Impact of games on young learners vocabulary recall

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ỘMINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING Ở _ HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

IMPACT OF GAMES ON YOUNG LEARNERSỖ VOCABULARY RECALL

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts (TESOL) TRUONG DAI HOG MQ TP.HCM THU VIEN Submitted by LE HONG NGA Supervisor

NGUYEN THU HUONG, Ph.D

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STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify that this thesis entitled ỘImpact of Games on Helping Young LearnersỖ Vocabulary RecallỢ is my own work

Except where reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis contain material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma

No other personỖs work has been used without due acknowledgement in the

main text of the thesis

This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in

any other tertiary institution

Ho Chi Minh City, 2011

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am deeply indebted to numerous people who have helped me during my thesis

work

First of all, I would like to express my special gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Nguyen Thu Huong, for his patient support, constructive criticisms, detailed comments, devoted guidance, and precious time, without which my study might not have been completed

I am also grateful to all the lecturers of this Master course for their valuable

instructions, advice, and encouragement

Special thanks are due to Ms Nguyen Thi Ngoc Chau, who enthusiastically cooperated in the research I also would like to acknowledge all the students who gave up their time to participate in this study

I am grateful to all my friends, Tran Van Nghia, Le Thi Khanh Ngoc, Tran Thi Bao Quyen, Truong Thi Mai Phu, Pham Thi Tuyet Nhung, and Nguyen Quang Vu, for all their mental support, encouragement, and help during the time this study was done

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ABSTRACT

This study aimed to investigate the impact of labeling games on helping young learners aged 6-7 recall concrete object words The study was conducted for two classes of 30 pupils at the Ben Tre Foreign Language Centre in Ben Tre Province Labeling games was applied in one class while the other received exercises The instruments used for the study were a pretest and two posttests The results indicate that

(1) the game group surpassed the exercise group in the recalling of vocabulary during

the immediate retention stage and the delayed retention one and (2) the factors of gender and age exerted very little influence on the recalling of vocabulary as a result of the game treatment Based on the results, several implications and recommendations for teachers will be made in the hope of improving the teaching and learning of vocabulary for young learners by applying games in Vietnam

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

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2.2.3.2 The role of memory in vocabulary acquisition 11 2.2.3.3 Why do we Íorget WOTS? ềche, 15 2.2.4 Yoeabulary teaching: A focus on recalling .:vscsssecnseseenesversees 16 2.2.5 Stages of teaching vocabulary -c- sen 17

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3.3.3 Treatment .ccccccccccsesecccccccccccecsecesccecusseceseceeeccceseeeccesneaueeeseeeeeeaeenes 42

3.3.3.1 COIIYOỳ ụTOUÙ à -c6100026660 c0661/62056<ci029063216 43 3.3.3.2 Experimental proup .- -sceeeeseseiesieriskeiiee 43

3.3.4 HISEFHHICHE s.-62212<606261159/262556.0532124)1583436909193979355382%98327536E 45 3.3.4.1 Description of tesis cceeeeẴSIneHh 1126221126 46

3.3.1.2 Test FEHRHDIIIHV 8HM VHIHA UV sec siiidiiabieessrtlveeinksiessi 46 3.3.5 [Jaia collection pfGGedUf6s cesoeaasoiroiaroskoiosesbxeorei 47

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3.4 UTIIINIALY ox cv ene vccn cess ot-acsnoenonnncanssesenacauas cane coenscetoniessenvonkessonrepnascaunenseseneestnns 49

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . <<<<5<<5<<<<<655ồ2 50 Ỳ.Ì NGSuUÙfS .c.-c22201666<<x7502033-3038%01801-1<04622xA9843121509Yẹ4E14153951208+X595291251 50 4.1,1 Research question Ì e.eecesiosseenrrkieribdksza2021638 0/863 50 A1 2 Research GUSTO 2 cccccsaccetavsassxavsncansoereonsvarencenncertecceorsqercencercenreress 58 AD DISCUSSION oe ccc ycarccvensevcvencecucenecteescacnoranexunensscnsusscstneenussnenscnatnasaeesendaesionnnts 62

G2.) FRGRCAPGI (UẾSHOW Ì, i.casoixeebessebiicsLesrsseovrieczao-ReE-eebEaVeBES 62

4.2.2 RESCAPCH QUESHOTE 2 .2. .a0.csasansinensssucnsncasvansannexenvercacunarorecenesests 65 4.3 SUIMMALY ccscrceccssecncosnseenceersncreresnvonreanessesecsnecsanssecsnoceeaesenteansqaccatenssasnseacensonsn 65 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND IMPLICA TIONS .- 66 5.1 Main findings đắ the HHie51S eeesec si cú coecsák t3 eykcapspsesksa36 66 5.2 ImpHeaHGns GÌ the TCSEBTOILu.-eceesseononnnorsentsakoxklcserrsrksrerykeskeeeeecsekAesaSEn 67 5.3 Limitations and recommendations for further research 69 5.3.1 LLH[GHOHS .s 2ssciseirnnieioissesessserrsesSzlenEEkSkESSS5836300135E4994E8933535 69

