ii TRANSLATING THE LITERATURE OF SCRIPTURE A Literary-Rhetorical Approach to Bible Translation Ernst R Wendland 2004 ii iii The Scripture quotations used in this publication, when not my own literal or concordant translation of the Hebrew or Greek text, are in the main taken from the following English versions: the New International Version (NIV) © 1984 by the New York International Bible Society; the Revised Standard Version (RSV) © 1973 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the U.S.A.; the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the U.S.A.; the Today’s English Version (TEV) © 1976 by the American Bible Society; the Contemporary English Version (CEV) © 1995 by the American Bible Society; and God’s Word (GW) © 1995 by God’s Word to the Nations Bible Society All these are used by permission, for which I am grateful © 2003 by SIL International ISBN: 1Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: Printed in the United States of America Distributed by Eisenbrauns, Inc., in conjunction with SIL International Copies may be purchased from: Eisenbrauns, Inc P O Box 275 Winona Lake, IN 46590-0275, U.S.A and International Academic Bookstore SIL International 7500 West Camp Wisdom Road Dallas, TX 75236, U.S.A iii iv To All my SIL and UBS colleagues From whom I have learned so much (perhaps taking longer than I should have, but as they say in Chichewa, mau a akulu akoma akagonera “the words of the elders sound sweeter once they’ve slept the night”) And with whom I have had such an exciting and enriching experience over the years, discussing the various problems and possibilities of translating the Word of God in the literary form of a “new song,” and in as many as possible of the world languages resulting from Babel יעה־לּ֥ וֹ ְי ִ֝מינ֗ וֹ וּזְ ֥ר ַוֹע ָק ְד ֽשׁוֹ׃ ָ הוֹשׁ ֽ ִ ָע ָ ֑שׂה גּוֹים ִגּ ָ ֥לּה ִצ ְד ָק ֽתוֹ׃ ִ֗ שׁוּע ֑תוֹ ְל ֵע ֵינ֥י ַ֝ה ָ הוֹד ַיע ְי֭הוָ ה ְי ִ֣ (Psalm 98:1a-2) καὶ ᾄδουσιν ᾠδὴν καινὴν λέγοντες· Ἄξιος εἶ λαβεῖν τὸ βιβλίον καὶ ἀνοῖξαι τὰς σφραγῖδας αὐτοῦ, ὅτι ἐσφάγης καὶ ἠγόρασας τῷ θεῷ ἐν τῷ αἵµατί σου ἐκ πάσης φυλῆς καὶ γλώσσης καὶ λαοῦ καὶ ἔθνους (Revelation 5:9) iv v this page (vi) blank v vi CONTENTS CONTENTS vi FOREWORD viii PREFACE ix THE STUDY OF LITERATURE IN RELATION TO THE BIBLE AND ITS TRANSLATION 1.1 Definition: What “literature” is 1.2 Medium: Literature versus orature 1.3 Quality: “Good” versus “poor” style in verbal art 1.4 Scope: The extent to which the Scriptures contain literature 1.5 Methodology: A literary-rhetorical (L-R) approach 1.6 Motivation: Why study and translate the Bible as literature 1.7 Models: Important L-R methodologies 1.8 Strategy: The importance of a project Skopos 12 1.9 A preview of things to come 13 DEFINING THE PARAMETERS OF A LITERARY-RHETORICAL TRANSLATION 15 2.1 The value of a literary-rhetorical translation 16 2.2 Background: The literary analysis of biblical literature 18 2.3 The crucial question: Can the Bible be classified as literature? 19 2.4 Some theories of literary translation 22 2.4.1 Bible translation theorists 22 2.4.2 Secular theorists 25 2.4.2.1 Literalist approach 25 2.4.2.2 Functionalist approach 27 2.4.2.3 Descriptive approach 29 2.4.2.4 Text-linguistic approach 32 2.4.2.5 Relevance approach 34 2.4.2.6 Interpretive approach 37 2.4.2.7 Comparative approach 40 2.4.2.8 Professional approach 43 2.4.3 Evaluating the various theories 46 2.5 The ambiguity of the term literary translation 46 2.5.1 A social (popular) perspective 46 vi ii 2.5.2 A stylistic (technical) perspective 47 2.6 Defining literary translation 48 2.7 Translation as a complex “mediated” act of communication 49 2.8 A continuum of translation types 51 2.9 Where to set the L-R parameters 54 2.9.1 Cost 56 2.9.2 Gain 56 TECTONICITY OF THE SCRIPTURES 58 3.1 Genres 59 3.1.1 Emic categories 64 3.1.2 Etic categories 64 3.1.2.1 Poetry 64 3.1.2.2 Prose 70 3.2 Structures 74 3.2.1 The four processes of discourse design 74 3.2.2 The four techniques of discourse design 75 3.2.3 An example of discourse design in the Scriptures—1 Cor 13:4–13 78 3.3 The importance for biblical interpretation of perceiving literary structure 81 ARTISTRY OF THE SCRIPTURES 84 4.1 Artistry in relation to Scripture 85 4.1.1 Figuration 86 4.1.2 Documentation 86 4.1.3 Repetition 87 4.1.4 Compaction 88 4.1.5 Deviation 89 4.1.6 Phonation 89 4.1.7 Evocation 90 4.1.8 Dramatization 91 4.2 Functions of artistry in biblical discourse 92 4.3 The Joseph Story: Biblical artistry in context 93 4.3.1 Examples of figuration 93 4.3.2 Examples of documentation 94 4.3.3 Examples of repetition 94 4.3.4 Examples of compaction 96 4.3.5 Examples of deviation 96 4.3.6 Examples of phonation 97 4.3.7 Examples of evocation 97 ii iii 4.3.8 Examples of dramatization 97 4.4 The implications of artistic devices 98 ICONICITY OF THE SCRIPTURES 99 5.1 Archetypes 100 5.1.1 Symbols 104 5.1.2 Character types 106 5.1.3 Type scenes 107 5.1.4 Literary-cultural categories 109 5.2 The iconicity of the Epistle of James 111 5.3 The value of studying the iconicity of the Scriptures 112 RHETORICITY OF THE SCRIPTURES 114 6.1 Defining rhetoric 114 6.2 Methods of rhetorical analysis 116 6.2.1 The rabbinic/Christic technique 116 6.2.1.1 Authoritative demeanor 117 6.2.1.2 Prophetic style 117 6.2.1.3 Wisdom tradition 118 6.2.1.4 Dialogic technique 118 6.2.1.5 Speaking in specifics 119 6.2.1.6 Audience appeal and involvement 119 6.2.1.7 Poetic composition 120 6.2.2 The Classical Greco-Roman rhetorical-oratorical method 122 6.2.3 The epistolary method 127 6.2.4 Speech-act analysis 131 6.2.5 Argument-structure analysis 133 6.3 The implicit dimension of rhetoricity 137 6.4 The importance of understanding the rhetoricity of TL