MỤC LỤC
Ngoai ngdn ngu, con ngudi con c6 nhung phucmg tidn giao tiep khac nhu cu chi, cac loai da'u hidu, kf hidu khdc nhau (ki hidu totin hoc, den tin hidu giao thdng, tin hidu hang hai..), nhung k£t hop am thanh cua am nhac, nhung ket hop m^u sac cua hdi hoa, v.v.. nhung ngdn ngu la phucmg tian giao tiep trong ydii nhat cua con ngudi. So voti ngdn ngu thanh tieng, ngdn ngu cir chi that ngheo nan va han che. Co nhung cu chi mot so ngucti hieu vdi nhau, nhidu khi “y nghTa” cua cac cir chi cung khdng ro rang dan den chd ngucti tao cfr chi nghi mot dang, ngucti tiep thu hieu mdt neo. Nhung ki hidu va da'u hieu khac nhau nhu den tin hieu giao thdng, ki hidu toan hoc, tin hidu hang hai, v.v.. thi chi dugc ap dung trong nhung pham vi han chd, chti khdng phai la phucmg tidn giao tiep toan xa hdi. Ban than nhung da'u hidu, ki hidu nhu the mud'n hieu dugc van phai dung ngdn ngu thanh tieng de giai thich. Chinh vi vay, cu chi va nhung da'u hidu, ki hidu khac nhau chi la nhung phucmg tidn giao tiep phu, b6 sung cho ngdn ngu thanh tid'ng. Am nhac, hdi hoa, didu khac co nhung kha nang rat vi dai, nhung no van bi han chd va co tinh cha't phien didn so voti ngdn ngii. Am nhac, hdi hoa va didu khac khdng thd truydn dat khai nidm va tutucmg ma chi khoti gqi chung trdn co so nhung hinh anh, cam xuc da gay ra dugc d ngudi nghe va ngucti xem. Nhung tu tudmg ma cac tac pham am nhac,. gay ra o ngudi nghe va ngudi xem cd tinh chat mo hd, khOng ro ret va rat khac nhau b nhung ngudi khac nhau. Ca am nhac lan nghd thuat tao hmh deu khOng thd truyen dat dirge nhung tu tuong va tinh cam chinh xac, ro rang va ho&n toan xac dinh. Vi vay, khOng thd dung chung lam phuong tien giao ti£'p thay cho ngOn ngu. Chmh nhd ngon ngir ma con ngudi cd thd hieu nhau trong qua trinh sinh hoat va lao dong, ma ngudi ta co the didn dat va Um cho ngudi khac hidu dirge tu tirong, tinh cam, trang thai va nguyen vong cua minh. Cd hidu biet lan nhau, con ngudi mdi co the ddng tarn hiep lire chinh phuc thidn nhien, chinh phuc xa hOi, Um cho xa hOi ngay cang tien Un. Tnrdc het, ngon ngir U mOt cong cu da'u tranh, san xua't. Tuy ngon ngir khOng san xua't ra cua cai vat cha't, nhung nd cd thd thd hien hoat dong san xua't, cd the giup ngudi ta gUnh la'y tri thurc edn thie't de da'u tranh san xua't, cd the giup ngudi ta ciing hiep tdc san xua't, do do thuc day san xudt ngay cang phat trien. Ngon ngir khong cd tinh giai ca'p, nhung lai la cOng cu da'u tranh giai cap. Cac giai cap khac nhau ciing sir dung ngon ngir de da'u tranh vdi nhau. Dang va Nha nude ta luon luon chu truong diing ngOn ngir dan toe lam vu khi tuyen truydn, giao due tu tuong each mang, tap hgp qudn chung vao mat tran chung thong nha't de da'u tranh vdi ke thu. Ngdn ngir dan tdc da dugc sir dung rong rai de tuyen truyen, phd bien duong loi, chmh sach cua Dang va Chinh phu, de dOng vien qudn chung tich cue tham gia da'u tranh each mang. CuOc khang chiO'n chd'ng MT cun nude khOng chi tidn hanh tren mat tr|n quan su ma ca tren mat tran chinh tri va ngoai giao. Tren mat tran chinh tri va ngoai giao thi vu khi da'u tranh khong phai la sung dan ma la ngdn ngir. D£u tranh each mang bieu hiOn o ca tren ITnh vuc van hod, trong nhung cudc but chidn v£ quan di£m khoa hoc, nghd thuat, van hoc. Vay nOn, ngudi edm but phai la mOt chien si edeh mang, sir dung ngOn ngu nhu mdt vu khi d£ tid’n hanh ddu tranh edeh mang trdn mat tran van hoa vd tu tudmg. Cdch mang khoa hoc kT thuat va cdng cudc cai each giao due er nude ta hidn nay ddi hoi phai giai quydt nhung nhidm vu giao tidp va nang cao ch£t luqng cua hoat ddng giao tidp vd mat ndi dung va hmh thurc. Cd nhu vay chung ta mdi dua dupe nhung kien thurc khoa hoc dang tang l^n khdng ngdng v&o cac ITnh vuc cua ddi song, dd trer thanh luc luqng san xua't chu ydu. Co nhu vay chung ta meh trang bi duqc cho sinh vifcn nhung kidn thurc moi nhdt, dd ho co thd van dung sang tao nhung kidn thirc thu nhan duqc, tu xay dung cho minh nhung phuong phap lam vise ddc lap. II - NGON NGQLA PHUONG TIEN CUA TU* DUY. Chuc nang giao tidp cua ngdn ngu g£n lien vdi churc nang thd hidn tu duy cua no, boi vl viec giao tidp bang ngdn ngu chi co the giup ngudi ta trao ddi tutudng, tinh cam vdi nhau, do do hidu bidt lan nhau va cung nhau td churc cdng tac chung tren moi linh vuc hoat dong neu ban than ngon ngu tang tru nhung kinh nghiem, nhung tu tudng va tinh cam cua con ngudri. Neu ngon ngu chi la nhung td hop am thanh dem thudn thi nd khdng the trd thanh phuomg tidn giao tiep duqc. Tuy nhien, khdng the ddng nha't churc nang giao tiep vdi churc nang thd hi£n tu duy cua ngdn ngu, hoac la cho churc nang the hien tu duy chi la mdt churc nang phu thudc vao churc nang giao tiep. Churc nang giao tiep chi the hien khi co hanh dong giao tiep, turc la khi ngudi ta diing ngon ngu de trao ddi vdi nhau. Trong thuc te, ngudi ta cd thd ndi mdt minh, doc mot minh hoac vidt ra gia'y ma khdng nham trao ddi vdi ai ; ngudi ta cd the suy nghl thdm lang ma khdng phdt ra lei. Cd chu y tdi nhung trudng hop nhu vay, chung ta moi tha'y churc nang thd hien tu duy la mdt churc nang co ban cua ngdn ngd, ddc lap vdi churc nang giao tiep. Vay, churc nang thd hidn tu duy cua ngdn ngu la nhu thd nao ? Trong tac phdm He tu tuang Dftc, Mdc va Angghen da viet: Ngay tit dan, da cd mdt riti ro d^ nang ten "tinh thdn do la su rid ro bi mot vat chat. Idm “hoen 6*\ vd vdt chat dd the hidn a day ditai hinh thitc nhitng lop khdng khichuyen ddng, nhitng thanh dm, tdm lai Id ditcri hinh thitc ngdn ngit. Ngdn ngU cung c6xita nhity thitc vdy, — ngdn ngit Id y thitc thuc tai, thitc tien^x\ CAn nhd rAng, chu nghTa MAc quan nidm y thiic theo nghTa rdng cua danh tit, tile 1A six phan Anh tdn tai noi chung. Y thurc bao gdm ca tinh cam lAn y chi cua con ngubi, nhimg bd phAn hop thAnh chu ydu cua y thiic la tu duy. Nhir vAy, ngdn ngii vA tu duy cung ra doi mdt luc, ngay tCir dAu chiing da quAh quydn vori nhau, khdng tach rdi nhau, ngdn ngii la hidn thuc true tidp cua tu duy. Ban thAn thuAt ngii tit duy duqc hidu theo hai nghTa : 1) Kha nang phan Anh thuc td ducri dang khai nidm, ph An doAn vA kdt luAn. Vori nghTa nay, tu duy ddng nhA't vori tu tuong, tiic la kdt qua cua quA trinh suy nghT, quA trinh tu duy ; 2) Ban thAn quA trinh phan Anh cudc sdng duori dang tu tuong, hay noi mdt cAch don gian la ban thAn quA trinh suy nghl, quA trinh hinh thanh tutuong. Hay nghe mdt cau noi “ddng dai, ngay ngd” (chu diing cua Angghen) cua Duyrinh da dugc Angghen nhac lai : Ke nao ma chi diing ngdn ngu moi suy nghi dugc, thi ke ay chua bao gid cam thdy dugc the nao la tu duy tritu tugng, tuduy thuc sidx\ V&y, th£ nao la tu duy trim tugng, tu duy trim tugng khac vdi nhan thirc cam tmh d dau va neu tu duy trim tugng khdng phan biet vdi nhan thirc cam tinh d chd nd gan bd vdi ngdn ngu thi, nhu Angghen da cham bidm, dong vat deu la nhieng nha tu tudmg truu tugng nhat, thuc sunhat, vi tu duy cua chiing chang bao gief bi rdi Ion len visucan thiep sd sang cua ngdn ngu cd.
