Working with water in prehistory

Working with water in Prehistory A biographical approach to watercraft technologies in the Mesolithic of Denmark Mesolithic Studies Masters Department of Archaeology University of York September 2014 Abstract It has long been known that marine resources and watercraft technology made up an important part of Mesolithic subsistence practices, especially in Denmark This dissertation joins artefact biography with the theory of taskscape to explore two organic watercraft artefacts found at the site of Tybrind Vig, Denmark The joining of these two methods allows for the exploration of the knowledge that would have been needed to create and use an object This information allows for a more holistic, human inclusive interpretation, showing the true complexity of hunter-gatherer lifestyle and society, as well as the shifting meaning of the object Contents Abstract List of Figures Acknowledgments Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Aim of Thesis 1.2 Interpretation and the discourse 1.3 Aims and chapter outline Chapter 2: The Mesolithic, Danish Archaeology, and Tybrind Vig 11 2.1 The Mesolithic and Archaeology 11 2.2 The Mesolithic: Current Understanding 16 2.3 The site of Tybrind Vig, Denmark 19 2.3 Use of Ethnography 25 Chapter 3: Understanding artefacts 27 3.1 Material Culture and Identity 27 3.2 Taskscape 30 3.2 Object Biographies 34 Chapter 4: Tybrind 2033 BXA 39 4.1 Current understanding 39 4.2 Reconstruction 40 4.3 Dugout creation from raw material 42 4.4 Representation, conservation and preservation 46 Chapter 5: Oar blade 2033 BSS 47 5.1 Oar creation from raw material 48 Chapter 6: Conclusion 53 Bibliography 56 List of Figures Figure 1: The isostatic tilt line marked with the dotted line, south of the line is sinking, north of the line is rising The Åmose bog area is represented by a rectangle Tybrind Vig is located with a star (Andersen 1995, 42) 18 Figure 2: Upper image: the settlement as in the Mesolithic Middle image: the settlement eroded as sea level rises Lower image: divers discovering artefacts (Malm 1995) 19 Figure 3: Table showing the level of difference in levels of isotope 13ͨ in humans from the Mesolithic and Neolithic Mesolithic diet consisted of mainly marine resources (Fischer 2007, 65: Fig 5.18) 23 Figure 4: Present coastline and land represented by lighter shaded area Old coastline represented by darker cross hatched area, with the sea to the west 24 Figure 5: the top diagram represents the post-industrial perception of environment; the bottom diagram represents the hunter-gatherer perception of environment (Ingold 2000, 46) 31 Figure 6: Visualisation of the foundations of perception (Author’s own) 32 Figure 7: Visualisation of the cyclical nature of perception (Author’s own) 32 Figure 8: Tybrind (image: Beuker & Niekus 1997) 40 Figure 9: technique used to create reconstruction of dugout canoe (Christensen 1990, 136: figure 20) 41 Figure 10: The finished dugout reconstruction (Christensen 1990, 138: figure 25) 41 Figure 11: considerations when making a canoe from raw material (Author’s own) 42 Figure 12: example of a complete oar blade found at Tybrind Vig (Andersen 1986, 100: Figure 19) 47 Figure 13: considerations when making an oar from raw material (Author’s own) 48 Figure 14: Oar blade 2033 BSS (Andersen 1986, 102: Figure 21) 50 Acknowledgments Thank you to my mother, Ingrid O’Mahoney, without whom my masters would not have been possible and my sister, Imogen O’Mahoney, whose continued support kept me afloat My supervisor, Dr Hayley Saul, whose enthusiasm and guidance were shining stars in a sometimes dark sky The friends, new and old, who cheered me on my way, helping me to reach the finish line Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Aim of Thesis Since the 1980s archaeologists have been increasingly frustrated with a view of hunter-gatherer societies as simple and it has become important to explore ways in which the complexity of hunter-gatherer society and their relationship with the environment can be conveyed Denmark is of particular interest because the archaeological record shows a later adoption of agriculture (c 3,000 BC) compared to other areas of Europe (Grøn 1998; Rowley-Conwy 2001; Troels-Smith 2002) Indeed certain hunter-gatherer groups in Denmark were even within communicable distance of agricultural groups, but still continued to practice a hunter-gatherer lifestyle despite the opportunity to become farmers (Layton 2001; Troels-Smith 2002) Most often farming is seen as a progressive rung on the ladder of social evolution, a step to a more complex and intentional, or choice driven, society (Thomas 1993; 