literature 139 LITERARY-RHETORICAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES 140 7.1 L-R analysis techniques for nonnarrative discourse 140 7.1.1 Step 1: Study the complete textual, intertextual, and extratextual context 140 7.1.2 Step 2: Read the entire text and determine its genre and subgenres 142 7.1.3 Step 3: Plot all occurrences of recursion/repetition in the pericope 142 7.1.4 Step 4: Find all instances of disjunction within the discourse 143 7.1.5 Step 5: Isolate the areas of stylistic concentration 144 7.1.6 Step 6: Identify the major points of discourse demarcation and projection 145 7.1.7 Step 7: Outline the compositional structure of the entire pericope 145 7.1.8 Step 8: Prepare a complete semantic (word/symbol/motif) study 146 iii iv 7.1.9 Step 9: Analyze any remaining linguistic and literary features 147 7.1.10 Step 10: Note the major speech functions and their interaction in the discourse 147 7.1.11 Step 11: Do an L-R comparison for possible form-functional matches 148 7.1.12 Step 12: Prepare a trial translation and test it against other versions 149 7.2 L-R analysis techniques for narrative discourse 150 7.2.1 Questions concerning events 150 7.2.2 Questions concerning characters 151 7.2.3 Questions concerning the setting 152 7.2.4 Questions concerning the rhetoric of the text 153 7.3 Applying the twelve procedural steps to the Book of Obadiah 154 7.3.1 Textual, intertextual, and extratextual context 154 7.3.2 Genres and genre subtypes 154 7.3.3 Random and patterned repetition 155 7.3.4 Disjunction: Breaks and formulas 155 7.3.5 Stylistic concentration 156 7.3.6 Demarcation and projection 156 7.3.7 Outline of compositional structure 157 7.3.8 Word and motif study 157 7.3.9 Other literary-rhetorical features 158 7.3.10 Speech-act functions 158 7.3.11 Corresponding TL devices 159 7.3.12 Trial translation and testing 159 7.4 Summary 160 DETERMINING THE STYLISTIC AND RHETORICAL FEATURES OF TL LITERATURE 162 8.1 A literary-rhetorical analysis and application of TL verbal art forms 162 8.1.1 Step 1: Constitution 163 8.1.2 Step 2: Collection 163 8.1.3 Step 3: Classification 164 8.1.4 Step 4: Comparison 164 8.1.5 Step 5: Compensation 164 8.1.6 Step 6: Creation 165 8.1.7 Step 7: Check-examination 165 8.1.8 Step 8: Criticism 166 8.2 The difference between literary and oratorical text 166 8.3 The importance of comparing the literary features of SL and TL texts 169 8.4 An L-R oratorical version illustrated: Ezek 37:1–10 in Chichewa 171 8.5 Description of the main stylistic features of the Chichewa L-R version 172 iv v 8.6 Different translation styles for different types of consumer groups 174 8.7 Some implications for Bible translation in Bantu Africa 175 TEACHING A LITERARY-RHETORICAL APPROACH 177 9.1 Laying the groundwork for the training of translators 177 9.1.1 Building a strong literary-rhetorical emphasis within the project Brief 178 9.1.2 Conducting an intensive L-R-oriented analysis of the SL text 179 9.1.3 Determining the L-R stylistic resources available in the TL 180 9.1.4 Translating a trial L-R version 180 9.1.5 Assessing the equivalence of the SL and TL texts 182 9.1.6 Testing and revising the draft translation 183 9.1.7 Reviewing and documenting the lessons learned 184 9.2 The relation of an L-R approach to translation theory and practice 185 9.2.1 The uniqueness of Bible translation 185 9.2.2 Putting the theories into practice 186 9.2.3 An L-R perspective in relation to functional equivalence translation 188 9.3 The necessity of high-quality translator training 192 9.4 Training for ongoing testing 194 10 ASSESSING A LITERARY-RHETORICAL TRANSLATION 195 10.1 Translating the literary artistry of the Scriptures 197 10.1.1 Can artistry survive its transformation into another language? 197 10.1.2 Types of translation 198 10.1.3 How artistry is transformed during the translation process 199 10.2 The literary artistry of Psalm 23 200 10.2.1 The macrostructure of Psalm 23 200 10.2.2 The microstructure of Psalm 23 200 10.2.3 The multifunctionalism of Psalm 23 201 10.3 A stylistic comparison of Psalm 23 in Hebrew and in Chichewa 202 10.4 The importance of aurality 205 10.5 Measuring acceptability 206 10.5.1 The criterion of fidelity 207 10.5.2 The criterion of intelligibility 208 10.5.3 The criterion of idiomaticity 209 10.5.4 The criterion of proximity 209 10.5.5 Criteria of acceptability in application 210 10.5.6 Other measures of acceptability: efficiency vs effectiveness, artistry vs alienness 210 10.6 Assessing a specific translation 212 v 302 Noss, P 1997 Dynamic and functional equivalence in the Gbaya Bible Notes on Translation 11(3): 9–24 Noss, P 2002 Translators’ words and theological readings The Bible Translator 53 (3), 331–343 Ogden, G 2002 Biblical studies and Bible translation In Bible translation: Frames of reference, chap See Wilt 2002 Omanson, R., ed 2001 Discover the Bible Reading, England: United Bible Societies Osborn, R E 1999 Folly of God: The rise of Christian preaching St Louis, Mo.: Chalice Parunak, H Van Dyke 1981 Oral typesetting: Some uses of biblical structure Biblica 62:153–168 Patrick, D 1999 The rhetoric of revelation in the Hebrew Bible Minneapolis: Fortress Patte, D 1990 The religious dimensions of biblical texts: Greimas’s structural semiotics and biblical exegesis Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Pattemore, S 2003 Souls under the altar: Relevance theory and the discourse structure of Revelation (UBS Monograph Series, No 9) New York: United Bible Societies Pattemore, S Forthcoming Relevance theory, intertextuality and the Book of Revelation The Bible Translator Petersen, N 1978 Literary criticism for New Testament Critics Philadelphia: Fortress Peterson, E 1994 The message: Psalms Colorado Springs, Colo.: Navpress Patte, D 1990 Structural exegesis for New Testament critics Minneapolis: Fortress Pilch, J 1999 The cultural dictionary of the Bible Collegeville: Liturgical Pilch, J., and B Malina 1993 Biblical social values and their meaning: A handbook Peabody: Hendrickson.