Trong cac dot tucmg tu nhien, con ngudi ludn ludn phat hien ra duoc nhung dqc tinh mdi ma id trudc den nay chua tdng duac biet den^\ Chd khac, Angghen cung noi, co so mat thiet nhdt, ban chdt nhat cua tu duy con ngudi lai chmh la str bien doi cua gicri tu nhidn ma con ngudi gay ra chii khong phai chi la ban than gidi tu nhien ; tn tue con ngudi phat trien nhd vao vide con ngudi da biet thay doi gidi tu nhien nhu the nao. Trong tac pham Tac dung cua lao dong trong su chuyen bien tvt vucni thanh ngudi, dng phan rich cu th£ hem tdc dung cua lao ddng ddi vdi vide hoan thidn co quan phat am cua con ngudi : cai Mu quan chua phat tri£n cua loai vugn nhd udn giong ma da bien ddi din ddn nhung chac chan, dd cd thd thich dng vdi mdt Idi phat am ngay cang phat trien thdm mai, va cac khi quan cua mdm cung din din luydn tap dugc each phat ra l£n lugt cac am gay gon.
Nhu vay, dan tdc co the bao gdm cac bd lac hoan toan khac nhau, noi tie'ng khac nhau (chlng han, dan tdc Y hien dai la do ngucri La Ma, Giecmani, Etorusco, Hi Lap, Arap hop thanh ; Dan tdc Phap la do nguoi Gdloa, La Ma, Borotdng, Giecmani, v.v.. hop thanh) va edng ddng ngdn ngu la mdt trong nhung dac trung cua dan tdc. Tuy nhien, su hmh thanh cua dan toe va ngdn ngu dan tdc la ca mdt qua trinh, nd ta't phai trai qua nhung budc qua dd. Trude khi thdng nh£t thanh ngdn ngu chung cua toan dan tdc da didn ra su thdng nha't ngdn ngu trong pham vi timg khu vuc. Ngdn ngu khu vuc chmh la budc qua dd tren con dudng phat tridn ngdn ngu dan tdc. Neu thcri edng san nguydn thuy, mdi bd lac sdng tach biet vdi bd lac khac, giua cac dia phan cu tru rieng cua mdi bd lac ia mdt mien d£t dai rdng Idn khdng thudc cua ai ca, thi sau nay do su phat trien cua kinh te, su phat tri£n cua thu edng nghiep, chan nudi va thuong mai, do su xu£t hien cua nd le ngay cang nhi£u, do su phan hoa trong ndi bd cac bd lac thanh cac giai cap, v.v.. ma hmh thde cu tru tach biet dd khdng edn nua. Cdc thi tdc, bd lac 6 xen ke nhau trong mdt khu vuc nhung mdi lien he vdi thi tdc, bd lac ddn dan mdt di, nhudng chd cho nhung mdi lien he mdi vd kinh td, chmh tri, giua nhung ngudi thudc cdc thi tdc bd lac khac nhau cung sd'ng trong mdt khu vuc. Nhu cdu do ddi hoi phai cd ngdn ngu chung thdng nhdt va ngdn ngff cua. timg khu vac da ra dcfi. Ngdn ng& khu vuc la phucfng tidn giao tidp chung cua ta't cA moi ngudi trong mdt vung, khdng phan bidt thi tdc hay bd lac. Nd la tidng ndi trdn bd lac. Cac ngdn ngu khu vuc nam trong mdt qudc gia thdng nha't, vd kdt c£u, cd thd rdt gdn nhau nhu cac tidng dia phucfng d Nga, cd thd r^i't xa nhau nhu cdc tidng dia phucfng d Dire hay Trung Qudc. Ngdn ngu dan toe va cac bien the cua nd. Su phat tridn cua dan tdc va cua nha nude dad£y manh su thong nhdt bdn trong vd kinh td va chmh tri cua xa hdi, da tang cuong va mtf rdng nhung mdi lidn hd khac nhau giua nhung con ngudi trong qua trinh lao ddng, trao doi kinh td va quan hd ndi bd qudc gia, v.v.. Tinh hinh do doi hoi phai cd mdt ngdn ngu chung cho loan xa hdi: ngon ngudan tdc ra dbi. Ngdn ngu dan tdc la phucfng tien giao tiep chung cua toan dan tdc, ba't kd su khac nhau vd lanh thd hay xa hdi cua ho. Tuy theo hoan canh lich su ma su hinh thanh cua dan tdc va ngdn ngudan toe mdi nofi, mdi thdi ki mdt khac, theo nhung con dubng khac nhau. Mac va Angghen da viet : Trong bat eft ngdn ngft phat trien nao hien nay, cai nguyen nhan khien cho mot ngdn ngft phat sinh mdt each tiephat, duefe ndng len thanh ngdn ngftdan toe, thi mot phdn la do ngdn ngftdo duqrc phat trien mot each lich su tft chd nd duqc chudn bi day du ve tai lieu, nhu ngdn ngft La Ma vd ngdn ngftGiecmani chang han, mot phdn la do su giao dich va hdn hop cua cac dan toe, nhu tieng Anh chang han ; mdt phdn nfta la do cac phuang ngft tap trung thanh ngdn ngft dan toe tho'ng nhat va sutqp trung do lai do sutap trung kinh te, chinh tri quyet dinh{}\ Nhu v|y Mac va Angghen da ndi den ba con duemg hinh thanh ndn ngdn ngu dan tdc :. a) Tftchat lieu von cd, thi du, tidng Phap. Trude khi ngdn ngu dan tdc Phap hinh thanh thi trdn da't Gdloa da cd su pha trdn cua tidng Latin vdi tidng Xentich. Trdn co so nay ph£t tri£n. thanh nhieu tieng dia phuang tren da't Phap. De'n thcri Phuc hung, tie'ng dia phuang mi£n Pari da chiem uu th£, ddn ddn phat tri£n thhnh ngdn ngu d&n tdc vao th£ ki XVI - XVII. Cac tie'ng Angld Xacxdng vd'n ngu tri tren da't Anh tur thcri cd, den the ki IX va X, do sir x£m luge cua nguori Dan Mach ma c6 su pha trdn vai tieng Dan Mach. Til the' ki XI-XVI, do su x&m luge cua ngucri Noocmang ndn lai dugc pha trgn mdt Idn nua vdi tieng Noocmang. Nhu vay, ngdn ngu dan tdc Anh hien dai hinh thanh tren co so tieng dia phuang Luan Don, la do su pha trpn cua ba thii tiehg Angld Xacxdng, Dan Mach, va Noocmang. c) Do sutap trung cua cdc tieng dia phuang, thi du, tieng Nga. Ngon ngu dan tpc Nga hinh thanh vao the' ki XVI - XVII cung vdi su thanh lap quO'c gia Matxcova, trdn co scr khdu ngu Matxcova co tfnh cha't chuyen tiep cua tieng dia phuemg mien Bac va mien Nam. Ngon ngu dan tdc hinh thanh trong then kl co cac giai ca'p, vl vdy no chua du dieu kien de co the thd'ng nha't hoan toan. BOn canh ngdn ngu chung cua toan dan van tdn tai nhung bien thd dia phuang xa hoi cua no. Nhung tieng dia phuang trudc day, nher tang cucrng ma rang giao luu van hoa va trao ddi kinh te ma ddn ddn phat trien ngay cang nhieu cac hien tugng ngu am, tur vung va ngii phap chung cho toan dan tdc, nhung nhung hien tugng khac nhau giua cac dia phuang van con nhieu. Noi chung, su khac biet giua cac phuong ngdn trong ngdn ngu dan tdc the hien chu yeu a ngtt am, sau dd den ttr vung, con su khac nhau ve ngu phap ft th£y han. rieng, cho ndn trong khi van dung ngdn ngudan tdc chung, mOi giai cdp cd the tao ra cdc bien th£ ngdn ngu ridng cua giai cap mlnh. Chang han, ngdn ngu cua bon quj tdc Phdp the ki XVIII khde vdi ngon ngir cua nhffng ngucri blnh dan, nhung bdc thg n6, nhung cd. Vua quan a ta trudc day cung dung nhung tur ngu xa la dd'i vcri quang dai qu^n chung nhan dan. Ngdn ngur van hoa va cac bien the cua no. Su ra doti cua ngdn ngu van hoa la mdt cai md'c 16m tren con duong thd'ng nha't ngdn ngu dan tdc. Thue ra ngon ngu van hoa da co thd hinh thanh a mdt so nuorc ngay d thbi ki truorc khi dan tdc phat tridn. Khi do nhan dan timg dia phuong van noi ngdn ngO rieng cua minh, nhung tren pham vi toan qud'c gia c£n phai co phuomg tidn giao tiep chung, phuc vu trudc het cho nha thcr, ton giao, cho viec viet sach va cong viec hanh chinh. Nhu c£u a'y da de ra ngon ngu van hod. Nhung ngon ngu van hoa trong thbi kl nay chi la ngon ngu trdn phuomg ngon, duqc dung trong hanh chinh, gia'y to, truemg hoc, tdn giao, noi chung la ngdn ngu sach vd. Thubng thuong ngudi ta dung tur ngu hay tieng nude ngoM lam ngon ngu van hoa. Tieng Latin da la ngdn ngu van hoa cho rôÊt nhieu nude o chau Au. RAt nhi6u tac ph^m van hoc, khoa hoc duqc viet bang tieng Latin. 