390; Troels-Smith 2002; 137), and such a lag could be explained by the retention of complex system of heritage values I would argue against this view of seeing social change as progressive, urging instead that it required communities to undergo a change of perception and therefore identity This thesis builds on a growing body of applications that use taskscape theory as a basis for interpretation (Van Hove 2004; Sturt 2006; Walker 2011), but applies this technique to watercraft technology which have been under-explored to date Watercraft technologies were instrumental in maintaining Mesolithic economy, and there is evidence to suggest their importance in the socio-ideological framework of Mesolithic communities in southern Scandinavia Taskscape emerges from the notion of habitus (Ingold 2000), understanding how a human experiences the world around them through their past and current experience, from these experiences a sense of identity is built Taskscape theory will be used in conjunction with a biographical approach which reconstructs the life-cycle of the artefact – choices and decisions made during manufacture, use, repair, deposition, discovery and current whereabouts These techniques allow the exploration of an artefact’s shifting meaning in the context of social life in Mesolithic Denmark (11,500-3,950 BC) to its current meaning as an artefact With this in mind this thesis asks: how was watercraft technology valued in the aquatic food dependent culture of Mesolithic southern Scandinavia? 1.2 Interpretation and the discourse To create an interpretation is an intentional act To create an object is an intentional act It requires information, choices and decision making Whilst it cannot be argued that the change from hunter-gatherer to agricultural evidence in the record does not denote a shift in society, it can be argued that the change is not necessarily a realisation of intention towards the earth, rather a different way of representing choices and decisions towards the earth, the environment, society and individuals It has been argued that the monuments of the Neolithic, which can be seen across space and time, are evidence of human intention (Criado 1995, 197-198) Recent ethnographic studies and new archaeological evidence show that intention can be represented differently (cf Grøn and Kuznetsov 2003; Jordan 2003; Zvelebil 2003) Difference does not make other communities better or worse, complex or simple, civilised or barbaric, it just makes them different Much of Mesolithic archaeology is ephemeral, interpretations once founded on lithic scatters, can now be enhanced by the excavation of submerged or water logged sites, known since the early 1800s these sites were often left un-investigated due to the expense of excavation (Malm 1995) However, these sites are rich in organic objects, which represent choices and decision making in a daily practice Organic technology shows a far more complex and advanced society than once assumed It is often suggested that past huntergatherers lived as they had evolved to live, more as animals within the world (Clark 1972, 15) However, this disregards choices and decision making The decision to live as part of the earth, the choice to make things from the earth that can be returned to the earth The late adoption/adaption to farming in some areas of the world, including Denmark could be interpreted as a decision, a conscious choice to continue a practice that allows you to live within the environment, rather than adopting new life-skills which would not only change or damage the environment, but also change or mutate the social and individual identity of a person Schiffer (2000, 11) uses the term ‘humanistic archaeology’ to define interpretations that attempt to connect to the humans of the past I would argue that the definition of archaeology (as defined by the Oxford English Dictionary) is ‘the study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of sites and the analysis of artefacts and other physical remains’ This dissertation focuses on the human aspect of the material object, the knowledge, understanding and activities which were needed to complete, use, and deposit an object However, I not denote it as humanistic archaeology, only archaeology if the original definition is considered The study of artefacts has obscured people and I would call for revival of human led study The interpretations created from the proposed method hopefully moving forward ideas, and theories, concerning Mesolithic society, culture and people Watercraft itself is seen as an integral part of Danish Mesolithic subsistence practice (Troels-Smith 2002, 137; Fischer 2007, 67; Warren 2014, 