* Pilkington, A 2000 Poetic effects Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins du Plooy, H 2002 Listening to the wind in the trees: Meaning, interpretation and literary theory In Contemporary translation studies and Bible translation, 266–279 See Naude and van der Merwe 2002 Pohlig, James N 1998 An exegetical summary of Malachi Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics Pomorska, K., and S Rudy, eds 1985 Roman Jakobson: Verbal art, verbal sign, verbal time Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press Porter, S., and R Hess 1999 Translating the Bible: Problems and prospects Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press Powell, M 1990 What is narrative criticism? Minneapolis: Fortress Preminger, A., and T Brogan, eds 1993 The new Princeton encyclopedia of poetry and poetics Princeton, N.J.: University Press Reed, J 1997 A discourse analysis of Philippians: Method and rhetoric in the debate over literary integrity Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press de Regt, L.; J de Waard; and J P Fokkelman, eds 1996 Literary structure and rhetorical strategies in the Hebrew Bible Assen: Van Gorcum Reiss, K 2000 Translation criticism—the potentials and limitations Trans E Rhodes New York: American Bible Society.* Robbins, V 1984 Jesus the teacher: A socio-rhetorical interpretation of Mark Philadelphia: Fortress Robbins, V 1996 Exploring the texture of texts: A guide to socio-rhetorical interpretation Valley Forge: Trinity Press International.* Robinson, D 1997 What is translation? Centrifugal theories, critical interventions Kent, Ohio: Kent State Press Ross, R 2002 Advances in linguistic theory and their relevance to translation In Bible translation: Frames of reference, chap See Wilt 2002 Ryken, L., ed 1984 The New Testament in literary criticism New York: Frederick Ungar Ryken, L 1987 Words of life: A literary introduction to the New Testament Grand Rapids: Baker Ryken, L 1992 Words of delight: A literary introduction to the Bible Grand Rapids MI: Baker.* 302 303 Ryken, L 2002 The Word of God in English: Criteria for excellence in Bible translation Wheaton: Crossway Books Ryken, L., and T Longman III, eds 1993 A complete literary guide to the Bible Grand Rapids: Zondervan.* Ryken, L.; J Wilhoit; and T Longman III, eds 1998 Dictionary of biblical imagery Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity.* Sailhammer, J 1992 The Pentateuch as narrative: A biblical-theological commentary Grand Rapids: Zondervan Sandy, D., and R Giese, Jr., eds 1995 Cracking Old Testament codes: A guide to interpreting the literary genres of the Old Testament Nashville: Broadman and Holman.* Sanneh, L 1989 Translating the message: The missionary impact on culture Maryknoll: Orbis.* Sasson, J 1990 Jonah: A new translation with introduction, commentary, and interpretation Anchor Bible New York: Doubleday Schökel, L A 1963 Hermeneutics in the light of language and literature Catholic Biblical Quarterly 25:380 Schökel, L A 1988 A manual of Hebrew poetics Rome: Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico.* Schrag, Brian 1992 Translating song texts as oral compositions Notes on Ttranslation 6(1): 44–62 Scott, D C., and A Hetherwick 1929 Dictionary of the Nyanja language London: Lutterworth Press Searle, J 1969 Speech acts London: Cambridge University Press Searle, J 1979 Expression and meaning: Studies in the theory of speech acts Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press Seu, Andree 2001 Original spin World, January 13, 2001 Sharlemann, R 1987 Theological text Semeia 40:5–19 Shklovsky, V 1965 Art as technique In Russian formalist criticism: Four essays, ed Lee Lemon and Marion Reis, 3– 24 Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press Shuttleworth, M., and M Cowie 1997 Dictionary of translation studies Manchester, England: St Jerome Silberman, L 1987 Introduction: Reflections on orality, aurality and perhaps more Semeia 39:1–6 Soukhanov, A., ed 1992 The American heritage dictionary of the English language.3d edition Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Stein, R 1994 A basic guide to interpreting the Bible: Playing by the rules Grand Rapids: Baker.* Sterk, J 2001 Translation and media: How different can we be and still be equivalent? Paper presented at The Conference on Similarity and Translation, New York, May 31–June American Bible Society, New York Sternberg, M 1985 The poetics of biblical narrative: Ideological literature and the drama of reading Bloomington: Indiana University Press Stine, Philip C 1999 Towards developing more effective translation consultants—lessons learned Notes on Translation 13(1): 1–8 Stowers, S 1986 Letter writing in Greco-Roman antiquity Philadelphia: Westminster.* Sundersingh, J 1999 Toward a media-based translation: Communicating biblical Scriptures to non-literates in rural Tamilnadu, India Ph.D Thesis, Fuller Theological Seminary.* Sweeney, Marvin A 1996 Isaiah 1–39: With an introduction to prophetic literature The Forms of the Old Testament Literature, vol 16 Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Tannehill, R C 1975 The sword of his mouth Semeia Supplements Philadelphia: Fortress Tannehill, R C 1995 The Gospels and narrative literature In The New Interpreter’s Bible, vol 8, ed Leander Keck et al., 56–70 Nashville: Abingdon Tate, W 1991 Biblical interpretation: An integrated approach Peabody: Hendrickson.