0 Viet Nam, suot mdt thdi gian dai chu Han da duqc dung lam van tu chinh thde cua nha nude. Sac phong, chieu chi, tho phu, thi cu deu dung chu Han. Nhung ngon ngu van hoa nhu vay, xa la dd'i voi ngdn ngu dan tdc. Chi khi cac dan toe phat trien, ngon ngu van hod dan toe moi hinh thanh. Ngdn ngd van hoa dan toe dua tren ngdn ngu noi cua toan dan tdc. Nhung no khac voi ngdn ngu noi dan toe o su thd'ng nha't he't stfc to 16m trong ket ca'u cua nd. Ngdn ngu van hoa hoat dong tuan theo nhung quy tac chat che duqc goi la chudn muc. Nd lua chon nhung don vi, nhung pham tru ngdn ngtf dap umg nhieu nha't cho nhung ydu c£u cua toan dan tdc, tudc bo nhung han che' cd tinh ch£t dia phuong va xa hdi, lam cho chung tro thanh nhung hien tuqng co tmh thd'ng nha't dd'i vdi toan dan tdc. Ngdn ngu van hoa dan toe va ngdn ngu dan tdc phan biet nhau d chd mdt dang thi chung ta co ngdn ngii. “nguydn lieu”, edn mdt dang thi lai ia ngdn ngu da duqc ngudi lanh nghS got giua che tao ndn. Ngdn ngu noi toan dan ia nguon bd sung vd tan cho ngdn ngu van hoa, nguqc lai ngdn ngu van hoa ia don b£y 1dm cho dan tdc va ngdn ngu dan toe ngdy edng thd'ng nha't. tren loan the giai, thai ki thang lai hoan todn cua chit nghia tic ban dot vai chedophong kien, gan lien vai cac phong trao dan tdc, casdrkinh te ciia cac phong trao ay la a chd: mudh cho san xuat hang hod hoan todn thang lai thi giai cap tic san phdi chiem dicac thi tricang trong nicac ; nhicng lanh thd ma dan circling ndi chung mot thvttieng,phdi dicac thd'ng nha't thanh qud'c gia va moi trd ngai ddi vai sic phat trien cua tieng ndi ay va sic cung cd'cua tieng ndi do trong van hoc, canphdi dicac gat bdS1^ Ngdn ngu van hod la bieu hidn tap trung nhat cua tinh thd'ng nha't ciia ngdn ngu dan tdc, nhung no khong phai la nha't dang md cung cd nhirng bien thd khac nhau. Tiiy theo hoan canh va muc dich giao tiep khac nhau, ma vide lua chon cac phuong tien bidu hien khdng gidng nhau. Do do dan den su t6n tai cua cac phong each chiic nang khac nhau. Phong each chiic nang cua ngdn ngu Id nhirng bien thd cua ngdn ngu dirge hinh thanh trong qua trinh phat trien lich sir. Mdi phong each phuc vu cho mdt mat, mdt llnh vuc nao do cua dcri sd'ng xa hdi. Mdi phong each sir dung nhirng phuong tidn ngdn ngu, trudc het la cac tir tieu bieu cho minh. Nhirng phong each chu yeu la : 1) Phong each hdi thoai ; 2) Phong each sach vo. Phong each sdeh vd cd thd chia ra : phong each chfnh ludn, phong each khoa hoc va phong each hanh chfnh. Phong each cua cac tdc phdm van hoc nghd thuat la mdt loai phong each dac biet, nd cd the mang nhirng dac trung cua nhidu phong each. Ngdn ngu van hod cd thd tdn tai dudi hinh thiic ndi cung nhu viet. Ndi tdi ngdn ngff van hoa, la ndi tdi thtf ngdn ngu thdng nha't, chudn muc cua dan tdc. Nhung khong phai ta't ca nhung gi dugc dung trong cac tac ph&n khoa hoc, chfnh tri, van nghd, v.v.. ddu la chudn muc. Ngdn ngu van hoa la san ph&n chung cua xa hdi, edn bieu hidn cu th£. cua nd trong cac tac ph&n rieng biCt, ngoai cai phdn chung con cd su van dung, sdng tao cd tinh cheft cd nhan. Cho ndn cd thd ndi cai dich cua ngdn ngir van hod phai la ngdn ngu chudn. Nhung dd dat den. ngdn ngir chu^n khdng phai 1& vide de dang. Mdt trong nhirng nhidm vu c£p thi£t hien nay v& ca sau n&y nua la chu^n hod ngdn ngu, ndng ngdn ngu: van hod Idn ngdn ngir chudn. Ngdn ngir cong dong tirong lai. Tit Idu, con ngudi da udc moco mdt ngdn ngir thdng nhdt cho loan nhdn loai. Neii ngdn ngir thd'ng nha't do ma c6 dirge thi con ngirdfi cd the ti£t kiem dirge khdng biet bao nhieu sue luc va tri tud phai bo ra de day va hoc ngoai ngu nhu hien nay. Vao th£ki XVII, Ddcac va Lepnich da de xuong viec tao ra mdt the gidi ngir goi la Voluapuk. Tit do den nay da cd them mdt sd' th£ gidi ngu niJa dugc de nghi nhu Adjuvanto, Ido, Esperanto nhirng chi co tieng Esperanto dugc chap nhan nhieu nha't. Hien nay Esperanto da dugc diing d nhieu nude, hang van cuon sach, hdng tram td bao va tap chi, hang tram trudng phd thong va dai hoc, hang chuc dai phat thanh, v.v.. da su dung thd tieng nay. Dai hdi hoa binh th£ gidi nam 1955 da edng nhan tac dung that chat tinh doan ket qudc te cua nd. Tuy nhien, th£ gidi ngu: van la mdt thu: ngon ngu nhan tao, tat ca moi dan tdc ddu phai hoc nd nhu mot thu: ngoai ngtf, mac du vi do khdng phai la tieng cua dan tdc nao cho ndn khdng cd van de midt thi dan tdc. Hien nay, cac nh& ngon ngu hoc cd nhirng du doan khac nhau ve tuemg lai ngdn ngu loai ngudi. a) Mot sd' ngudi cho rang, trong tuofng lai, cac ngdn ngu se tham nhap Un nhau, hoa vao nhau, d&n dan tao thanh mot ngdn ngu chung thd'ng nha't. Du doan nay da dua vao nhirng xu hudng cd that cua cac lien minh ngdn ngu hien dai. Chang han : su xich lai gdn vdi tieng Viet cua cac ngdn ngu: trdn lanh thd Viet Nam. Trong lien minh ngdn ngd cua khoi thi trudng chung chau Au cung dang xua't hien hang loat nhirng pham tru ngdn ngu chung. Trdn pham vi toan the” gidi, mam mdng cua ngdn ngu edng ddng tuofng lai cung da xua't hien va the hien 0 cac he thd'ng thuat ngu: co tmh cha't qud'c te'. b) Mdt sd' ngudi du doan su phat trien cua ngdn ngu: se di theo con dudng tao ra cdc ngdn ngit giao tie'p chung giua cac dan tdc. chung nay se khdng phai 1& mdt ngdn ngO nao mdi dirge tao ra, mb chi lb mot ngdn ngu co san, nhimg dirge de len cirong vi ngdn ngu* giao tiep chung giua cac dan tdc. Thf du : tie'ng Viet la phuomg tien giao tie'p chung cua ta't ca cac dan tdc Viet Nam, tieng Dure la phuomg tien giao tie'p chung giua cac dan tdc viing bidn Ban Tich. Mdt so ngdn ngu nhu tie'ng Anh, tieng Phap, tiehg Due, tieng Nga, tieng Tay Ban Nha dugc Hien chuomg Lien hiep quoc ghi nhbn la nhimg ngdn ngu giao tiep qudc te. Nhu vby, ddi vdi cac dan tdc mb ngdn ngu cua hg khdng dugc dimg lam ngdn ngu qudc te' thi tuemg lai co le la cung cd' tie'ng me de cua minh, dong thoi hoc them mot hoac hai ngdn ngu qudc td. II - CACH THUC