V2V and V2I communications.
AUTOSAR
AUTomotive Open System ARchitecture (AU- TOSAR, 2008) is a partnership of automotive manufacturers and suppliers working together to develop and establish an open and standard auto- motive software architectures. Its core partners are BMW, Bosch, Continental, Daimler, Ford, OPEL, GM, PSA Peugeot Citroởn, TOYOTA, and Volkswagen. The AUTOSAR project plan was released in May 2003 and the first AUTOSAR Open Conference held in October 2008.
JasPar
JasPar (2008) is formed by the Japanese automo- tive companies and its board members include TOYOTA MOTOR CORPORATION, Nissan Motor Co., Ltd, Toyota Tsusho Electronics, Honda R&D Co., Ltd and DENSO CORPORATION. The aim of JasPar is to reduce technology develop- ment costs and promote technology development by encouraging Japanese companies to collab- oratively develop pre-competitive technologies such as automotive LAN enabling technology,
middleware and software platform, and contribute to development of global standards.
Internet ITs Consortium (Japan) Internet ITS Consortium (2008) is developing a common Internet ITS platform and aims for promotion of a standardized global Internet ITS specification. It is formed by Japanese companies and has 11 companies as Executive Members, 12 companies as Regular Members and 69 companies as Supporting Members.
A*CAR in Singapore
With the rapid growth in the global automotive population, the A*STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research) Capabilities for Automotive Research (A*CAR) began as a task- force with the aim of establishing an initiative to address technical challenges in the automo- tive area and provide technical leadership to the automotive supplier industry in Singapore through R&D (Yong, 2008). A*CAR taskforce has launched an automotive consortium to bring together automotive OEMs, suppliers and R&D community to work hand in hand in addressing key research areas in automotive technology.
The consortium is driven by 7 A*STAR research institutes namely, Data Storage Institute (DSI), Institute for Infocomm Research (I²R), Institute of Chemical and Engineering Sciences (ICES), Institute of High Performance Computing (IHPC), Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), Institute of Microelectronics (IME), and Singapore Institute of Manufacturing Technology (SIMTech) (A*CAR, 2008).
FUTURE TRENDS
The global automotive industry is the world’s largest manufacturing industry and most industry
9 Introduction
analysts predict that there will be a year-on-year growth till 2012 (PwC Automotive Institute, 2008). The overall market for automotive network- ing will grow at a 10% annual rate through 2011 and the components for the automobile networking market will nearly triple between 2005 and 2011.
Driving this trend is the introduction of more electronics in every vehicle, and that accounts for the much faster annual growth rate than the auto industry’s 2 to 3% (Regt, 2007).
In the future, more and more control modules will be attached into the high-speed data network- ing backbones embedded in a vehicle. Vehicular networks will simplify the operation of control systems and allow more features to be deployed within automobile. For example, information and direction displays will be embedded directly into windshields. Another example is that instead of self-parking being a service that is offered only on luxury cars, it will soon become a standard feature on every car. With the advances in sen- sors, control, GPS (Global Position System) and networking technologies, “self-driving cars” will become possible in the future (Uldrich, 2008).
Neurotechnology that studies drivers’ brain patterns and brain computers that read drivers’
intentions from their brainwaves through electro- encephalogram (EEG) will help keep them alert and monitor sleepy driver syndrome.
Vehicular networks still plays a vital role in enhancing the automotive industry for safety, security and entertainment. In the future, as more and more information is streamed onto the Internet, vehicular networks will allow driv- ers and passengers to enjoy their journey more than ever before with entertainment and area information.
CONCLUSION
This introduction chapter presents the emerging area of vehicular networks in the forms of Intra- Vehicle (InV), Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V), and Ve-
hicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communications. It briefly surveys the car communications, potential applications, potential wireless technologies, and specially designed technologies DSRC standards and communication stack for data exchange. As the emerging area of vehicular networks has at- tracted a number of R&D groups in the world, this chapter then introduces the consortiums and initiatives working on advanced automotive tech- nologies in Europe, the U.S., Japan and Singapore.
In the future, vehicular networks certainly play a vital role in enhancing the automotive industry for safety, security and entertainment.
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Chapter II
Drive by Wire Systems:
Impact on Vehicle Safety and Performance
Sohel Anwar
Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, USA
INTRODUCTION
Drive by wire (DBW) systems are relatively new technology that are increasingly finding their place in modern automobiles. A drive by wire system is an automotive system that interprets driver’s inputs and executes the commands to produce desired vehicle behavior, typically via a microprocessor-based control system. A typical drive-by-wire system comprises of redundant sensors, actuators, microprocessors, and com- munication channels for fault tolerance. There
are no mechanical or hydraulic connections be- tween driver’s input interface (e.g. throttle, brake, steering) and vehicle system (e.g. engine/traction motor, brake/steering actuators) in a drive by wire equipped vehicle.