544-545), rather than exploring the functional aspects of watercraft this thesis aims to look at the information a human would need to create and use such artefacts The examining of this aspect will allow for a wider network to be built concerning cultural communication Thomas (1993) suggests that discourse on the Neolithic has been limited and has also created a way to control how data is interpreted Thomas sees the discourse as having built an intrinsic idea of the Neolithic which means that interpreting outside of these set perimeters can be nearly impossible Therefore, the discourse has become stagnant, stopping the creation of new ways of interpreting, seeing, understanding, and perceiving the past Though the interpretations concerning the Mesolithic have moved past certain theories, such as Europe having been uninhabited at the time (Burkitt 1979, i) or technological regression (Clark 1954), particular interpretations, such as simple social bands; nomadic and seasonal huntergatherers with a lithic centred culture, are seemingly ingrained within Mesolithic discussions (Jordan 2003, 128; Zvelebil 2003, 65; Milner & Woodman 2005, 4; Spikins 2008, 2) The use of simple effectively downgrades the hunter-gatherers, they are of nature, which we have somehow separated ourselves from, we have progressed (Criado 1995, 196) This seems to understate the complexity of Mesolithic society and culture (Moore 2003, 143) However, with discoveries such as the well-preserved sites of Tybrind Vig (Andersen 1986; 1987; 1994; 2011; Malm 1995; Kubiak-Martens 1999; Uldum 2011), Star Carr (Clark 1954; Milner et al 2011) and many other Mesolithic sites around Europe (Price 1987; Bailey & Spikens 2008), as well as a general and more open change of religious thought theoretical paradigms, such as artefact biographies, have developed to examine these detailed organic datasets and bring about high-resolution interpretations 1.3 Aims and chapter outline Artefact biographies have developed as a method of enquiry to counter many of the critiques outlined above The life of an object as an artefact begins at its discovery Archaeologists create a past life for the artefact We use the information gained from material culture to create a past life for the object to form interpretations regarding human behaviour in the past (Torrence 2001, 73) This dissertation will explore an artefact using a biographical method, examining the current data available and asking questions concerning what knowledge a person would need to create an object from raw material The aim is to create interpretations that are broader and more holistic, connecting modern people to past people using material culture as a medium The biography will focus on two artefacts, a dugout canoe and an oar, from the submerged site of Tybrind Vig in Denmark This dissertation aims to answer the question: how was watercraft technology valued socio-economically and ideologically in the aquatic food dependent culture of Mesolithic southern Scandinavia? In order to meet this aim, the objectives of this dissertation are to explore: What knowledge is needed to create key watercraft technologies from raw materials? What knowledge is needed to use the objects created? How knowledge and decision-making with regard to watercraft technology were valued in Mesolithic social life, and may have contributed to a heritage of aquatic craft-retention in the face of wider changes to subsistence economy? Layton (2006, 40) states ‘Archaeology needs to develop systematic procedures for assessing reconstructions of meanings from past cultures’ The objective is to use a biographical method as a systematic way of investigating cultural knowledge, as well as a way to review and re-evaluate current interpretations This method also highlights the extent of control archaeologists have over the information that is created and represented to the discipline and most importantly the public (Buchli 1995, 193; Carmen 1995, 99; Lucas 1995, 38; Shanks & Hodder 1995, 16, 20; Thomas 1996, 19), hoping to create a more reflexive archaeological discussion of the Mesolithic to broaden, deepen and create a more encompassing discourse ensuring the continued exploration of the Mesolithic (Coles 1987, 1) This method is being applied to organic material as this is a particular area in which the Mesolithic lacks in-depth study, many studies focus on the functional aspect of an artefact In ethnographic studies organic material used for watercraft is often seen as a bridge between the land and the water by those who use it, those who use it being a medium by which these two aspects of the environment are joined (Munn 1977; 41) In addition