5.3.2 Recommendations for further research - -+ +++++++ 69

5.4 Contributions OF Te StUGY 55 ccccesenscoccsenenovenosxcnnvonuspsasentssancinvasesaesnrareercoerere 70

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REFERENCES .- c5 5c Ă 9 000000000506006008006006060006000009000000000000100988 7I APPENDICES scsccssccssscssossescssssessosssnscessesssosconsentsnnsnnsesvoonsosnsearenesnenessraseosensensopesssses T7 APPENDIX 12 Pretest c<cecssenssssrvrcesoncossarorsonsunnsassaisnvastiniuncsguanansầauestannsesarraxsaneseneyns 77 APPENDIX 2: Posttest 1 .:cscssscosseneresvonssosentecenceresssensenenssnsesseensevenecensneesasansansnine 80 APPENDIX 3: POSHGSE 2 :cesveresasesssanvarienrsconecasensannava tennesunesenniseceieensseccessanere 83 APPENDIX 4: Games used for the study -. - c2 Sen S216 cde 86 APPENDIX 5: Exercises vised for the Study ccscccccesseseasosusecpeonsenernerecerasseeeereerevnenres 90 APPENDIX 6: Control groupỖs SCOTES .cscssccscsessrsesnesssesseneesestserseserseenseaesees 96 APPENDIX 7: Experintental ĐIOU fh SCOT Se ro 98

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LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 3.1: Comparison of gender between the control and experimental groups 40 Figure 3.2: Comparison of age between the control and experimental groups 4] Figure 4.1: The mean scores of the control and experimental groups in the

pretest atid TWO POSTESES 6 .csnccsiescocecduncaonsenssvoasscassanvancoeenernennegynennsasencenneasarearenensossnenes 54 Figure 4.2: The distribution of the score types of the control and experimental

STOUPS TE POSHESE L vex.sxcssicsvserneysutasnsssareonrscseavcniesecte renrarspensenastnne renrexecerersemrenneneancaieass a7

Figure 4.3: The distribution of the score types of the control and experimental BTOUPS TA POSSE 2 cascascnvevesensscsnrsncerveransnennostsresnensenesnesseaeesmenesnessensanscarcornssnostsasism 58

Figure 4.4: The results of the mean scores for the male and female learners

in the experimental group in the pretest and fwo pOSffẠSfS . -+-++++ 60 Figure 4.5: The results of the mean scores for the six-year-old learners and the seven-year-old ones in experimental group in the pretest and two posttests 61

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LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 3.1: Comparison of gender between the control and experimental groups 40 Table 3.2: Comparison of age between the control and experimental groups 4] Table 4.1: Independent samples t-test results for the mean scores of the

control and experimental groups in posttest 1 .csccssssveasserennevessnsasennsvezensecaenceneenses 50 Table 4.2: Independent samples t-test results for the mean scores of the

control and experimental ụroups 1n pOsffẠSf 2 .- - ề5-5555 << 51 Table 4.3: Independent samples t-test results for the mean scores of the control and experimental groups in the Pretest .c.c.ssssacsnscnesscnnsinannencensoreneaconserereenenseveness 52 Table 4.4: The mean scores of the control and experimental groups in the

Dre(Ạ5t ahd NO DORHGRÙđ c co ba nhà H21114042118001142142382001)130130913031072c0xs7sixaesbsrieieAx 53 Table 4.5: The distribution of the score types of the control and experimental

MPOUDS WI POSUERE Ì occccnceccccscssccnsososeenssasececuarssnsrcnsanensonaronsersncearerenvorcarsnavescansnaseniesvers 55 Table 4.6: The distribution of the score types of the control and experimental

EYDUDR TH HOSHRD 2 seca rcusnsscacescecssenenvaavancersveneneancesencecnersenenenduonnenansnanancvacbnvsibenantvnaKe 56

Table 4.7: The results of the mean scores of the male and female learners in the experimental group in the pretest and twO pOS{fẠSfS -:c ++ceccetrrret 59

Table 4.8: The results of the mean scores of the six-year-old learners and the

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EFL L1 L2 PPP SD Sig SPSS >

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the study

The acquisition of vocabulary has long been felt to be a crucial component of learning a foreign language ỘIf language structure makes up the skeleton of language, then it is vocabulary that provides the vital organs and flesh,Ợ (Hammer, 1991, p 153) Therefore, the importance of vocabulary teaching and learning is never too far to be emphasized For young learners, perhaps it is less difficult to learn vocabulary items for the first time than to consolidate and remember them We often hear young learners complain that they keep learning and forgetting When English language young learners are acquiring new vocabulary, they need concrete methods to collect, store, and retrieve words for retention and future use Therefore, it is necessary to find out effective methods to help young learners retain new words in long-term memory This is what the study attempts to attain

In LetỖs Go classes at the Ben Tre Foreign Language Centre, from my observation, most of the teachers usually use exercises to help the learners recall vocabulary Although there are a lot of vocabulary games suggested in the accompanying TeacherỖs Book, they never use them because they think using games is a waste of time As a result, a lot of the learners, especially the weak ones, tend to

forget many of the words they have learned

From my own teaching experience, I have noticed that young learners are very excited about learning English with games I believe that games are not only fun but

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also effective in helping students learn English Moreover, young learners like games very much, and the usefulness of using games in language teaching and learning has been shown by many famous researchers and authors These are the reasons why | decided to conduct a study about the ỘImpact of Games on Young LearnersỖ Vocabulary RecallỖ

1.2 Statement of purpose

From the above background, the study aimed at finding out the impact of labeling games on helping young learners aged 6-7 recall concrete object words in LetỖs Go classes at the Ben Tre Foreign Language Centre in Ben Tre Province

1.3 Research questions

To achieve the aim established above, this thesis tried to find out the

information to answer the following research questions:

1 Is there a difference between the game group (i.e the experimental group) and the exercise group (i.e the control one) in the recalling of vocabulary during (a) the immediate retention stage and (b) the delayed retention stage? In other words, to what extent do the two groups differ in (a) the mean scores and (b) the distribution of the score types during the two stages?