A broadened definition of drive by wire sys- tems will include other microprocessor based automotive control systems such as anti-lock braking system (ABS), traction control system (TCS), yaw stability control (YSC), etc. These systems are designed to enhance the safety of the vehicle by continuously monitoring various ABSTRACT
An overview of the drive by wire technology is presented along with in-depth coverage of salient drive by systems such as throttle-by-wire, brake-by-wire, and steer-by-wire systems, and hybrid-electric propul- sion. A review of drive by wire system benefits in performance enhancements and vehicle active safety is then discussed. This is followed by in-depth coverage of technological challenges that must be overcome before drive-by-wire systems can be production ready. Current state of the art of possible solutions to these technological hurdles is then discussed. Future trends in the drive-by-wire systems and economic and commercialization aspects of these system are presented at the conclusion of the chapter.
Drive by Wire Systems
vehicle states and taking corrective action and / or warning the driver upon detection of an im- pending unsafe vehicle condition. The first such system came into commercialization is ABS in early 1970’s. It was followed by traction control system and electronic stability control in the 1980’s and 1990’s (Margolin, 1997; Stanton & Marsden, 1997; Wagstaff, 1999; Davis, 2001; Higgins &
Koucky, 2002; Anon, 2003; Fowler, 2003; Ross, 2003; Lee, 2003; Daniels, 2005; Kendall, 2005).
The first true drive by wire system to come to the market was Throttle By Wire (TBW) which was incorporated in high end vehicles such as Audi A6, Mercedes Benz, Lexus, and BMW models in the late 1990’s and early 2000’s. The TBW systems were advantageous in stability control applications where the throttle deactivation may be needed in order to improve the traction so that sufficient brake torque can be generated.
Electro-hydraulic brake (EHB) system, a form of brake by wire (BBW), was first introduced in Mercedes Benz SL series in 2001-02 (Higgins &
Koucky, 2002). Although hydraulically actuated, these brakes operate on commands from sensors at the brake pedal and generate the necessary brake pressure at the wheel cylinders via a set of electronically controlled valves and a pump.
However, the brake by wire system was decom- missioned and removed from the vehicle due to a number of field problems a few years later. Work on the electro-mechanical brakes (EMB), another form of brake by wire system that does not use hydraulic fluid, was done in the late 1990’s by number of automotive companies such as Bosch, Continental, and TRW. However, issues related to their reliability and fault tolerance still remain which must be addressed before these system can be used in an automobile.
Steer by wire (SBW) system is by far the most complex drive by wire system which is also the most safety critical by-wire system in an automo- bile. In a pure steer by wire system, the steering column is eliminated. Sensors mounted on the steering wheel are interpreted by the controller
to generate the correct amount of road wheel angle using electric motors based on the vehicle velocity. If a sensor stops functioning properly, the controller will not be able to actuate the motors to generate the correct road wheel angle, potentially causing hazardous situation.
Figure 1 shows a brief chronology of the drive by wire system introduction into the modern automobile with the broadened definition (Iser- mann et al, 2002). As shown, the steer by wire system will likely be the last of the drive by wire system to be introduced in the automobile due to its complexity and safety criticality.
In an even broader definition, hybrid electric vehicles, electric vehicles, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles can also be classified as drive by wire equipped automobiles due to the electronic control of various subsystems in these vehicles.
Electric vehicles (EV) by their very nature are drive by wire that is propelled by electronic control of the electric traction motor based on the sensor information from the throttle pedal. However, the steering and brakes of an EV may still be hydro- mechanically operated. In case of hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), a sophisticated microprocessor based control system channels the power flow between the internal combustion (IC) engine, the battery, the electric motor / generator, and the vehicle wheels (Lu & Hedrick, 2005). All of these functions are done via a central controller for optimal performance. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles are very similar to hybrid electric vehicle, except that a more powerful battery extends the vehicle range in pure electric mode.
This chapter is organized as follows: A more detailed coverage on drive by wire system is covered in the next section. The performance and safety benefits of the drive by wire systems are il- lustrated in the following section. This is followed by the section on technological challenges and possible solutions associated with DBW system.
Future trends for the DBW system is presented in the next section. Lastly, some final thought will be presented in the conclusion section.