* Tepox, A 2001 The importance of becoming wise: Proverbs 1.1–7 The Bible Translator 52(2): 216–222.* Thiselton, A C 1999 Communicative action and promise in hermeneutics In The promise of hermeneutics, 133–239 See Lundin, Walhout, and Thiselton 1999 303 304 Thom, J 2001 Literary structure and Bible translation Paper presented at the annual Congress of the New Testament Society of South Africa, April 18, 2001 Thomas, K 1990 Texts oral and choral Paper presented at UBS ASPRETCON Mini-Workshop, Singapore, July 6–7, 1990 Thuren, L 1995 Argument and theology in Peter: The origins of Christian paraenesis Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press Toury, G 1995 Descriptive translation studies and beyond Amsterdam: John Benjamins Trible, P 1994 Rhetorical criticism: Context, method, and the Book of Jonah Minneapolis: Fortress Tucker, G M 1986 Prophetic speech In Interpreting the Prophets, ed J L Mays and P J Achtemeier, 26–40 Philadelphia: Fortress Turner, Nigel 1976 Style Vol of A grammar of New Testament Greek, ed J H Moulton Edinburgh, U.K: T & T Clark Valiquette, H P 1999 Exodus–Deuteronomy as discourse: models, distancing, provocation, paraenesis JSOT 85:47– 70 Vanhoozer, K 1998 Is there a meaning in this text? The Bible, the reader, and the morality of literary knowledge Grand Rapids: Zondervan de Vries, L 1999 The notion of genre and the nature of Bible translations Notes on Translation 13(2): 26–42.* de Vries, L 2001 Bible translations: Forms and functions The Bible Translator 52(3): 306–319.* de Waard, J., and E A Nida 1986 From one language to another: Functional equivalence in Bible translating Nashville: Thomas Nelson.* Walton, J.; V Matthews; and M Chavalas 2000 The IVP Bible background commentary: Old Testament Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Watson, D 1988 Invention, arrangement, and style: Rhetorical criticism of Jude and Peter Atlanta: Scholars Press Watson, D., ed 1991 Persuasive artistry: Essays in New Testament rhetoric in honor of George A Kennedy Sheffield, England: JSOT Watson, D 1997 The integration of epistolary and rhetorical analysis of Philippians In The rhetorical analysis of Scripture: Essays from the 1995 London conference, ed S Porter and T Olbricht, 398–426 Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press Watson, W 1984 Classical Hebrew poetry: A guide to its techniques Sheffield, England: JSOT Waugh, L 1985 The poetic function and the nature of language In Roman Jakobson: Verbal art, verbal sign, verbal time, 143–168 See Pomorska and Rudy 1985 Webster’s new world dictionary 1988 3d College Edition, ed Victoria Neufeldt New York: Simon & Schuster Wechsler, R 1998 Performing without a stage: The art of literary translation North Haven, Conn.: Catbird Press Wegner, P 1999 The journey from texts to translations: The origin and development of the Bible Grand Rapids: Baker Wendland, E R 1979 Stylistic form and communicative function in the Nyanja radio narratives of Julius Chongo Ph.D diss., University of Wisconsin Wendland, E R 1981a Receptor language style and Bible translation: I, A search for “language which grabs the heart.” The Bible Translator 32(1): 107–124 Wendland, E R 1981b Receptor language style and Bible translation: II, The problem of control in restructuring The Bible Translator 32(3): 319–328 Wendland, E R 1982 Receptor language style and Bible translation: III, Training translators about style The Bible Translator 33(1): 115–127 Wendland, E R 1984 Biblical Hebrew narrative structure Selected Technical Articles Related to Translation 10:3–36 (Dallas: SIL.) Wendland, E R 1985 Linear and concentric patterns in Malachi The Bible Translator 36(1): 108–121 304 305 Wendland, E R 1987a A communications model for the measurement of fidelity and naturalness in Bible translation Occasional Papers in Translation and Textlinguistcs 2:1–36 (Dallas: SIL.) Wendland, E R 1987b The cultural factor in Bible translation New York: United Bible Societies.* Wendland, E R 1988 The “Word of the LORD” and the organization of Amos Occasional Papers in Translation and Textlinguistcs 2(4): 1–51 (Dallas: SIL.) Wendland, E R 1990 X (X 7): A structural and thematic outline of John’s Apocalypse.” Occasional Papers in Translation and Textlinguistcs 4(4): 371–387 (Dallas: SIL.) Wendland, E R 1991 Culture and the form/function dichotomy in the evaluation of translation acceptability In Meaningful translation: Its implications for the reader, ed J P Louw, 8–40 New York: United Bible Societies Wendland, E R 1993 Comparative discourse analysis and the translation of Psalm 22 in Chichewa, a Bantu language of south-central Africa Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Wendland, E R 1994a Oral-aural dynamics of the Word: With special reference to John 17 Notes on Translation 8(1): 19–43 Wendland, E R 1994b A Comparative Study of ‘Rhetorical Criticism’, Ancient and Modern—With special reference to the larger structure and function of the epistle of Jude,” Neotestamentica 28(1):193–228 Wendland, E R 1995a Seeking a path through a forest of symbols: A figurative and structural survey of the Song of Songs Journal of Translation and Textlinguistics 7(2): 13–59 Wendland, E R 1995b The discourse analysis of Hebrew prophetic literature: Determining the larger textual units of Hosea and Joel Lewiston, N.Y.: Mellen Biblical Wendland, E R 1996a Finding some lost aspects of meaning in Christ’s parables of the lost—and found Trinity Journal 17NS/1: 19–65 Wendland, E.R 1996b Obadiah’s vision of ‘the Day of the Lord’: On the importance of rhetoric in the biblical text and in Bible translation Journal of Translation and Textlinguistics 7:54-86 Wendland, E R 1996c Obadiah’s ‘Day’: On the rhetorical implications of textual form and intertextual influence Journal of Translation and Textlinguistics 8:23–49 Wendland, E R 1996d Text analysis and the genre of Jonah JETS 39(2–3): 191–206, 373–395 Wendland, E R 1997 “Blessed is the man who will eat at the feast in the kingdom of God” (Luke 14:15): Internal and external intertextual influence on the interpretation of Christ’s parable of the great banquet.” Neotestamentica 31(1): 159–194 Wendland, E R 1998a What’s the ‘Good News’?