to lithics, watercraft technology is an essential contributor to subsistence practices and thus past people’s taskscape and their identity However, this approach can easily be applied to more than watercraft technology The aim of interpretation should be to connect us to the people of the past and not to the artefacts themselves Chapter two explores the changing theories and interpretations concerning the Mesolithic within archaeology, with a focus on organic watercraft technology, evaluating Denmark’s contribution to the discourse The site of Tybrind Vig, the interpretations, and its contribution to the wider debate is also evaluated A short section looks at the history and use of ethnographic analogy, examining the issues that have a risen and its current use Chapter three will review the literature concerning the biographical approach to objects; the strengths and weakness of the approach, and will examine some of the difficulties faced when looking at prehistoric objects, which are given to us with no social context The aim is to explore ways in which a biographical approach joined with taskscape can connect the people of the past to those of today It is hoped this will be achieved by understanding the activities humans would have undertaken to complete an object in the past Chapter four and five describe the biography of a dugout canoe and a decorated oar from the site of Tybrind Vig, and show how these artefact histories were integrated into the social landscape of the site, through the tasks they were enrolled in The aim is to show that by scrutinising an artefact and asking questions regarding the human Chapter 6: Conclusion The present study provides additional evidence that watercraft technology made from organic raw material was an important part of subsistence practices during the Mesolithic These objects were not just functional apparatus, but objects which humans created attachments to through social activity, cultural knowledge and social reproduction The technology allowed past people to exploit a range of different marine and aquatic resources, both on the coastline, lakes and inland wet areas, all over Europe (e.g Clark 1954; 1972; Mellars & Andrews 1987; Gonzalez Morales & Martinez 2005; Sulgostowska 2006; Noe-Nygaard 1983) The study has argued that the exploration of knowledge used in the creation of an artefact allows for a deeper understanding of a past person’s cultural knowledge, which is integral to the creation of objects, and deepens our understanding of attachment and identity created within past societies This research has focused on the knowledge value of individual pieces of watercraft technology, but it could easily be applied to any form of artefact The late transition from Mesolithic (hunting and gathering) to Neolithic (farming) subsistence practices in Denmark has made it of particular interest The move to farming so often seen as a progressive step in our social evolution, the Mesolithic as a stop gap for past people; allowing them to become ready to move from simple bands to complex agricultural communities (Thomas 1993; 390; Troels-Smith 2002; 137) Many interpretations and theories are lithic based; limiting the understanding of hunter-gather technological ability A move to study the food eaten by past people uncovered a wealth of information concerning their reliance on aquatic resources (Bailey 1978; Paludan-Müller 1978; Tauber 1981; Noe-Nygaard 1983; Mellars & Andrews 1987; Enghoff 1989; 1995; Kubiak-Martens 1999; Jenike 2001; Fischer et al 2007; Uldum 2011) Further discoveries of wetland and submerged sites (e.g Star Carr, Clark 1954; Tybrind Vig, Andersen 1986) only cemented the idea that Mesolithic people relied on organic technology daily and in nearly all aspects of their lives The evidence continued to mount that these were not just people moving through an environment surviving on what they could find to eat, but people living within an environment, using and understanding the available resources This 53 evidence shows that the Mesolithic discourse needs to readjust its focus towards studying organic technology Whilst there are many lithic studies which explore the function of stone tools in the Mesolithic, few join the tools to a larger network of use Studies need to widen into different areas of technology use and how artefacts interact through activities undertaken by humans Interpretations need to become more holistic, encompassing not just scientific analysis, but experimental techniques, such as reconstruction and use-wear analysis The Mesolithic as a discourse should look at a more reflexive archaeology, evaluating the presentation of finds and