PHAT TRIEN CUA NGON NGQ. Quy luat phat trien chung cua ngdn ngu la thay the cac ngdn ngu bd lac va bien the cua n6 bang ngdn ngu dan tdc va cac bie'n the cua ngdn ngu dan toe, thay the ngdn ngu dan toe va bie'n the cua nd bang ngdn ngu van hoa thdng nha't; cud'i cung la su ra doi cua ngdn ngu chung cho toan nhan loai. Nhimg con duemg tir ngdn ngu bp lac den ngdn ngu epng dong tuemg lai dien ra nhu the' nao ?. Ngdn ngu phat trien tir tir, lien tuc, khong ddt bien nhay vpt. Su phat trien cua ngdn ngu khong theo con duemg pha huy ngdn ngu hien co va tao ra ngdn ngil moi, ma theo con dudmg phat trien va cai tien nhung yeu td can ban cua ngdn ngu hien cd. Va su chuyen bie'n tir tinh chat nay cua ngdn ngu qua tmh chdt khac, tuyet nhien khdng dien ra bang each bung nd, dpt bien, phd huy cai cu va tao lap ra cai mdi, mb bang each tubn tu, Uu dai, tich gop nhung yeu td cua tinh cha't mdi, cua co cau mdi ciia ngdn ngu, bang each tieu ma dan nhung ye'u td cua tinh chat cu. Laphacgo da lam khi dng cho rang cd mdt cudc each mang bdt phat nd ra trong ngdn ngu Phap tir 1789 den 1794. Thue ra trong thdi kl a'y, tieng Phap da dugc bdi bd them nhidu tir va ngu' mdi, nhung tir cu bi loai ra, y nghia cua mdt sd tir thay ddi di, nhung he thdng ngu phap va vdn tir co ban cua tieng Phdp van dugc bao t6n nguyen ven cho de'n ngay nay. Six ph6i hop giua cac ngdn ngu la mdt qua trinh tnrong ki, keo dai hlng th£ ki, khdng thd noi cd dot bid'n nao d day duoc, .. Neu ai nghl rang, do sir phd'i hop cua hai ngdn ngu, mot ngdn ngir mdi, ngdn ngir thii ba, se xua't hien, khac han nhung ngdn ngit phd'i hop, khac vd tmh chat ddi vdi ca hai ngdn ngu* cu, - nghT nhu th£ la hoan toan sai. Sir phat trien khdng dong deu giua cac mat. VI true ti£p phan £nh defi sdng xa hdi, cho nen tit vung cua ngdn ngu, so vdi ngu am va ngit phap la bd phan bid'n doi nhieu va nhanh nha't. Tit vung cua mdt ngdn ngu da la bd phan dd chuy^n bien nha't thi no a trong tinh trang gin nhu bien doi li£n midn. Nhung, cln phan biet tit vung noi chung va tit vung co ban. Phln chii yeu cua tit vung trong mdt ngon ngu* la von tit co ban, ma cai loi cua no thi bao gdm ta't ca nhung tit gd'c. Cai vd'n a'y, so vdi tit vung thi hep han nhieu, song no song rat lau, ca hang the ki va cap cho ngdn ngit mot can ban de cau tao tit moi. Nhu vay, tit vung noi chung bien doi khdng ngirng, ngay cang phong phu, nhung nhung tit gd'c, tit vung co ban lai co “site kien. dinh” ra't Ion. Mat ngu am cua ngdn ngu bien doi cham va khdng deu bai vi neu nhu ngu am ma bien d6i nhanh va nhieu se anh hudng true tiep den vide giao tiep bang ngdn ngu. Thubng la, chd nay xay ra su bien doi nhung nhung chd khac van giu nguydn do do din den tinh trang khac biet vd ngu am giua cac dia phuang. Hd thong ngit phap ciing vdi tit vung co ban la ca sa cua ngdn ngu, cho ndn nd bien doi cham nha't. Ta't nhidn, vdi then gian, hd thd'ng ngit phap cung bid'n ddi, cai tien, tu bo them lam cho nhung quy luat cua nd chinh xac han, tham chi cung cd th£ bd sung them cac quy luat moi, song ca sa cua hd thdng ngu phap van duqc bao ton trong mot khoang then gian ra't lau. Hd thd'ng ngit phap bid'n doi con cham han tit vung ca ban nua. in - NHUNG NHAN TO KHACH QUAN VA CHU QUAN LAM CHO NGdN NGUBI^'n DOI VA PHAT TRIE-N. Nliufng nhan to khach quan. Subien d8i va phat tridn cua cac ngdn ngu ludn ludn didn ra trdn ca hai mat cau true va chile nang. Qua trinh phat tri8n t€r ngdn ngu.bd lac ddh ngdn ngu edng ddng tuemg lai la qua trinh phat tri8n cua cac ngdn ngu vd mat chile nang. Su phat tridn mat c&u true cua ngdn ngu th8 hidn d su bien ddi cua hd thtfng ngii am, thanh phdn hinh thai hoc, tir vung - ngu nghia va cor cau ngu phap cua nd. Neu nhu su phat tridn cua ngdn ngG bao gdm nhidu mat, nhidu khia canh thi nguydn nhan lam cho nd bi£n ddi va phat tridn cung se rat da dang, phong phu. Ngucri ta da tCtng giai thich su phat tridn cua ngdn ngu la do su bien ddi cua bd may phdt am, do anh hudmg cua didu kidn dia If va khi hau, do anh hudng cua tarn If dan tdc, do ddi hoi phai tid't kidm hoi sire hao phi cho bd may phat am, do chcri chu, do dac didm cua tre em hoc noi, v.v.. Chung ta khdng phu nhan tac dung cua cac yeii t<5 kd trdn doi vdi su phat tridn cua ngdn ngu, nhung dd chua phai la nguydn nhan chu yeu, quydt dinh phuomg hudng va each thiic phat tridn cua ngdn ngu. Vdi tu each la hidn tuomg xa hdi dac bidt, su phat tridn cua ngdn ngu phai do nhung didu kidn kinh te, chfnh tri, van hod vd cac didu kien xa hdi khac quy dinh. Ngudi ta chi cd thd hidu mdt ngdn ngO va quy luat phat tridn cua nd khi nao ngudi ta nghidn cilu nd theo sat vdi lich su cua xa hdi, lich su cua nhan dan cd ngdn ngu ay, sang lap va bao tdn, su dung ngdn ngu ay. San xua't phat tridn, cac giai cap xua't hien, chu viet ra ddi, cdc qudc gia hinh th&nh edn giao dich thu tit cd quy thirc it nhi£u cho vide hanh chinh ; ndn thuomg nghidp trudng th&nh cang edn giao dich thu tir cd quy thiic horn n&a, bdo chi an loat xua't hien, van hoc ti£n Idn, ta't ca nhung di8u dd da dua lai nhung bi£n ddi Idn lao trong su phat tri&i cua ngdn ngii. Anh hudng d£n su phdt tri8n cua ngdn ngu ebn phai k8 d£n nhung nhan td khach quan nhu : hinh. thtfc cOng ddng tOc ngucfi, dan s<5, trinh dd van hod, hinh thuc th# ch#. nhd nude ; mOi trudng tOc ngudi; tdc do phat tri#n kinh te, xa hOi, mdi lien he v# kinh t#, chinh tri vd van hod ; the tuong quan giua trinh dO phdt tri#n cua mdt dan tOc voi cdc ddn tOc Idng gidng ; truyen thdng van. • hod, muc d6 phdn chia thanh cdc ti#ng dia phuong. cua xa hOi mdi chi Id nguyOn nhdn ben ngoai, de ra nhung yOu cdu nhat dinh doi vdi ngOn ngu, cdn ban than ngOn ngu* cd bien doi va phdt trien duqc hay khdng lai do nguyOn nhdn ben trong cua no quy#t dinh. Nguyen nhdn ben trong chmh Id su dOi lap, mau thudn giua cac y#u to trong ngdn ngu. Nhung ydu cdu cua xa hdi dat ra se dune dap ung thdng qua viec giai quyet nhung mau thudn trong ndi bd ngon ngu. Nguyen nhan ben trong th# hien nhu tinh hinh va kha nang noi bd cua ngon ngu. Chmh vi vdy, nhung didu kien kinh te, chmh tri, xa hoi, v.v.. co the true tiep giai thich quy ludt phdt trien cua ke't ca'u ngon ngu noi chung, trie la su phdt tri#n cua ngon ngu tCr ngOn ngu bd lac, den ngon ngu dan tdc va ngOn ngu edng dong tuong lai, nhung lai chua du de giai thich nhung quy ludt phdt trien ndi bd cua ngon ngu, tdc la quy ludt phat trien cac mat, cac ydu t<5 cua