—Check out ‘the feet!’: Prophetic rhetoric and the salvific centre of Nahum’s vision Old Testament Studies 11(1): 154–181 Wendland, E R 1998b Buku Loyera: An introduction to the new Chichewa Bible translation Kachere Monograph Blantrye, Malawi: Christian Literature Association in Malawi.* Wendland, E R 1998c ‘Dear children’ versus the ‘antichrists’: The rhetoric of reassurance in John Journal of Translation and Textlinguistics 11:40–84 Wendland, E R 1999 Scattered bones but a single stick: A rhetorical-stylistic overview of the gospel in Ezekiel 37 Old Testament Essays 12(1): 149–172 Wendland, E R 2000a A form-functional, text-comparative method of translation, teaching, and checking Notes on Translation 14(1): 7–27.* Wendland, E R 2000b Preaching that grabs the heart: A rhetorical-stylistic study of the Chichewa revival sermons of Shadrack Wame Kachere Monograph 11 Blantrye, Malawi: Christian Literature Association in Malawi Wendland, E R 2000c “Stand fast in the true grace of God!” (5:12)—A text-rhetorical study of the structure and style of Peter Journal of Translation and Textlinguistics 13:25–102 Wendland, E R 2000d Towards an ‘oratorical’ Bible translation in a Bantu language: With special reference to Ezekiel’s oracle of the ‘dry bones’ in Chichewa Paper presented as part of a UBS panel at the International SBL Conference in Cape Town, South Africa, July 24–28, 2000 Wendland, E R 2002a Analyzing the Psalms: With exercises for Bible students and translators Rev ed Dallas: SIL.* 305 306 Wendland, E R 2002b A literary-rhetorical approach to biblical text analysis and translation In Bible translation: Frames of reference, 179–230 See Wilt 2002 Wendland, E R 2002c Towards a 'literary' translation of the Scriptures: with special reference to a 'poetic rendition In Contemporary translation studies and Bible translation, 164–201 See Naude and van der Merwe 2002 Wendland, E R., and S Hachibamba 2000 A central African perspective on contextualizing the Ephesian potentates, principalities, and powers Missiology: An International Review 28(3): 341–363 Wendland, E R., and J P Louw 1993 Graphic design and Bible reading: Exploratory studies in the typographical representation of the text of Scripture in translation Cape Town, RSA: Bible Society of South Africa.* Werth, P 2000 Text worlds: Representing conceptual space in discourse: London: Longman Westermann, C 1967 Basic forms of prophetic speech Philadelphia: Westminster Wiesemann, Ursula n.d Discourse analysis Electronic copy, privately circulated Wiklander, B 1984 Prophecy as literature: A text-linguistic and rhetorical approach to Isaiah 2–4 Stockholm: Liber Tryck Williams, D 1999 Paul’s metaphors: Their context and character Peabody: Hendrickson Wilson, V 1997 Divine symmetries: The art of biblical rhetoric New York: University Press of America Wilt, T., ed 2002a Bible translation: Frames of reference Manchester, England: St Jerome.* Wilt, T 2002b Translation and communication In Bible translation, 27–80 See Wilt, ed., 2002a.* Wilt, T., trans 2002c Praise, prayer and protest: The David collection (Psalms 1-72)—A liturgy of praise (Psalm 118)—The ABC’s of grief (Lamentations) Murfreesburo, TN: Self-published.* Witherington III, B 1994 Jesus the sage: The pilgrimage of wisdom Minneapolis: Fortress Wonderly, Wm L 1968 Bible translations for popular use New York: United Bible Societies.* Wuellner, Wilhelm 1991 The rhetorical genre of Jesus’ sermon in Luke 12.1–13.9 In Persuasive artistry: Studies in New Testament rhetoric in honor of George A Kennedy, ed D F Watson, 93–118 Sheffield, England: JSOT Young, B H 1995 Jesus the Jewish theologian Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Zogbo, L., and E R Wendland 2000 Hebrew poetry in the Bible: A guide for understanding and for translating New York: United Bible Societies.* Additional Recommended Reading Those interested in a literary-rhetorical approach should also take note of the new Berit Olam (“The Everlasting Covenant”) series of commentaries (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press–Michael Glazier) This set, which thus far includes studies of Judges, Samuel, Kings, Kings, Ezra and Nehemiah, Ruth and Esther, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, and the Twelve Prophets (vols 1–2) is subtitled Studies in Hebrew Narrative and Poetry According to the published dust jacket, it aims to reflect “the latest developments in the literary analysis of these ancient texts.” To be more specific, “The readings of the books of the Hebrew Bible offered here all focus on the final form of the texts, approaching them as literary works, recognizing that the craft of poetry and storytelling that the ancient Hebrew world provided can be found in them and that their truth can be better appreciated [and also more accurately translated, I might add] with a fuller understanding of that art.” 306 307 INDEX abbreviation, 88 audio profile, 205 acceptability, 54, 194, 196, 206 Augustine, 19 accuracy, 41, 208 aurality, 195 Acts, 108 authenticity, 63, 208 administrative committee, 228 authorial intention, 77, 115, 