2 Concerning the experimental group, do the factors of (a) gender and (b) age exert any influence on the recalling of vocabulary as a result of the game

treatment? From this, two sub-questions can be subsumed: (1) is, there a

difference between male and female learners in the recalling of vocabulary as a

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result of the treatment of games? (2) Is there a difference between the six-year- old group and the seven-year-old group in the recalling of vocabulary as a result of the game treatment?

Research hypotheses

1 The game group exceeds the exercise group in the recalling of vocabulary

during the immediate retention stage and the delayed retention one

2 The factors of gender and age exert very little influence on the recalling of vocabulary as a result of the game treatment

1.4 Significance of the study

First, the study was done with the hope of raising teachersỖ awareness to the importance of games in vocabulary retention and making contribution to improving vocabulary teaching for young learners Especially, through the study the researcher hopes to enhance the quality of teaching concrete object words for young learners aged 6-7 by applying labeling games Therefore, the research is expectedly essential for the English teachers at the Ben Tre Foreign Language Centre and can serve as a reference for the English teachers of other primary schools as well as foreign language centres Finally, the results of the study together with the collected data and theories can be

used as a useful resource for further research in related fields

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1.5 Overview of thesis chapters

There are five chapters in this study

Chapter 1: Introduction - presents the background of the study, the statement of purpose, the research questions, the significance of the study, and the overview of thesis chapters

Chapter 2: Literature Review - reviews the literature which is used as the theoretical base of the research: (1) vocabulary teaching and learning, (2) young learners and language learning, and (3) games in language teaching and learning An overview of the studies related to games in improving learnersỖ retention of vocabulary taught will also be presented

Chapter 3: Methodology - presents the research methodology, which is divided into three sections: the first section stating the research questions, the second section introducing the research site, and the third section describing the research design

Chapter 4: Results and Discussion - presents, analyzes, and discusses the collected data The analysis is clarified with statistic tables and figures

Chapter 5: Conclusion and Implications - shows the research conclusion The summary of the study, the implications of the research, and recommendations for

further research are mentioned

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This research also consists of the appendices and references where I list the

instruments I used when collecting the data, the books, and other sources I referred to

when working over this research

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction

One of the issues that concern many teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) when teaching vocabulary is how to ensure that students can remember words once they leave the classroom In fact, teaching vocabulary involves assisting learners in (1) noticing, (2) retrieving, and (3) using words In reality, EFL teachers tend to focus much on introducing new words during the stage of presentation in the context of the PPP method at the expense of the stage of retrieval and use of new words As such, students tend to forget after leaving the classroom The challenge is multiplied if a

teacher is responsible for a class of children She has to, on the one hand, find ways to

engage the young learners in noticing the new words, and on the other hand, ensure that students can remember the new words introduced Different methods have been devised to help young learners retain the vocabulary taught, and games have been considered to be a potential tool in achieving the target mentioned

Within this context, in this review, the author is going to mention briefly some background issues related to (1) vocabulary teaching and learning, (2) young learners and language learning, and (3) games in language teaching and learning before establishing a ỔnicheỖ for her study An overview of the studies related to games in improving learnersỖ retention of vocabulary taught will also be presented

2.2 Vocabulary teaching and learning

Before getting to know how learners acquire new words, a review of what vocabulary is will be introduced

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2.2.1 Vocabulary: What is it?

In Longman dictionary, vocabulary is defined as Ộa set of lexemes, including

single words, compound words and idiomsỢ (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992, p 400)

Then, what do learners know if they know a word?

2.2.2 Aspects of knowing a word

Nation (2001, p 27) groups the aspects of knowing a word into three parts: form, meaning, and use, including receptive and productive knowledge and shows the relations between the aspects as follows:

2.2.2.1 Form

According to Nation (2001, p 27), the form of a word consists of its Ộspoken formỢ, Ộwritten formỢ, and Ộword partsỢ This knowledge involves being able to recognize the word when it is heard, being able to say it with correct pronunciation including stress, being familiar with its written form so that it is recognized when it is met in reading, and being able to write it with correct spelling

Ur (1996, p 60) shares the same view that the learner has to know what a word sounds like (its pronunciation), what it looks like (its spelling), and what category it

refers to

2.2.2.2 Meaning

Besides the form, meaning is the basic aspect of vocabulary This aspect

consists of form and meaning, concepts and referents, and associations (Nation, 2001, p 27)

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Similarly, Ur (1996, p 60) points out that there are three aspects of meaning

which are usually mentioned as the most basic - denotation, connotation, and appropriateness Denotation is the meaning of a word which refers to a thing in the real

world Connotation is Ộa less component of the meaningỢ, for example associations or positive feelings, which Ộmay or may not be indicated in a dictionary definitionỢ The third basic aspect of meaning, according to Ur (1996, p 61), is ỘappropriatenessỢ which concerns Ộwhether a particular item is the appropriate one to use in a certain

context or notỢ 2.2.2.3 Use

According to Nation (2001, pp 103-105), use of the word relates to collocations

and constrains on use Collocations of a word help know what words or types of words

occur with it Constraints on use allow where, when, and how often the word is used Besides, grammatical function is another aspect of a word which students need to know