interpretation Hodder’s (2003) work at Çatalhưk has opened the site up to multiple groups, interpretations and discussions; from the use of the internet as a medium of representation of archaeological work (Wolle & Tringham 2000), to discussions of gender in the discipline and the past (Rountree 2007) This reflexivity has not only opened up interest in Çatalhưk and the Neolithic, but the discipline as a whole The Mesolithic has much to offer, as well as much to gain from being open and ready to connect modern people to past people Although Denmark did move into more agricultural practices c 3,500 – 3,000 BC there is evidence that marine resources and Mesolithic subsistence activities continued to be practiced Neolithic sites such as Nekselø, Denmark, show the importance of fish weirs for catching eels Eel weirs continued to be used up until the nineteenth century in Denmark (Fischer 2007, 63-64) The discovery of a fish hook at Tybrind Vig with twine still attached using a clove hitch knot (Andersen 1984, 316), a knot still used in fishing practices today, is evidence that certain information can stand the test of time Marine resources are still an important part of subsistence today, with recreational fishing not only being a recognised sport, but also creating an avid tourist industry Cockle collecting, trawler fishing and other types of aquatic resources still provide a living for many (Danton 2002) The current findings add to a growing body of literature on how material culture should be used as a medium for connecting modern humans to past humans Anthropological and sociological studies have shown how humans bind material 54 culture into a structure of meaning and symbolism creating long lasting attachments (Arendt 1958; Munn 1977; Appadurai 1988; Kopytoff 1988; Belk 1990; Strathern 1990; Kleine et al 1995; Thomas 1996; 2000; 2006; Hoskins 2006; 2013; Layton 2006; Tilley 2006b; Waller-Cotterhill 2013) Material culture is enshrined within structures of cultural knowledge and social reproduction, taking part in tasks and activities creating mental connections through the body which engage people with society and the outside world (Ingold 2000; Thomas 2006, 45) It is through these social connections that humans build their identity, using material culture as a way of symbolising an individual’s standing within society Activities and tasks undertaken with material culture are the experiential building blocks of identity; past experiences build on the taught knowledge and contribute to the perception of the world (Ingold 2000) Taskscape combined with object biography allowed for the examination of the knowledge needed to complete activities and tasks involved with living By understanding the knowledge which is needed for the taskscape, connections can be built between different aspects of material culture (canoes to paddles to stone tools), to the environment (land to water), to the activities which humans undertook to inhabit an environment (fishing, transport, trade) This builds a complex view of past humans, dispelling the idea of simple societies The knowledge needed to live within the environment was anything but simple This knowledge passed down from generation to generation created a stable base for human identity and perception to be built on Mesolithic people’s life style was not a stop gap on the way to becoming farmers 55 Bibliography Albrectsen, E 1959 Flinteflækker og frømænd Fynske Minder Odense Andersen, S 1984 Tybrind Vig Current Archaeology (1982-1985) Pg 314-317 Andersen, S 1985 Frihavnen – den første Knogemoseboplads Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark 1985 København Andersen, S 1986 Mesolithic dug-outs and paddles from Tybrind Vig, Denmark Acta Archaeological, 57 Pg 87-106 Andersen, S H 1987 Tybrind Vig: a submerged Ertebølle settlement in Denmark In Coles, J M & Lawson, A J (Eds) 1987 European wetlands in prehistory Oxford: Oxford University Press Pg 253-280 Andersen, S H 1994 New finds of Mesolithic logboats in Denmark In Westerdahl, C (Ed) 1994 Crossroads in Ancient Shipbuilding: Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology, Roskilde, 1991, ISBSA 6, Vol 40 Oxbow Books Limited Pg 1-10 Andersen, S H 1995 Ringkloster: Ertebølle trappers and wild boar hunters in eastern Jutland A survey Journal of Danish archaeology, 12:1 Pg 13-59 Andersen, S H 2011 Ertebølle canoes and paddles from the submerged habitation site of Tybrind Vig, Denmark In Bonsall, C., Pickard, C., & Fischer, A (Eds) Submerged prehistory Oxbow Books Pg 1-14 Appadurai, A 1988 Introduction: commodities and the politics of value In Appadurai, A (Ed.) 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