148, 182 aesthetic appreciation, 213 authority, 2, 42 alienness, 211 background, 151 allusion, 87, 94, 101, 119 back-translation, 149 Alter, 250 Bantu language, 33, 104, 225 analogy, 39, 129 base text, 181 analysis procedures, 67, 147 Beatitudes, 110 anaphora, 259 beauty (artistic), 16, 41, 85 annotation, 113 Bible translation, x antithesis, 88, 101, 102, 122, 262 Brief, 13, 50 antithetical aphorism, 263 cassette recording, 224 aperture, 76, 144 chaining, 129 apex, 145 challenge (of translation), 43, 121, 133 apocalyptic discourse, 103, 106 challenge of translation, 139, 161 archetypal criticism, 104 character types, 106 archetypes, 100, 102, 113, 188 characterization, 106 argumentation, 48, 69, 114, 125, 130, 136, 148, 188, 261, 263, 265 chiasmus, 73, 76, 77, 80, 81, 95, 121, 259, 272, 278 argument-model, 190 Chichewa, 71, 106, 123, 138, 159, 171, 195, 202, 220 argument-structure analysis, 133 arrangement (discourse), 74 artist, 193 artistic features, 85, 191, 224 artistic functions, 92 artistic techniques, 84 artistry, 16, 84, 147, 162, 187, 197, 213 aspects of acceptability, 223 assessment (critical), 2, 4, 5, 41, 55, 115, 170, 179, 194, 195, 212, 229 Chitonga, 138, 253 choice (strategy), 29 Christic rhetoric, 257, 263 citation, 262 citations, 128 ciyabilo (Tonga lament), 254 clarity, 272 Classical rhetoric, 80 classification (speech acts), 131 assessment questions, 216 climax, 76, 145 audience appeal, 119 closure, 76, 144 audience testing, 256 code, 59 307 308 code (literary), 29 conversational analysis, 148 cohesion, 101, 111 Corinthians (1), 69, 78, 81, 124 colloquialism, 209 cost (text-processing effort), 56 colon, 200 co-text, 135, 140 common language, 23 creation, 187 communication principles, 149 creativity, 25, 32, 42, 100, 165, 181, 213, 225, 300 communication-event, 191 communicative correspondence, 53 compaction, 88, 96 Comparative (critical) approach, 40, 43 comparative analysis, 148, 149, 164, 166, 169, 170, 193, 195, 202, 203, 271, 289 critical assessment, 52, 166 cross references, 86 crowded stage, 145 cultural context, 141, 153 cultural specificity, 62 compensation, 34, 164, 189 culture (influence on translation), 29, 33, 110 competence, 56, 60, 171, 208 de Beaugrande, 33 competence (communicative), 38 de Waard, 24 compositional structure, 145 Deconstruction, 10, 12 concentration, 75, 93, 144, 153, 156 deductive discourse, 117 condensation, 75, 262 deductive logic, 264 connection, 74 deep structure, 38 connotation, 3, 37, 102, 103, 116, 191, 201 defamiliarization, 260 constraints (on translation), 42 definition (translation), 49, 182 consumer, 162 deictic forms, 143 consumers, 229 demarcation, 145, 156, 259 Contemporary English Version, 167 depth rhetoric, 263 context, 50, 140 Descriptive approach, 29 context of setting, 59, 63, 104, 111, 133, 138, 206 deverbalisation, 37 context of situation, 4, 134, 207 context of usage, 54 contextual assumptions, 35 contextual effects, 50, 56, 189, 210 contextualization, 100, 119, 142, 185, 221 continuity, 143 continuum (prose-poetry), 64, 275 continuum (translational), 3, 51, 52, 53, 178, 192, 199, 210 contrast, 103, 278 convention, 61, 62 deviation, 89, 96 dialogic discourse, 127 dialogic disputation, 258 dialogic technique, 118 dialoging, 232 dialogue, 91, 151 dialoguing, 211, 213, 221 Die Gute Nachricht, 248 difficulty of translation, 211 digression, 96 direct discourse, 92 308 309 direct speech, 91, 97, 262, 279 enigma, 119, 262 discontinuity, 143 enthymeme, 126, 264, 265 discourse analysis, epiphora, 259 discourse design, 74, 80 epistolary analysis, 130 discourse formatting, 81 epistolary literature, 72, 116, 127 discourse functions, 77 epistolary rhetoric, 126 discourse markers, 76 epistolary topoi, 128 discourse processes, 74, 77, 80, 160 equivalence, 39, 66, 182, 189 discourse structure, 209, 258, 283, 284 eschatological perspective, 118 discourse techniques, 76, 80 etic, 63 disjunction, 143, 155 etic framework, 125, 170 disputation speech, 69 etic types (poetry), 65 dispute, 286 etic types (prose), 70 dissociation, 262 euphemism, 93 divine name, 218 euphony, 47, 205 documentation, 86, 94 evaluative discourse, 32, 211 domestication, 50, 188, 273 event line, 150 dominant character, 151 evocation, 90, 97 dramatic dialogue, 148 exclamation, 279 dramatic discourse, 92 exclusio, 82, 94 dramatization, 91, 98 exegesis, 53, 165, 174 Dutch, 250 Exodus, 108 dynamic equivalence, 23 explicitation, 40 education, 228, 230, 231 expository discourse, 32, 211 education (target audience), 196 expressive (emotive) function, 37 educational workshops, 185 extratextual influence, 50, 222 efficiency (in communication), 24 extratextual setting, 11, 29, 106, 154 embedding, 68 extreme example, 119 emic, 63 Ezekiel, 101, 131, 171, 304 emic inventory (genres), 170 faithfulness, 17 emotion, 36 fantastic imagery, 106 emotions, 279 feedback, 166, 220, 230, 232 empathy, 152 fiction, 106, 109, 113, 187 enallage, 89 fidelity, 185, 194, 207, 272 encomium, 82 figuration, 86, 93, 99 end stress, 80, 111 figurative language, 86, 279 English translations, 41 figures of speech, 86, 261, 279 309 310 flashback, 87, 151 genre-for-genre, 52 flexibility, 213 genre-for-genre translation, 256 flouting, 137 genres, 163 focal instance, 119, 261 German, 248 focalization, 144 Gospel, 62 footnotes, 136 gospels, 72, 101 foregrounding, 48, 88 Greco-Roman rhetoric, 264 foreignization, 26, 33, 43, 188, 250, 267, 269 Greco-Roman Rhetoric, 122 foreshadowing, 87 Gutt, 34, 54 formal correspondence, 22, 54 Hachibamba, 253 Formalism, harmony, 146, 174 format (of print), 60, 168, 171, 215 Hatim and Mason, 32 format of print, 246, 260 Hebrews, 76 form-functional approach, Hermans, 30 form-functional