(Nation, 2001, p 27 The word can be changed according to its grammatical meaning, and the use of certain words can trigger the use of certain grammatical patterns

In summary, knowing a word means more than just knowing its meaning which

includes sense relations and contexts Learners also need to know about its use, how it

is formed, and what grammatical behavior it provokes or co-exists These three aspects are basic knowledge relating to learnersỖ knowing a word

2.2.3 Vocabulary acquisition: How do learners acquire new words?

Before getting to know how learners acquire new words, it is necessary to understand the process of vocabulary acquisition

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2.2.3.1 The process of vocabulary acquisition

On the one hand, Nation (2001, pp 29-74) mentions three important processes that need to be taken into consideration when practicing vocabulary learning activities as they will make it possible for the words to be remembered later They are ỔnoticingỖ,

ỔretrievalỖ, and Ổcreative useỖ

Noticing means giving attention to an item, that is, learners should be guided to notice the word and be aware of it as a useful language item Nation (2001, p 30) believes that motivation and interest are important enabling conditions for noticing Hence, teachers need to observe the students carefully and seek their opinions about what sort of topics or activities they find interesting because Ộwithout the engagement and aroused attention of the learners, there can be little opportunity for other conditions favoring learning to take effectỢ (Nation, 2001, p 64)

After a word is noticed and comprehended in the textual input, it has to be subsequently retrieved in order for it to be strengthened in the memory While the noticing directs the learner towards learning the word, the retrieval reinforces the

meaning of the word in the learnerỖs mind To enhance retrieval, teachers need to do

some sort of recycling activities in the classroom in order for the learners to revise the words because not all the words a student hears during any lesson become a part of his/her active vocabulary during that lesson or in later lessons Nation (2001, p 38) points out that repetition is essential for vocabulary learning Similarly, Wallace (1982, p 29) states that Ộthere has to be a certain amount of repetition until there is evidence that the student has learned the target wordỢ The more frequent the retrieval of a particular item in a learning process, the greater the chances that the item will strike

deeper in the learnerỖs memory Thus, the learners of a language need to recycle the

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words as much as possible in order for them to store those words into their long-term

retention

The last process of vocabulary acquisition in NationỖs classification is that of the creative or generative use It takes place when previously met words are subsequently met or used in ways that differ from the previous meeting with the word

(Nation, 2001, p 69)

On the other hand, Schmitt (2000, p 116) suggests two main processes of vocabulary acquisition: Ộexplicit learningỢ through the focused study of words and Ộincidental learningỢ through exposure when oneỖs attention is focused on the use of

language, rather than the learning itself

Explicit learning focuses attention directly on the information to be learned, which gives the greatest chance for its acquisition But it is also time-consuming, and for all but the most diligent student, it would be too laborious to learn an adequately

sized lexicon

Incidental learning can occur when one is using language for communicative purposes and so gives a double benefit for time expended But it is slower and more gradual, lacking the focused attention of explicit learning

A person should be able to start learning incidentally from verbal conversation almost from the beginning, but when it comes to reading, a certain amount of explicit study is probably necessary as a prerequisite Certain important words make excellent

targets for explicit attention, for example, the most frequent words in a language and

technical vocabulary On the other hand, infrequent words in general English are

probably best left to incidental learning

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Words not explicitly focused upon can be learned incidentally from exposure, facilitated by the use of vocabulary learning strategies Another way to expedite incidental learning is to increase the amount of exposure, because lack of exposure is one of the most common problems facing second language learners

Both explicit and incidental learning are necessary, and should be seen as complementary L1 learners benefit from a complementary of explicit teaching and incidental learning (Schmitt, 2000, p 120) Explicit teaching can supply valuable first introductions to a word In addition, repeated exposure will help to consolidate the lexical aspects first learned

In conclusion, words can be learned from explicit teaching, or they can be learned incidentally while studentsỖ attention is on the meaning of the discourse In either case, words are learned incrementally This means that they need to be met numerous times before they are acquired, and so repetition needs to be built into vocabulary learning

Besides the above processes, memory also plays an important part in vocabulary acquisition This will be mentioned in the section below

2.2.3.2 The role of memory in vocabulary acquisition

It can be said that the difference between a successful and unsuccessful

language learner usually has to do with memory In fact, memory plays an important

role in learning a new language Memory comes in two basic types: short-term memory

and long-term memory (Schmitt, 2000, p 129)

Short-term memory is a storage system where new information is stored for a short while Short-term memory is fast and adaptive but has a small storage capacity

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Long-term memory retains information for use but the immediate future Long-term memory has an almost unlimited storage capacity but is relatively slow

According to Ellis (1997, p 139), short-term representation and rehearsal allows the eventual establishment of long-term sequence information for language There are reciprocal interactions between long-term sequence representations and short-term storage whereby long-term sequence information allows the chunking of working memory contents which accord with these consolidated patterns, thus extending the span of short-term storage for chunkable materials The better the long-term storage of frequent language sequences, the more easily they can serve as labels for meaning

reference

Researchers into the workings of memory distinguish between the following systems: the short-term store, working memory, and long-term memory (Thornbury, 2002, pp 23-26)