no. Angghen viet: Neu khdng muon lam thanh trd cietii, thi cung kho md dung nguyen nhdn kinh te de cat nghTa sic ton tai cua mdi tieu bang trong nietic Dice trade kia va hien nay, hay cat nghTa nguon goc cua hien twang di chuyen phu dm trong tieng Thaqng—Dac la hien taang da ma rong dieting phan giai dia li do day niii tti Xudet den Tanuxa tqo nen, thanh cd mot dieting ni'rt thiec su xuyen qua toan nietic DTec^\ Nhu vdy nhung quy ludt phdt trie’n noi bO cua ngdn ngu chi c6 th£ giai thich gian tiep qua didu kien kinh t#, chmh tri, van hod cua xa hOi. Ban than nhung hien tuong mdi trong ngdn ngu deu phdt trie’n tur nhung hien tuong da co, trOn co so nhung hien tuong da co. Nhumg nhan to chu quan. Ngdn ngu phat tri£n theo nhung quy luat khach quan cua minh. Su phat trien a'y chinh kd't qua tac ddng cua nhirng nguydn nhan khach quan - nguydn nhan ben trong cung nhir nguydn nhan bdn ngoai. Tuy nhien, nhan td'chu quan cua con ngudi cung gdp ph£n khdng nhd trong su phat trie’n cua ngdn ngtt. Chinh sach ngdn ngifr la the’ hien y chi chu quan cua con ngircfi doi vori su phat trien a'y. Ban than chinh sach ngdn ngu chi phat huy duqc tac dung trong chimg muc phu hop vori quy luat phat trien khach quan. Mud'n dd ra chinh sach ngdn ngu dung dan cdn phai ndm vung quy luat phat trien cua xa hoi noi chung va cua ngdn ngu noi rieng. Co the noi chinh sach ngon ngu la li luan va thuc tidn tac ddng mot each cd y thirc v&o qua trinh phat tri£n ngon ngu". Nd la mot bd phan cua chinh sach dan toe cua mdt quoc gia, mot giai cdp, mot dang n&o do. Chinh sach ngdn ngu tac ddng trudc het ddh mat chiic nang cua ngon ngu, va qua do, trong chiimg muc nao do, tac dong den mat ket cdu cua ngdn ngu. Noi dung chinh sach ngdn ngu cua Dang va Nha nude ta the hien d nhung chii truong sau :. a) Ton trong tieng me de cua cac dan tdc, bao dam su phat trien tu do va bmh dang cua ta't ca cac ngdn ngu dan toe d Vidt Nam. Cuomg linh d^u ti£n cua Dang khi mdi thanh lap (1930) da de ra chmh sach doan ket dan toe tren ca sd nhung nguyen tdc binh dang va tuang tra Ian nhau de gianh lay doc lap va hanh phiic chung cho cac dan toe. Chmh cuong cua Dang nam 1951 ghi rd : Cac dan toe song tren ddt nude Viet Nam deu duac binh dang ve quyen lai va nghia vu .. Cai thien ddi song cho cac dan toe it ngudi, giup da ho tien bo ve moi mat, bdo dam de ho tham gia chinh quyen va dung tieng me de trong viec giao due d cac dia phuang. Thuc te', Dang ta da d£ ra nhidm vu cu the 1& hoan thanh viec xdy dung chic viet cho cac dan toe it ngudi. Chi thi 84 CT - TU lai nha'n manh : Sddung chudan toe la nguyen vqng tha thiet cua cac ddn toe, can tiep tuc nghien cicu tieng dan toe ve mat khoa hoc,. dong thcrimanh dan sitdung rong rai ba thii chit Tay-N ting, Thai, Meo tren sach bao, trong cac co quan hanh chinh va trong ddi sd'ng hang ngay. Chong tittitong coi thitdmg chit dan tdc, khdng phat then viec hoc va sit dung chit dan tdc. Hien phap nam 1960 cua nude Viet Nam dAn chu edng hoA chinh there quy dinh : Cac dan toe co quyen duy tri hoqc sita ddiphong tuc tap quan dung tieng• nbi, chitviet phat then van hod dan tdc minh. Ngay 27 thang 11 nam 1961, Hoi ddng Chmh phu da ban hanh nghi dinh ve viec phd chudn chmh thtre cac phuomg an chu TAy-Nung, chu' ** { Thai, Meo dung lam chu viet chmh there cho cac dAn tdc trdn trong viec. xoA nan mu chu va bd tuc van hoa, trong cac truemg phd thdng vA cac truemg chuydn nghiep, trong cac edng van, giAy to cua cac co quan nhA i nunc trong cac khu tu tri. Nhd co chmh sach dung dAn nhu vAy mA cac dAn tdc ft nguoi Viet Nam trong mAy chuc nam qua da khdng ngemg phat trien nen kinh te, chmh tri, van hoA, v.v.. cua minh, kA vai sat cAnh cung veri dAn tdc Kinh xAy dung vA bao vd To qud'c. • i b) Khuyen khich vA tao didu kidn de cAc dAn tdc thieu sd' er Vidt Nam hoc tieng Viet vA dung tieng Viet lAm ngdn ngu: giao tie'p giura cAc dAn tdc u Viet Nam ; khang dinh vai tro lAm ngdn ngu qud'c gia cua tieng Viet, dung nd trong tAt ca moi lanh vuc hoat ddng cua xa hdi. Sud't i trong thoi BAc thuoc vA PhAp thudc, tieng Vidt ta rAt bi coi thuemg. Tieng HAn vA tieng PhAp lAn luort duqc bon thdng tri xem 1A ngdn ngu chmh there cua nhA nude, duqc dung trong hAnh chmh, truemg hoc, thi cer, cung nhu sAng tAc vAn hoc. ThA ki XVIII, ngucri anh hung dAn tdc Nguydn Hud, muon dung chu Nom thay cho chti HAn nhemg chua thAnh edng. Phai cho den khi CAch mang thAng TAm 1945 thAnh edng, tiAng Viet mdi thay thA tiAng PhAp lAm ngdn ngei chmh thuc cua nhA nude. Tur dAy, tieng Viet khdng con bi coi 1A “ndm na mAch que” nua, nd khdng chi duqc dung trong sinh hoat hAng ngAy cua nhAn dAn mA chmh there dam nhAn nhung cherc nang xa hdi mdi : tAt ca cAc lanh vuc hoat ddng cua ngudi Vidt Nam deu cd thA dung tieng Vidt. Nhidu vAn kidn chmh tri, quAn su, ngoai giao, v.v.. viAt bAng tiAng Vidt. HAng loat tAc. phdm tridt hoc, sir hoc, van nghe bang tidng Viet ra ddi. Dac biet, b mi6n Bac nude ta, ngay tCr ddu, c£c tradng dai hoc ddu dung tieng Viet de giang day va hoc tap. Chfnh nhd dudng 16i dung dan £y ma tieng Viet da phdt tridn met budc Idn so vdi trade day. Thue te chung to kha nang v6 cung phong phu cua tieng Viet, nd cd thd diing d t£t ca moi lanh vuc, kd ca lanh vuc khoa hoc va kT thuat. Nhidu nude, tuy da gianh duqc d6c lap dan tec nhung van chua khang dinh duqc vai trd va vi tri cua ngOn ngu dan toe, nhu An De, Pakitxtang, v.v.. c) Dan chu hoa, qudn chung hoa tieng Viet. Trong khi khang dinh vi tri va vai trd cua tieng Viet, Dang va Nha nude ta ddng thdi vach ra phuomg hudng phat trien cua tieng Viet la dan chu hoa, qudn chung hoa. Chu tich H6 Chi Minh noi : Tieng noi la thvccua cai vd cung lau ddi vd vo cung quy bau cua dan toe. Chung ta phdi giugin no, quy trong no, lam cho nd phd bien ngay cang rdng khdp. Cua minh co ma khong dung, lai di muon cua nude ngoai, do chdng phdi la ddu 6c quen y lai hay sao. Hd Chi Minh khuyen chung ta phdi hoc each noi cua qudn chung ; Khi viet, khi noi, phdi luon luon lam thenao cho ai cung hieu duac. Lam sao cho qudn chung deu hieu.. Ngubi noi : Chung ta muon tuyen truyen qudn chung, phdi hoc each noi cua qudn chung, moi noi lot tai qudn chung. Noi cung phdi hoc, ma phdi chiu kho hoc moi ducrc. Vi each noi cua dan chung rat day du, rat hoat bat, rat thuc tien, ma lai rat gian dcm^. Ngudi ra't nhieu Idn phe phan benh smh diing chu. Trong Sda ddi Idi lam viec, Ngudi viet: Co nhieu ngudi co benh “dung chu Han", nhung tieng ta san co khong dung, ma dung chit Han cho bang duac..” ; “dung cd doqn chu Han, ddng tifng dong danh tit la, noi hoqc viet theo each Tay mdi cau. dai dang dqc, thi quan chung hieu sao dftqc ? ” ; “tieng ta co thi khdng dung, md eft ham dung chic Han. Dung dung, da Id mdt cai hqi, vi quan chung khdng hieu. Nhieu ngftcfi biet khdng rd, dung khong diing, md ciing ham diing, cai hqi lai cang to, ..”