equivalents, 106 hermeneutics, 22 formulas, 68, 88, 127, 144 high context society, 213, 221 Fox, 26 Holy Scripture, 63 frame, 50 Holy Scriptures, 1, 37, 49, 85, 198, 208 frames of reference, 4, 42, 170 honor-shame culture, 213 freedom (of translator), 41, 181 Hosea, 66 front-shifting, 89 hymn, 213, 218, 225 functional analysis, 258 Hymn, 236 functional equivalence, 3, 8, 24, 27, 48, 50, 88, 138, 174, 182, 186, 188, 191, 204, 250 hyperbole, 262 functional match, 267 functional matches, 65, 93, 164, 180, 187, 214 functional parity, 53, 54 functional profile, 190, 266 functionalist approach, 27, 35, 77 functions of communication, 28, 53, 55, 65, 77, 182, 189, 201, 258 gain (communicative effects), 57 Galatians, 125, 126 genealogy, 212 Genesis, 26, 71, 85, 93, 101, 131, 138, 212, 250 genre, 50, 59, 60, 61, 66, 73, 142, 147, 154, 181, 187, 199 genre criticism, 61 iconic reflection, 260 iconicity, 99, 112 ideophone, 47, 91, 99, 164, 173, 218 ideophones, 255, 268 idiomaticity, 139, 182, 194, 209, 272 idioms, 89, 97, 268 illocution, 131, 147 illocutionary force, 258 imagery, 42, 100, 105, 111, 119, 188, 201, 254, 261, 280 implication, 134, 137 implicature, 35, 137, 138, 141, 260 implicit information, 116, 153 implicit meaning, 140 310 311 import, 189 Katan, 77 inclusio, 76, 80, 95, 143, 145, 200, 258, 259, 289 key terms, 146 inclusion, 92 key words, 157 indention, 246 lament (Psalm), 108 inductive discourse, 111, 117, 266 lament psalm, 201 inductive instruction, 179 legibility, 215 inductive reasoning, 264 Leviticus, 110 inductive training, 193 lineation, 26 inductive training method, 274 literacy, 195, 205, 220 information, 16 literal translation, 33, 49, 53, 174, 192, 199, 267, 291 innovation, 33 integrity, 209 intelligibility, 208 intensification, 92, 259 intensifiers, 268 intention (communicative), 28 intentional fallacy, 28 interdisciplinary approach, 59 interference, 104 Interpretive approach, 37 interruption, 75 intertextuality, x, 5, 36, 86, 94, 101, 141, 287 literalism, 85 Literalist approach, 25 literariness, x, 2, 8, 28, 31, 35, 41, 84 literary analysis, 6, 18 literary approaches (methodologies), 9, 25 literary criticism, x, 1, 18, 40, 186, 198 literary equivalence, 54 literary features, 2, 5, 8, 17, 20, 21, 22, 46, 47, 51, 161, 169, 183, 198, 292 literary functional equivalent, 226 literary tradition, 109 intervention (translational), 269 literary translation, 31, 40, 46, 48, 165, 167, 199, 291 intonation, 281 literary version, 53 intratextuality, 94 literary-cultural categories, 109 intuition, 39, 180 literary-equivalence, 223 irony, 71, 89, 91, 95, 103, 109, 266, 281 literary-rhetorical, ix Isaiah, 112 literary-rhetorical analysis, 140 Jakobson, 32, 48, 64, 198 literary-structural analysis, 83 James, 111 literature, 1, 18, 19, 30, 41, 85, 102, 192, 193 Job, 224 liturgical forms, 128 Joel, 103 liturgical version, 23 John, 108, 121 loss (translational), 16, 51 Jonah, 89, 91, 103, 109 low context society, 213 Jude, 72 loyalty, 29, 55, 182 Judges, 108 Luke, 72, 109 judgment oracle, 69 Luther, 19 311 312 lyric poetry, 201 multilayered coding, 48 macrostructure, 8, 187, 200, 246 narrative, 71 Malachi, 69, 274, 291 narrative analysis, 150 manipulation (translational), 269 narrative design, 58 Mark, 72 narrator, 152 marked forms, 32, 211, 279 naturalness, 209 markedness, 32, 53, 179, 269 ndakatulo (Chewa lyric), 63, 171 matches (functional), 18 ndakatulo (Chichewa lyric), 173, 202, 255 Matthew, 76, 117, 257, 265 ndakatulo poetic features, 267 maxims, 257 Nehemiah, 71 maxims (of conversation), 137 Nida, 23, 85 meaning, 4, 7, 23, 98, 116, 165, 166, 182, 198 Nieuwe Bijbel Vertaling, 250 meaning package, 147 Nord, 27, 29, 55, 77 meaning-complex, 191 norms, 13, 31, 53, 110, 138, 202 mediation, 12, 49, 53, 199, 212 Obadiah, 154 mediation (translational), 269 omission (compaction), 88 medium (of communication), 197 options (translational), 16, 17, 51, 55, 175, 181, 223, 226, 242 medium of communication, 62, 150, 167, 206 medium of message transmission, 227 memorability, 41, 109 memorization, 93 oral overlay, 19 oral recital, 216 oral-aural adaptation, 205 metarepresentational discourse, 92 oral-aural dimension, x, 3, 5, 20, 26, 41, 51, 77, 90, 99, 114, 142, 150, 154, 163, 167, 168, 181, 183, 205, 216 meter, 252 orality, 205 methodology, xi, 38, 177, 216, 220 oratorical, 168, 171 methodology (analysis), 122 oratorical translation, 167 methodology (L-R), 3, 12, 111, 140, 160 oratorical version, 269 metonym, 280 oratory, 115, 122, 224 metrical chiasm, 65 orature, 3, 162, 193 microstructure, 8, 84, 187, 201 outline (discourse), 157 midrash, 73, 117, 129, 265 outline (of discourse), 146 mismatches, 102, 164 parable, 108, 119 model (of translation), 167 parables, 103 model (translational), 149, 171, 181 paraenesis, 71, 73, 124, 128, 133, 167 motifs (literary), 108 parallelism, 95, 143, 260, 277 motivation (rhetorical), 135 paratext, 63 Muilenburg, 18 paronomasia, 262 metaphor, 35, 86, 104, 105, 280 312 313 patterning, 249, 263 pragmatics, 115 patterning of discourse, 78, 122, 143, 155, 259, 265, 269 presupposition, 136 Paul, 103 peak, 145 performance setting, 149 performance tradition, 63 performative discourse, 117, 132 presuppositions, 136 pretext, 92 principle of relevance, 54, 137 print (stylistic features), 167 priority rating (translational), 183 perlocution, 131 problematic issues, 65, 77, 98, 104, 105, 115, 123, 129, 146, 170, 191, 220 Peterson, 244 progression, 75 Philemon, 133 project guidelines, 231 Philippians, 129 project organization, 226, 229 phonation, 89, 97 projection, 75, 145, 156 phonology (in translation), 181 prophetic poetry, 67, 68 Pilkington, 35 prophetic style, 117 placement (positioning), 145 