The short-term store is the brainỖs capacity to hold a limited number of items of information for periods of time up to a few seconds But successful vocabulary learning clearly involves more than simply holding words in your mind for a few seconds For words to be integrated into long-term memory they need to be subjected to different kinds of operations

Focusing on words long enough to perform operations on them is the function of working memory Material remains in working memory for about twenty seconds

Long-term memory can be thought of as a kind of filing system Unlike working memory, which has a limited capacity and no permanent content, long-term memory has an enormous capacity, and its contents are durable over time However, the fact that learners can retain new vocabulary items the length of a lesson (i.e beyond the few

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secondsỖ duration of short-term store) but have forgotten them by the next lesson suggests that long-term memory is not always as long-term as we would wish Rather, it occupies a continuum from Ộthe quickly forgottenỢ to Ộthe never forgottenỢ The great challenge for language learners is to transform material from the quickly forgotten to the never forgotten

The objective of vocabulary learning is to transfer the lexical information from

the short-term memory to the more permanent long-term memory (Schmitt, 2000, pp

129-131) Hence, this study focused on measuring the learnersỖ recalling of the word meaning during the immediate retention stage and the delayed retention one

Memory clearly plays a key role in vocabulary learning and the benefits of revision and repetition have been clearly demonstrated in studies of vocabulary learning Research into memory suggests that repetition can help new words move into permanent long-term memory In addition, both Hague (1987, p 112) and Machalias (1991, p 67) conclude that meaningful exercises or classroom activities which promote formation of associations and therefore build up students semantic networks are effective for long-term retention

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Spacing It is better to distribute memory work across a period of time than to mass it together in a single block This is known as the principle of distributed practice This applies in both the short term and the long term

Pacing Students should be given the opportunity to pace their own rehearsal

activities

Use Putting words to use, preferably in some interesting way, is the best way of ensuring they are added to long-term memory

Cognitive depth The more decisions the learner makes about a word, and the more cognitively demanding these decisions, the better the word is remembered Personal organising Learners make about a word are more effective if they are personalised

Imaging Best of all were subjects who were given the task of silently visualising a mental picture to go with a new word

Mnemonics These are ỘtricksỢ to help retrieve items or rules that are stored in memory and that are not yet automatically retrievable

Motivation The only difference a strong motivation makes is that the learner is likely to spend more time on rehearsal and practice, which in the end will pay off I terms of memory

Attention A very high degree of attention seems to correlate with improved

recall

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Affective depth Affective information is stored along with cognitive data, and may play an equally important role on how words are stored and recalled

2.2.3.3 Why do we forget words?

According to Thornbury (2002, p 26), forgetting can also occur even if a word is relatively well-known, as when one does not use a second language for a long time or stops a course of language study Even with the best will in the world, students forget words As a rule, forgetting is rapid at first, but gradually slows down This is true in both the short term (e.g from lesson to lesson) and in the long term (e.g after a

whole course) Two factors seemed to determine retention First, those words that were

easy to learn were better retained Secondly, those words that were learned over spaced learning sessions were retained better than words that were learned in concentrated bursts Ở consistent with the principle of distributed practice

Forgetting may be caused both by interference from subsequent learning and by insufficient recycling

More importantly, as a remedy against forgetting, is recycling Research shows that spaced review of learned material can dramatically reduce he rate of forgetting But itỖs not enough simply to repeat words, or to re-encounter them in their original contexts Much better is to recycle them in different ways, and, ideally, at successive levels of depth Research suggests that if learners see or use a word in a way different from the way they first met it, then better learning is achieved

In summary, vocabulary needs to be met and recycled at intervals in different

activities As a result, the vocabulary will move from short-term memory into the long-

term one

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In what ways can learners retain new words in long-term memory? The

information can be found in the next section

2.2.4 Vocabulary teaching: A focus on recalling

As mentioned above, memory is very crucial in vocabulary learning and the benefits of revision and repetition have been clearly demonstrated in studies of vocabulary learning (OỖDell, 1997, p 276)

According to Rubin (1987, p 29), learning is the process by which information

is obtained, stored, retrieved, and usedỢ The word ỘuseỢ can mean Ộinteractional communicationỢ and Ộvocabulary practiceỢ (Schmitt, 1997, p 203) Therefore, the

teacher needs to provide initial encoding of new words and then Ộsubsequent retrieved experiencesỢ (Rubin, 1987, p 29) Similarly, research suggests that if learners see or use a word in a way different from the way they first met it, then better learning is achieved Schmitt (2000, p 116) also states that the amount of exposure can affect second language vocabulary acquisition In fact, research in vocabulary acquisition reported by Nation in 1990 reveals that students require at least five to sixteen exposures to a new word before learning it Also, Bunch (2009, para 1) points out that

English language learners will benefit from a variety of activities aimed at increasing

exposure to key vocabulary

Besides, vocabulary acquisition is related to the effect of repetition on learning (Laufer, 1997, pp 140-142) It can be said that repetition is one of the most effective ways to learn new words Similarly, according to Carter and McCarthy (1988, p 67), new words are forgotten if they are not recycled in some way and make it into our long-term memory In order to learn vocabulary, words have to be recycled numerous times In fact, providing incidental encounters with words is one method to facilitate