. Cac ong viei bao nha minh hay dung chft qua. Nhftng chft tieng ta co md khdng diing, lai dung cho dftqc chft kia. Can bo cung hay diing chft lam, dung lung tung, nhieu khi khdng dung. Cai benh dung chft la pho bien trong tat cd cac nganh. Dang le bao chi phai chong lai cai benh do, nhftng trdi lai, bao chi lai tuyen truyen cho cai te do.. Den dai hdi Un thur ba cua hdi nha bao, Bac tiep tuc phd phan :. Khuyet diem nang nhat la dung chft nft&c ngodi qua nhieu, va nhieu khi dung khdng dung, v.v.. Tuy nhien, c&i nhd ding, Ho Chi Minh khdng he ctr tuydt vide muon chir nude ngoai ma ngtrcrc lai, cd mot thai dd rat diing dan, khoa hoc. Ngirdi da tung noi:. Tieng ta con thieu, nen nhieu luc phai mican tieng khac, nhat la tieng Trung Quo'c. Nhftng phai co chftng co mftc. Nhftng se “ta" qua neu nhftng chft Han dd hod thanh tieng ta ai ciing hieu, ma cd'y khdngdiing. The cung la teu. nhien phai diing. Co nhien, c6 nhung chic khdng the dich duqc thi ta phai muon chu:. Hoqc c6 nhung chic neu dich ra thi mdt cd y nghia, nhuchic "doc. Ddi sdng xa hoi ngay cang phat trien vd ddi moi. Co nhung chic ta khdng sdn co vd kho dich dung, thi can phai muon chic nude ngoai. Trong bai phat bieu tai h6i nghi, Thu tuong Pham Van Dong da neu ra ba khau cMn phai lam de giu gin su trong sang cua tieng Viet:. 1 - Hai la noi va viet dung phep tac cua tieng ta. Thu tuong ket luSn : Day la mot cong viec lau ddi, phai kien tri, phai nhin xa, thdy rqng, phai lam tieng budc vdi tat cd y thicc trdch nhiem cua mdi ngudi cluing ta, vdi long tuhao ve tieng noi cua dan toe vd vdi longphdn khdri vd tin tuong dang gopphan cua minh vao mot cong viec vica quan trong viCa tot dep vd cung^\. NGON NGtJ LA MpT HE THONG TIN HlfiU DAC BIET• • •. A - HE THONG VA KET CAU CUA NGON NGU. Theo each hidu chung, he thong la mdt thd thdng nhd't bao gdm cac yen td cd quan he va lien he lan nhau. Mdi ddi tupng trpn ven la mdt he thong, chlng han : mdt cai cdy, mdt con vat, mot gia dinh, v.v.. Noi den he thdng, edn phai co hai didu kien : a) tap hop cac ydu td, b) nhung moi quan he va lien he lan nhau giua cdc yeu td do.
Thuoc kidu tir dien nay, ngoai Kho tit ngit tieng Anh cua P.M.Roget da noi d tren phai ke den cudn Von tit tieng Dice theo nhom sixvat (Der deutsche Wortschatz nach Sachgrupper, 1959) cua F.Domseiff, Titdien bieu y tieng Tdy Ban Nha (Diccionarie ideologio de la lengna espanola, 1959) cua Julid Casares. Nhir vay, P.M.Roget nhan dirge 1000 nhom khai niem cuoi ciing va tir vung tieng Anh dirge trinh bay theo 1000 nhom do.
Can nhd ding, bang tir cua tir didn dd muc hoc sinh co thd tuang duong vdi bang tur cua tir dien giai thich hoc sinh, nhimg cai khde nhau la d chd tir dien giai thich hoc sinh bao gdm mOt sd lorn cac de muc nhimg chi phSn tich chung den muc vira phai, edn tit dien de muc hoc sinh bao gdm mdt so him han cac de muc nhimg phan tich chung that s&u sac. Tir dien giai thich cd nhidu loai : tir dien ngdn ngu van hoc, tir dien tieng dia phuong, tir dien tac gia (chang han, Titdien ngdn nga Pu-skin), tir die’n tac phAm (chang han, Ta dien Truyen Kieu\ tir dien cac tir nude ngoai, tir dien thanh ngir, tir dien dong Am, tir dien dong nghTa, tir dien trai nghTa, v.v.
BAN CHAT VA CAU TAO. Trong giao tidp mdi thanh vidn cua mOt cdng dong phat ra nhung chudi Am thanh khac nhau nhdm truydn dat nhirng thdng tin cu thd. Do ia leri noi. Cung mot lai noi a mdi ca nhan deu c6 su khac nhau, vd mat Sm thanh, nhirng dieu do khdng quan trong. Didu dang liru y han la cai gi lam cho cac ca nhan do hidu dugc nhau. Dii a ca nhan nao thi trong chudi leri noi cua ho cung co nhirng yeu t6 ca'u tao tuang phan nhau va mdi ydu td vai nhirng dai lirgng ridng, do su quy udc xa hdi da co dugc chuc nang nha't dinh, chuc nang tao ndn hmh th lie bidu dat cua nhirng y nghia nha't dinh. Can firn hidu nhirng ydu td do ven tu each cdc yeu td cua am thanh va ngudn gdc phat sinh ra chung. dirge thuc hidn trong mdt giAy. TAn sd cAng Idn am phat ra cAng cao. Giong phu ntt, tre em thuemg cao hem nam gidi hay ngubi lorn tudi 1A do cAu tao day thanh khAc nhau. Do 1A cao dd tuydt dd'i, tdn tai giua nhung ca nhan, ndu so giong n6i cua ho vdi nhau. Cao dd tircmg ddi 1A cao dd cua nhirng bd phAn trong Ibi ndi cua mdt ngucri, khi cao, khi thAp. Cao dd nay moi co gia tri trong vide biAu dat tu tudng vA cAn dirge quan tarn, trong khi cao dd tuydt ddi gAn nhir vd nghia. Cao dd tuemg ddi 1A ydu td co ban tao ndn nhirng cai goi 1A thanh didu, ngir didu vA ca trong Am. b) Cucmg dd hay dd manh cua Am thanh, do bidn dd dao ddng cua vAt thd quyet dinh. DAy thanh chAn ddng manh so vori tu thd nghi ngefi thi Am phat ra 16m vA ngugc lai thi Am phat ra nhd. Trong led noi cudmg dd tuemg ddi giua cAc bd phAn moi 1A quan trong. Nd 1A ydu td co ban tao ndn hidn tugng dugc goi 1A trong Am. c) Am sac tire 1A sAc thai cua Am thanh. Nhu moi ngucri dAu biet, Am thanh cua leri noi cung nhu hAu het cAc Am thanh cua thd gidi tu nhidn deu 1A phiic hgp, gdm mdt Am trAm nhAt, c6 tAn sd thAp nhA't dugc goi 1A dm cor ban vA mdt loat Am cao hem (mA tAn sd bAng bdi sd tAn sd Am co ban) dugc goi IA hog dm. Am thanh do dAy thanh chAn ddng mA cd 1A nhu vAy. Khi nd di qua ydt hAu, midng vA mui, do cd hidn tugng edng huemg xay ra a nhung khoang rdng nAy vA tuy theo timg trudmg hgp mA mot so hoa Am nAy hay mdt sd hoa Am khAc dugc tAng cudmg. Chfnh moi tuang quan giua dm ca ban vd cac hoa dm ve cao dd vd cucmg do dd tao nen dm sac khac nhau. Ngudn gdc cua su khAc nhau vd Am sAc 1A su khac nhau cua cAc hdp edng hudmg. Vdi cung mdt dAy dAn, chng mdt nhac edng, bAm ciing mdt ndt nhac nhung tidng dAn khAc nhau 1A do cAc thung dan khAc nhau, vdi tu cAch 1A cua nhung hdp edng hudmg khAc nhau. Midng cua mdt con ngudi vdi tu cAch 1A mdt hdp edng huemg do vi tri cua luoi, mdi, hAm thay ddi mA trer thAnh mudn vAn cAi hdp edng huemg khAc nhau vA ta cd nhung Am vdi Am sAc khAc nhau. CAc nguydn Am khAc nhau 1A do Am sAc khAc nhau. d) Trtfdng dd hay la dd did cua am thanh.