propositional analysis, 140, 146 plot, 150 prose (features of), 70 plot motifs, 107 prose particles, 70 poetic effects, 260 prose-poetry continuum, 84 poetic features, 64, 144, 159, 200, 202, 254 proximity, 209, 272 poetic features (Chichewa), 268 Psalm 1, 242 poetic function, 20, 48, 198 Psalms, 64, 66, 67, 92, 105, 140, 181, 196, 200, 223, 233, 242, 245 poetic language, 2, 17, 120 poetic prose, 70 poetic restructuring, 256 poetic translation, 223 poetics, 18, 21, 84, 114 poetry, 62, 64, 87, 165, 269 point of view, 151, 152 polyfunctionality, 34, 147 popular language, 23, 54, 183, 292 popular-language, 174 popular-language version, 192 Postmodernism, 10 potency (rhetorical), 134 pragmatic analysis, 130 pragmatic resemblance, 55 published format, 223 punning, 90, 97 questionnaire, 237 rabbinic literature, 257 rabbinic rhetoric, 116 radio, 163, 175, 184, 224 readability, 171, 215 readability (features), 166 reading, 215, 219 real questions, 119 re-creation, 252 recursion, 27, 75, 87, 109, 142, 259 reformulation, 39 register, 149 313 314 relevance, 36, 50, 54, 55, 98, 136, 164, 182, 256, 260 relevance theory, 34, 50, 115, 137, 210, 258, 260 repetition, 87, 95, 143, 153, 277 research, 13, 16, 30, 38, 104, 110, 194, 224, 273 research and planning, 226 resonance, 101 results (translation testing), 240 Revelation, ix, 14, 36, 85, 89, 101, 103 reviewers, 228 rhetoric, 9, 24, 48, 86, 114, 258, 275 rhetoric (target language), 139, 159, 266 rhetorical analysis, 6, 24, 116, 131 rhetorical canons, 123 section heading, 284 segmentation, 74 semidirect speech, 91 Septuagintal Greek, 87, 124 sermon, 267 sermon on the mount, 258 sermons, 123 setting (narrative), 152 setting of situation, 190 setting of translation use, 224 setting of use, 174 shift in expectancy, 144, 286 significance, 37, 67, 70, 98 rhetorical criticism, x, 18 Skopos, 12, 13, 50, 73, 98, 166, 169, 178, 210, 228, 231, 250 rhetorical evaluation, 123 Skopostheorie, 27, 50 rhetorical exigency, 115 social (popular) assessment, 46 rhetorical features, 148, 153, 158, 167, 261, 263, 276 social context, 216 rhetorical features (letters), 128 social-scientific criticism, 90, 110, 141 rhetorical question, 89, 96, 119, 262, 276 sociolinguistic factors, 47, 61, 149, 169, 183, 196, 221 rhetorical resources (TL), 266 Song of Songs, rhetorical situation, 122 sonic structure, 78 rhetorical unit, 122 source language features, 53 rhetoricity, 93, 114, 164, 188 Spanish, 252 rhyme, 244 species of rhetoric, 123 rhythm, 88, 260, 262, 263 speech act, 131 rhythmic envelope, 168 speech acts, 77, 133, 147, 154, 158, 258 rhythmic prose, 245 speech-act analysis, 130, 190 ring construction, 82 stereoscopic reading, 40 risk taking, 42 structural controls, 80 ritual function, 47, 49 structural outline, 285 royal psalm, 243 Structuralism, 10, 100 Ruth, 71, 106 structural-thematic outline, 146 salvation oracle, 68 structuration, 33, 48, 74, 93 Samuel, 92 structure, 74 sapiential style, 118 structure of speech acts, 133 scenic narration, 151 study Bible, 100 314 315 style, 4, 6, 22, 48, 164, 165, 197, 202, 274, 284 translation leakage, 191 stylist, 165, 193, 227 translation practice, 138 stylistic (technical) assessment, 47 translation procedures, 149, 162, 193, 228 stylistic devices, 24 translation teaching, 177 stylistic features, 275 translation testing, 183, 184, 195, 206, 213, 216, 220, 222, 237 stylistically marked, 50 stylistic-rhetorical features, 111, 164, 172 stylistics, 18 Sundersingh, 167 supplementary helps, 113, 175, 189, 191, 226, 231 syllogism, 125 symbolism, 103 symbols, 104 synesthetic dimension, 90 syntactic movement, 254, 262 target language L-R analysis, 148, 162, 169 teamwork, 227 tectonicity, 58, 73 tectonics, 58 tempo (narrative), 151 temporal perspective, 152 Tepox, 252 testing, 106, 150, 166, 175, 194 testing criteria, 196 testing procedures, 196, 224 text-linguistic approach, 32 theophany, 101 topic, 152 topicalization, 144 Toury, 30 tradition (literary), 170 tradition (of translation), 42 tradition of translation, 167 transculturation, x, 198 transformation, 49, 199 translation types, 191 translation usage, 57, 174, 176, 194 translation use, 224, 229, 273 translator selection, 163, 231 translator training, 163, 171, 175, 184, 192, 214, 227 transmission (message), 12 trial translation, 181, 184 turning point, 150 two horizons of translation, 187 type scenes, 107, 108 typographical format, 81, 244 typography, 215 typology, 129 unification, 92 uniqueness (Bible translation), 185 unity, 58, 59, 62, 101, 146 variable translation, 292 variation, 109 verbal art, 85 voice (translator's), 33 Wilt, 245 wisdom literature, 254, 257 wisdom poetry, 68 wisdom psalm, 243 Wonderly, 23 worldview, 136 Zambia, 214 Zechariah, 68, 91 Zephaniah, 74, 91 315 316 (This painting by Antonio da Fabriano II, depicts Saint Jerome in his study The writing implements, scrolls, and manuscripts testify to Jerome's scholarly pursuits, especially Bible translating The Walters Art Museum -https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome#/media/File:Antonio_da_Fabriano_II_-_Saint_Jerome_in_His_Study Walters_37439.jpg ) 316 ... categories 109 5.2 The iconicity of the Epistle of James 111 5.3 The value of studying the iconicity of the Scriptures 112 RHETORICITY OF THE SCRIPTURES 114 6.1... Strategy: The importance of a project Skopos The focus of the preceding discussion was upon the text? ?the “literariness” of the SL text and of the translated TL text But that is only half of the translational... as literature; and the different parts of it as the different sorts of literature that they are” (1989:71) But what does it mean to read the Scriptures as literature? How does the notion of literature