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vocabulary acquisition (S6kmen, 1997, p 237) Through regular recycling, children can be given opportunities to meet the same vocabulary, embedded in different contexts, languages, and activity types This not only improves their recall and develops memory processes, but also extends their understanding and associations of vocabulary in an ever expanding network of meanings and use Ellis (1997, pp 134-

138) shares the same view that repetition is a strategy for consolidating vocabulary In addition, Thornbury (2002, p 18) summarizes the process of meaning acquisition in L1 children in three basic stages: (1) labeling (attaching a label to a concept), (2) categorization (grouping a number of objects under a particular label), and (3) network building (connections between related words)

From what has been explored, it might be hypothesized that games are effective in helping learners retain new words in long-term memory because they can bring exposure to learning vocabulary This will be explained more clearly in section 2.4.4

Before examining the roles of games in helping learners recall vocabulary, the stages of teaching vocabulary should be reviewed

2.2.5 Stages of teaching vocabulary

According to Doff (1988, p 98), there are four stages in teaching vocabulary, namely presentation, practice, production, and review

2.2.5.1 Presentation

As suggested by Thornbury (2002, pp 75-76), learners need to learn both the

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The learnersỖ level (beginner, intermediate, or advanced) LearnersỖ likely familiarity with the words

The difficulty of the items

VV

V

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Their ỘteachabilityỢ, which means whether they can be easily explained or demonstrated within the context of the classroom

>Ừ Whether items are being learned for production (in speaking and writing) or for recognition (in listening and reading) Since more time will be needed for the former, the number of items is likely to be fewer if the aim is only recognition According to Gairns & Redman (1986, pp 73-75), there are three techniques used in the presentation of new vocabulary items The first one is visual techniques including mime, gestures, and visuals such as flashcards, photographs, blackboard drawings, wall charts, and realia The second one is verbal techniques: (1) use of illustrative situations, (2) use of synonymy and definition, (3) contrasts and opposites, (4) scales, and (5) examples of the type The last one is translation It is considered a quick, easy, and effective way of conveying the meaning of vocabulary

Similarly, Thornbury (2002, p 77) suggests a variety of techniques in

introducing vocabulary such as translation, real things, pictures, gestures, definitions,

and situations Doff (1988, p 96) groups these techniques into four categories: showing the meaning of words visually, showing the meaning of words in context, using

synonyms and/or antonyms, and translation He adds that a combination of the

techniques should be implemented when it comes to the effectiveness of presenting meaning of new words (p 97)

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2.2.5.2 Practice

StudentsỖ vocabulary can only be activated effectively if the teacher gives the learners opportunities to practice them through vocabulary exercises or activities Thornbury (2002, p 93) emphasizes the action of moving from short-term memory into permanent memory In order to ensure long-term retention, words or lexical items need to be put into practice

According to Scivener (1994, p 127), some kinds of practical exercises to help students become more familiar with the words they have learned: matching pictures to words, matching parts of words to other parts, using prefixes and suffixes to build new words from given words, classifying items into lists, using given words to complete vocabulary specific task, filling in crosswords, grids or diagrams, filling in gaps in sentences and memory games

Similarly, Thornbury (2002, pp 93-94) points out that there is a variety of tasks which can be used in order to help move words into long-term memory They can be divided into five types in order of least cognitively demanding to most demanding: identifying, selecting, matching, sorting, and ranking and sequencing

2.2.5.3 Production

According to Hunt and Beglar (2002, p 261), fluency building activities recycle

already known words in familiar grammatical and organizational patterns so that students can focus on recognizing or using words without hesitation

Activities used to develop learnersỖ production of vocabulary may also include the following: first and second language comparisons and translation carried out chunk-for-chunk, rather than word-for-word aimed at raising language awareness;

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repetition and recycling of activities, such as summarizing a text orally one day and again a few days later to keep words and expressions that have been learned active; noticing and recording language patterns and collocations; working with language corpuses created by the teacher for use in the classroom (Nation, 1990, p 208) Besides, Doff (1988) judges communicative activities such as information exchanging, elicitation of student-talk, games and role plays as the most effective ways to motivate students to be more actively involved in the speaking activities to produce the words they have known

2.2.5.4 Review

According to Davies & Pearse (2000, p 103), reviewing produces better results for teaching and learning vocabulary In the reviewing stage, students have more opportunities to use language and receive feedback

Methodologists agree that games and communicative activities are the best ways to help students review vocabulary Besides, visual aids can make vocabulary revision more interesting and effective Revision can be done in both individuals and collaboration Doff (1988, p 97) expresses that vocabulary is mainly reviewed through the warm-up step That means teachers review vocabulary learnt in an earlier lesson It aims at refreshing studentsỖ memories or as a preparation for a new presentation

In summary, this section has just mentioned four stages that are usually used in teaching vocabulary, including presentation, practice, production, and review

2.3 Young learners and language learning

Before getting to know about young learners and language learning, a review of young learners will be introduced

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2.3.1 Definition of young learners

According to Rixon (1999, p 65), young learners are children between ages of about 5 years old to 12 years old

Similarly, young learners, as defined by Phillips (1993, p 4), are Ộchildren of

formal schooling (five or six years old) to eleven or twelve years of ageỢ

To help know more about young learners, their characteristics will be mentioned in the following section

2.3.2 Characteristics of young learners

Slattery and Willis (2001, p 45) emphasizes the importance of knowing the young learnersỖ characteristics before teaching them Understanding the characteristics of childrenỖs memory, in teaching a language, the teacher should inspire their interests and at the same time relate the new knowledge to the old one by providing the flexibility for including review, recycling, and consolidation activities