Cdng vise nay da tro thanh mdt didn nghidn cuu, dirge goi la NgUdm hoc sinh hoc (Phonetique physiologique) bdn canh NgUdrn hoc dm hoc (Phonetique acoustique). V[ tri cua thanh h$u. A, B Id d£y thanh C: bong Morgagni D:khfquan. Nhirng dm dirge tao ra nhir the dirge goi la thanh, trai vdi nhirng dm dirge tao ra khong phai do sir hoat dong cua day thanh ma do sir co xat khong khf vao thanh bd may phdt am khi thoat ra ngoai, hoac do khdng khf pha vo su can tro tren loi thoat tao thanh mdt ti£ng nd, dirge goi la tieng dong. — Cac hop cong htfdrng phia tren thanh han. Mieng va mui dirge ngan ra bai vom mieng ma phfa tnrdc goi la ngqc, phfa sau la mac hay khdu mac. Trong mieng, liroi khi nang ten lai tao ra hai khoang: khoang mieng d phfa tnrdc, khoang yet hdu a phfa sau. Yet hdu cd mdt 15 nhd thong len mui va dirge dong lai khi edn thiet bai Inch con. Do la nga tir, ch6 giao nhau giira dircmg cua thiic an tir mteng vao thuc quan va dircmg cua khdng khf tir phdi ten mui. Mdi khi an ud'ng, dirbng vao phdi phai dirge dong lai bai nap hong. Ydt hdu, mteng va mui la ba khoang trdng dong vai tro cua nhirng hdp edng hirong. Rteng yet hdu va mieng do hoat dong cua liroi va mdi ma co thd thay ddi a) thd tfch b) hinh ddng va c) loi thoat cua khdng khf bdt cir luc nao va vl the hai khoang nay cd mdt vai tro het sire quan trgng trong vise thay ddi dm sdc cua dm thanh vein dirge tao ra do su chdn ddng cua ddy thanh, di ten. Khi hai mtfi hoac mtfi vdi rang cung nhir khi cac btf phan khde nhau cua liroi (d£u liroi, mat iiroi,. gdc ludi) tidn g£n tdi rang, Igi, ngac, mac hoac luoi con, tao thanh mdt khe hd (khe ho nay cd thd trdn hoac det) hoac thanh mdn thu hep lai lam cho khdng khi di qua khd khan, tao ndn nhung tidng ddng cua str co xdt, thi ta cd mdt loat am thanh khac, dune goi la phu.
Cach phat am nay tao ndn nhirng dm dirge gpi la dm dong (implosive). Khi phat dm mot dm tdc thdng thuemg hay dm nd thi dp sud't cua khdng khf trong khoang mieng tang len, con cr ddy thuc ra dp sudt khdng tang giam gi ca, do do cac khf quan phat dm sau khi chan khdng khf budng rat nhe. Cac dm trong tieng Viet dirge ghi bang chir b, chir de tuydt dai da so truemg hgp dirge phat dm nhir vdy, co didu each phat dm ddc biet nay khdng co chuc nang khu biet nghia nhir trong mdt sd' ngon ngu khac. O tieng Viet do la nhirng bien thd cua cac dm tdc thdng thuemg hay dm nd va do do ngucri Viet ft chu y. Am dong trong tieng Viet dugc ngucri ngoai quoc nhdn biet rift ro vd dugc mdt sd ngucri nghien cuu mo ta vdi thudt ngu tien hong hod hay tien thanh hdu hod. Kf hidu phien dm dugc dung de ghi cac dm dong la [b , cf]. Am dong bao gid cung la dm huu thanh, tuc la khi phdt dm ddy thanh chdn ddng. - Kieu tao dm thur ba cung ft ph6 bien, co th£ thdy trong mdt sd ngdn ngu” a chdu Phi nhu tieng Zulu. Dd la each phat dm bdng hen a mac. Ngucri Viet khi chac lucri, bieu thi thai dd midn cuomg hay mdt tinh thai nao do, da thuc su phat ra mdt dm mdt luoi theo each nay, con khi goi ga la phat ra mdt dm mdi. Trong tidng Zulu c6 ca nhung Am rang va Am ngac cung ki^u nhu vAy. Khi phAt Am cAn co mOt chd tAc “dua”, duoc hlnh thAnh o mac, ngoai chd tAc chfnh d mdi rAng hay mat luoi. Vf du mudn co mdt Am rAng kieu nay thi trucrc h£t dAu luoi dat vAo chAn rAng d£ chan khdng khf, ddng thcri gd'c luoi tiefp xuc vdi mac ngAn cAch khoi khdng khf trong y£t hAu vcri khd'i khdng khf trong midng dung vao viec san sinh ra cai Am dang xet. Mat luoi ha xud'ng lam. Khi chd tAc o rAng duoc giai toa | j tile dAu luoi ha xuo'ng, roi khoi rAng mot. each ddt ngot thi khdng khf bdn ngoai ua ) [ft vao mieng tao nen mdt tieng dong kha X----[. Khi thanh mdn khdng mo rdng lAm, hai dAy thanh vAn xa nhau nhung mdt ludng hoi di qua kha manh lam cho dAy thanh rung doi chut giong nhu khi ta phat Am [h], ta se duoc cai goi la giong tha (breathy voice) hay tieng thi thao, kf hieu duoc diing de ghi la [h], do 1A trudmg hop phat Am h giua hai nguyen Am trong tieng Anh, khac voi h dung o dAu tir vo'n chi 1A vd thanh.
Duomg nhidn con cd If do ngdn ngd hoc khac ma ta se xet den sau nay, nhung d day ta cung co thd thuta nhan mot phan nao co so cua vide phan chia am thanh cua leri noi thanh ra nhung don vi cau dm - thinh giac nhd nha't, dupe gpi la dm td'. M6t hO luAn khAc la khi cAu Am cac phu Am, b6 mAy phat Am chi cang thang cue bd, tire chi d noi gAy nSn su tra ngai cho ludng khOng khi di ra hoac di vAo, trAi vori nguySn Am, dirge cAu Am vdi sir cang thang toan the khf quan phat Am, vdn cAn thiet de tao ra mOt Am sAc nhAt dinh.
Ngudi ta dinh vi nhung nguyen am dugc mieu ta tren bieu dd sao cho bat cu ai da am hieu ve bieu dd nguyen am chu£n cung c6 the biet dugc nhung diem nay la the nao va co the suy dodn ra dugc phdm cha't cua cac nguyen am dang xet. Bieu do nguyen am chu£n la mOt tur giac ma diem cao nha't cua goc trai bieu thi nguyen am cao nha't va truorc nha't, con diem cue thap cua goc phai bieu thi nguyen am thap nhat va sau nha't.
Nguyen am chu£n d ditlm (5) duoc phat ra vdi hlnh dang mdi trung hoa (khdng nhanh ra ma cung khdng chum lai), Itcai thdp va sau het mftc. De tiep tuc cd nhung khoang each deu ve mat thmh giac thi cac nguyen am theo sau (5) budc phai, khdng nhung nang mat luoi sau ngay cang cao ma chum mdi ngay cang tron.
Nguyen am (9) dirge xac dinh nhir mdt nguydn am c6 ciing vi tn ludi vori nguyen am chu£n (1) nhimg vori ddi mdi chum chat. Ki hieu [a] dd ghi nguyen am vita (khdng cao, khdng tha'p), thudc hang gitra. a) Ba vqch dung bi£u thi ba hang j nguyen am tnrdc, giua, sau. kf hieu cua cac nguyen Am khdng tron, *|o ben phai mdi vach dung la chd ghi cac \ \ aIo. nguyen am Iron. c) Tren mdi vach dung tur tren xudng diroti Idn lugt ghi cdc nguyen am cao den cac nguyen am tha'p horn.
Nhdr dugc vi tri cua cac nguyen am chudn tren so d6 nay se de dang xdc dinh dirge phdm chat cua nguyen am can mieu ta.
[p] 1& am tuong irng, huu thanh, gap trong tieng Tdy Ban Nha vi du trong tit Habana (thu dd cua Cuba) [hapana]. Trong tieng lay Nimg, d mdt vai tieng dia phuang /v/ dirge the hifin thanh [p]. Hai am d£u la nhirng am xat trong khi am thtr ba [u] la am nua xat, dirge phat am gdn nhir mdt ban nguyen am [w]. Am ddu cua tur co nghla la “trau” trong tifihg lay Nimg cd bien the dia phuong nua la [u] : [uaj]. b) Am rang, dm lai, dm sau lai [t, d] trong tieng Nga la am rang, nhirng trong tieng Anh ca hai deu la am Igi, con trong tieng Viet am ddu. NAng cao mat ludi sau ve phfa luoi con d£ can tra khdng khf, tao ndn hoac mdt Am xat [u] nhu trong tir “rouge** [tfuj] (do) cua tieng Phap,hoac nhung Am tAc [q, G], hoac mdt Am mui [N] nhu trong ti^ng Eskimo, hay nhtfng tiAng Anh dieng d Mi. Ngudi Phdp khi gap “r” dung sau mdt Am vd thanh thucmg phdt am r'ndy nhu mdt am vd thanh va /b/ dirge th£ hien thanh [X]. h) Am yet hau dirge ca'u tao bang each lui nap hong vd phia sau, tdi vach sau cua yet hdu. Do each ca'u am nay ndn khdng thd cd am mui ydt hdu dirge vi khdng khi khdng thd len mui dirge, ma chi co the co am xat ma thdi. Trong cac ngon ngu Semit o Trung Ddng nhu tieng A Rap ta tha'y cd ca hai am nay. Am xat yet hdu hiru thanh thirong co hien tirgng thanh hdu hoa ro ret, co le vi su co that a yet hdu cung gay nen su co that d thanh hdu. i) Am thanh hau dugc ca'u tao do su ddng hoac thu hep day thanh.
Ngudi Phdp khi gap “r” dung sau mdt Am vd thanh thucmg phdt am r'ndy nhu mdt am vd thanh va /b/ dirge th£ hien thanh [X]. h) Am yet hau dirge ca'u tao bang each lui nap hong vd phia sau, tdi vach sau cua yet hdu. Do each ca'u am nay ndn khdng thd cd am mui ydt hdu dirge vi khdng khi khdng thd len mui dirge, ma chi co the co am xat ma thdi. Trong cac ngon ngu Semit o Trung Ddng nhu tieng A Rap ta tha'y cd ca hai am nay. Am xat yet hdu hiru thanh thirong co hien tirgng thanh hdu hoa ro ret, co le vi su co that a yet hdu cung gay nen su co that d thanh hdu. i) Am thanh hau dugc ca'u tao do su ddng hoac thu hep day thanh. Khi khe thanh hep, khdng khi qua dugc va trong chung muc nao dd day thanh cd cha'n dong, ta cd [h] huu thanh, con khi day thanh chi nhfch lai gdn nhau den thudn ta cd am vd thanh [h] dugc ghi bang chu “A” nhu trong. tit Aar, Ad cua tieng Viet. Khi khe thanh ddng chat chan khdng khi tir phdi len lam cho ap suat vcua nd tang len, va sau dd khe thanh mo dot ngot ta se cd mdt am tac. chan chinh kha manh va dueng nhien la vd thanh [?]. Trong tieng Dire cung cd cai goi la knact-Law, tire khoi am manh trudre cac nguyen am ddu tir. cung nhu mdt vAi hidn tuong khac, chu ydu thay ddi hdp cdng hudng midng ddi chut so voi thudng 12, do do vd ban chat cA'u Am 1A gAn gui vofi cai goi la cA'u Am nguydn Am. Nhung do chd nd xay ra giua phu Am vA nguydn Am vA thudng dupe coi do 1A thudc tinh cua phu Am ndn muc nay duqc xep vAo phu Am nhAm tidn cho ngudi hoc khi phai mieu ta cac phu Am. a) Ngac hod la cA'u Am b6 sung vao each phat Am binh thudng: Vi tri luoi hoi cao vA hoi trudc mdt chut nhu tir thd' phat Am mdt Am [i]. Kihieu duqc ghi la p]. Trong tid'ng Nga tir co nghia la “vd nghidn” duqc phat Am la [mW]. Trong ngdn ngu nay cd su ddi lap phAn bidt nghia giua phu Am mem va phu Am khdng mem. Vi du, hai tir trdn phAn bidt nhau o chd mot dAng bAt dau bAng phu Am mem, mdt dAng bAng phu Am khdng mem. Trong chu vie't Nga net ngac hoa duqc nhAp vao vdi nguyen Am thanh bon chu cai h, e, e, io. Trong tieng Viet each phat Am ngac hoa chi tao ndn nhung bien the tu do, mang tinh chA't ca nhAn. CAn luu J rAng xu hudng phat Am hudng tori Am ngac la ndi dung co ban cua ngac hoa nen cac phu Am thdng thudng khi bi ngac hoa se thay ddi vi tri cA'u Am von cd di, vi du [t-*] se cd vi tri cAu Am la loi ngac, chur khdng edn la Am rAng hay loi nhu thdng thuong nua. b) Mac hod la cAu Am bd sung vao each phat Am binh thudng: Vi tri sau luoi duqc nAng cao nhu tu the phat Am [u] nhung khdng trdn mdi. Trong tieng Nga Am dAu cua tir jtyK [fuk] (cu hanh) la mot phu Am mac hoa hay con goi la phu dm cifng. c) Yet hau hod la hien tuqng thdm vAo each phat Am thdng thudng su thu hep khoang yet hAu, dudng nhu thdm vao mau sAc cua mdt Am. Kf hieu phien Am qud'c td dung cho hidn tuqng nay cung nhu cho mac hoa [-]. Thue ra c£n phan biet hai hidn tuqng nay. Mac hoa ndn ghi bang edeh chii them [m] dai cao Idn mdt chut, yet hMu hoa ghi bang [a] dai cao Idn o ben canh. d) Mdi hoa la them vao hidn tuqng trdn mdi.
Cac phu am cud'i khdng co giai doan ma ra dune goi la phu Am that (unexploded). b) Phan loqi dm tiet thircmg can cir vao each ket thuc am tiet. Am ti£t md khi tan ciing bang nguyen am, vf du ma [ma] cua tieng Viet. Am tiet khep khi tan cimg bang cac phu am. Neu do la phu am tac vd thanh, vf du hoc tap trong tieng Viet thi d day ta co loai am tiet khep dien hinh, ddi lap cue doan nh£t vdi loai am tiet d£u. Giua hai loai nay, tuy theo tiTng ngdn ngu ma co th£ chia ra nhung loai trung gian nhu m/a md, nita khep chang han trong tidng Viet. Trong ngdn nguchung ta am tiet tan cimg bang cac ban nguyen am, ki£u [u, jj la nua mo, bang cac phu am vang, kieu [m, n,rj ] la nua khep. Vd ngdn ngu hoc dai cucmg ngudi ta chi quan tarn den am tiet ma va khdng mohay edn goi la khep, vi am tiet md la loai hmh am tieft duy nha't co tmh ph 6 quat. Ngdn ngu nao cung cd am tiet md. C6 tac gia khi mieu ta mdt ngdn ngu nao do con can cirvao bo phan phia truoc dinh am tiet nghTa la each md d£u am tiet va thanh phan tiep theo nd ma phan loai am tid't ra cac kieu loai khde nhau, tuy theo muc dich cua edng vide nghien curu. c) Cdch cat dm tiet. Tir dAu the ki nay, cho tdi nay mOt so tac gia vAn con diing thuAt ngir dm dieu (melody) thay the' cho ngii dieu. Song, cAn liru y rang dAy la mot loai Am dieu dAc thu khac vdi trong bai hat: Sir bien chuy^n cua tieng thanh o dAy khdng cd nhumg khoang cd dinh ma ludn ludn, co th£. Trong khi do d bai hat subien doi cao do cua giong dien ra nhd nhumg Am trinh chat che cd' dinh cua Am giai. Ngu dieu cd the hoAn thhnh nhung chirc nAng khac nhau trong ngdn ngu a) Mdt trong nhung chirc nang quan trong nhA't 1A chtfc nang cu phap, nhd no mA ta phAn bi£t cAu trdn thuAt, cAu nghi vAn, cAu cam than, b) Ngirdieu co th£ co chuc nang khu biet,cAu co cung mdt k£t cA'u cu phdp co th£ cd y nghia khac nhau tuy theo duemg net Am dieu cua nd. c) Nd cd chuc nang bieu cam rd ret. d) Nd cung la net dac tnmg cho tirng ngdn ngu.