According to Thornbury (2006, pp 250-252), there are three special characteristics of young learners that distinguish them from other learners: cognitive,

affective, and social

Firstly, the most relevant cognitive factors can be seen in childrenỖs relatively limited world knowledge, their inability to conceive of language as an abstract system, a difficulty in sustaining attention for extended periods of time (Thornbury, 2006, p

250) Especially, young learners possess a Ộnatural desireỢ in learning concrete words

(Zhao & Morgan, 2007, p 8) They are not consciously interested in language for their own sake and usually tend to direct their interest towards things that are easy for them

to understand

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Secondly, affective factors include a lack of self-consciousness about expressing

themselves inaccurately or through minimal means, and the need for encouragement and support Also, young learners are more likely to be motivated by intrinsic factors, such as the inherent interest of an engaging task or game, than by extrinsic factors, such as the need to pass a test They are particularly predisposed to learning through

play (p 251) In fact, young children love to play and learn best when they enjoy themselves (Scott & Ytreberg, 1993, p 3) Children want to move, wriggle, and touch

everything; therefore, class activities need to give children an opportunity to move around such as rhythms (jumping and dancing), games, and other physical activities (Dunn, 1985, p 14) Especially, as young learners are subject to rapid mood changes and often find it difficult to sit quietly, they can learn at best when they are involved in a large variety of activities (Scott & Ytreberg, 1993, p 74)

Thirdly, social differences include a lack of social skills, especially where peer collaboration is required, and consequently a greater dependency on the teacher for direction and support

In summary, young learners have three special characteristics that are different from other learners: cognitive, affective, and social It is important for teachers to recognize these characteristics to choose suitable methods in teaching young learners The next section will mention some tips in teaching young learners

2.3.3 Thumb rules in teaching young learners

From the above differences, Thornbury (2006, pp 250-251), suggests a number of thumb rules when teaching young learners, including:

>Ừ Provide opportunities for learning through doing, rather than through formal study

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Situate the content of lessons in the world of the learners (personalization) Plan short, varied activity cycles

Systematically recycle language in different contexts

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V

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Incorporate activities which engage learners in using language for reasons and purposes which they can relate to, such as games, stories, and songs

> Do activities, including physical activities, which involve al the senses (multiple intelligences)

>Ừ Provide plenty of comprehensible input that is supported by actions (total

physical response)

> Scaffold the learnersỖ talk to provide them with a conversational framework within which they can express themselves (scaffolding)

>Ừ Establish regular routines in class, such as calling the roll, beginning or ending

each lesson with a song (routine)

>Ừ Train young learners how to learn by, for example, setting learning goals, explaining reasons for doing things and asking learners to reflect on their learning (learner training)

> Do not over rely on pair work or group work, but include plenty of teacher- fronted activities as well

>Ừ When doing pair work and group work, monitor to make sure that learners are on task, and intervene if necessary to ensure learners are cooperating with one another (monitoring)

Many of these principles are, in fact, perfectly consistent with a communicative approach, especially the emphasis on learning through doing rather than through

formal study More importantly, those principles suggest flexibility in dealing with young learners, particularly in teaching them vocabulary

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Scott and Ytreberg (1993, p 178) advise teachers to build up cooperation and avoid competition However, Hadfield (1990, p 8) and Lewis (1999, p 147) disagree with this viewpoint; they believe that games with competition motivate the children a lot Children can be both committed to cooperation and at the same time, fiercely competitive (Hadfield , 1990, p 14)

In teaching young learners, class activities are especially important Firstly, primary schoolchildrenỖs interest directly depends on class activities teachers set up and the way teachers organize them (Nguyen & Le, 1998, p 69) Secondly, children attention span can be extremely short The movement of childrenỖs attention from one object to another cannot last long because their intensity of attention is very weak so their attention is easily distracted (Nguyen & Le, 1998, p 126) Therefore, besides

such tasks as drills, workbook exercises, other communicative activities should be

assigned to children; for example, storytelling, drama, songs, or games 2.4 Games in language teaching and learning

Before exploring the role of games in vocabulary acquisition, the game

definition will be mentioned first

2.4.1 Definition of games

A game is an organized activity that usually has the following properties: a

particular task or objective, a set of rules, competition between players, and

communication between players by spoken or written language (Richards, Platt, &

Platt, 1992, p 153)

Similarly, games can also be defined as an Ộactivity with rules, a goal, and an

element of funỢ (Hadfield, 1990, p v)

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Vocabulary games are those in which the main purpose of attention is mainly on words

2.4.2 Kinds of games used for language teaching and learning

Lee (2000, p 65) classifies games into ten kinds: structure games, vocabulary games, spelling games, pronunciation games, number games, listen-and-do games, read-and-do games, games and writing, miming and role-play, and discussion game

However, McCallum (1980, p 74) categorizes games for language learning into seven kinds: vocabulary games, number games, structure games, spelling games, conversation games, writing games, and role-play and dramatics

Each kind of game focuses on a language component or a skill, so when choosing games, one of the factors that teachers have to consider is the aim of the

lesson

As mentioned above, the language games chosen in this study must serve the purpose of helping the learners recall vocabulary; therefore, vocabulary games were chosen in this study

According to Hadfield (1999, pp 102 -104), games can take one of the following forms:

a Sorting, ordering, or arranging games For example, students have a set of cards with different products on them, and they sort the cards into products found at a grocery store and products found at a department

store

b Information gap games In such games, one or more people have information that other people need to complete a task For instance, one

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Chapter 2

person might have a drawing and their partner needs to create a similar drawing by listening to the information given by the person with the drawing Information gap games can involve a one-way information gap,

such as the drawing game just described, or a two-way information gap,

in which each person has unique information, such as in a Spot-the- Difference task, where each person has a slightly different picture, and the task is to identify the differences

Guessing games These are a variation on information gap games One of the best known examples of a guessing game is 20 Questions, in which one person thinks of a famous person, place, or thing The other participants can ask 20 Yes/No questions to find clues in order to guess who or what the person is thinking of

Search games These games are yet another variant on two-way information gap games, with everyone giving and seeking information Find Someone Who is a well-known example Students are given a grid The task is to fill in all the cells in the grid with the name of a classmate who fits that cell, e.g., someone who is a vegetarian Students circulate, asking and answering questions to complete their own grid and help classmates complete theirs

Matching games As the name implies, participants need to find a match for a word, picture, or card For example, students place 30 word cards, composed of 15 pairs, face down in random order Each person turns over two cards at a time, with the goal of turning over a matching pair, by using their memory

Labeling games These are a form of matching, in that participants match

labels and pictures

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g Exchanging games In these games, students barter cards, other objects, or ideas

h Board games Scrabble is one of the most popular board games that specifically highlight language

i Role-play games Role play can involve students playing roles that they do not play in real life, such as dentist, while simulations can involve students performing roles that they already play in real life or might be likely to play, such as customer at a restaurant

The above games can be played in pairs, groups, or with the whole class They can be card games, board games, puzzles, and role-play according to the size of the class or the excitement of the games we want to make for the class

In this study, the researcher only focused on labeling games in which participants matched labels with pictures

In short, games are diverse and techniques used to carry them are various They

can be used at any stages of a class (Harmer, 1991, p 101) Especially, games play a

vital part in vocabulary teaching and learning; this will be made clearer in the next section

2.4.3 Characteristics of games in language teaching and learning

According to Bradley (2010, p 3), games have some characteristics that are advantageous to language learners as follows:

First, games engage all students in the learning process When students play games in pairs or groups, they have the opportunity to recognize and appreciate the contributions of others and use team-building skills Some classroom games focus on

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individuals working to win against all other peers in the class This type of game works well with students who are highly motivated and competitive

Second, games provide an opportunity for collaboration and/or cooperation Classroom games provide an opportunity for students to collaborate and cooperate with each other, while working towards a common goal - winning In some games, students are paired or grouped, which may lead to peer tutoring and the use of cooperative skills in order to win They may not realize that they are actually learning, but they are working together towards a common goal

Third, games provide an enjoyable learning experience Creating a fun and enjoyable learning environment is a large first step toward motivating students Research indicates that classroom games are effective strategies that facilitate learning

To sum up, games help engage all students, provide an opportunity for collaboration and/or cooperation, and provide an enjoyable learning experience

2.4.4 Role of games in vocabulary retention

In order to learn and retain new words, learners should participate in different task-based activities in their classroom and such activities also include vocabulary games which especially focus on helping learners develop and use words in different contexts by making the lessons enjoyable Therefore, it is necessary to explore whether students learn vocabulary effectively through games and how they learn it Many experts of language teaching methodology agree that playing games is a good way to learn vocabulary, especially in communicative language teaching classes Games have been shown to have advantages and effectiveness in learning vocabulary in various ways

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First, using games is a good way to increase exposure to vocabulary which enhances studentsỖ vocabulary acquisition Learning is a process by which

Ộinformation is obtained, stored, retrieved, and usedỢ; therefore, the teacher needs to

provide initial encoding of new words and then Ộsubsequent retrieved experiencesỢ (Rubin, 1987, p 29) Research suggests that if learners see or use a word in a way different from the way they first met it, then better learning is achieved According to Schmitt (2000, p 116), amount of exposure can affect second language vocabulary acquisition Research in vocabulary acquisition reported by Nation in 1990 reveals that students require at least five to sixteen exposures to a new word before learning it Also, Bunch (2009, para 1) points out that English language learners will benefit from a variety of activities aimed at increasing exposure to key vocabulary Besides, Laufer (1997, pp 140-142) points out that vocabulary acquisition is related to the effect of repetition on learning It can be said that repetition is one of the most effective ways to learn new words Similarly, according to Carter and McCarthy (1988, p 67), new words are forgotten if they are not recycled in some way and make it into long-term memory In order to learn vocabulary, words have to be recycled numerous times In fact, providing incidental encounters with words is one method to facilitate vocabulary acquisition (Sékmen, 1997, p 237) Through regular recycling, children can be given opportunities to meet the same vocabulary, embedded in different contexts, languages and activities types This not only improves their recall and develops memory processes, but also extends their understanding and associations of vocabulary in an ever expanding network of meaning and use As games provide another encounter with the target words, they have the advantage of being fun, competitive, and

consequently, memorable (Sékmen, 1997, p 242) Methodologists agree that games

can help students review vocabulary effectively Memory plays a key role in vocabulary learning and the benefits of revision and repetition have been clearly demonstrated in studies of vocabulary learning (OỖDell, 1997, p 276) Besides, Ellis