Digital resources and self directed lear

CHARLES DARWIN UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF EDUCATION 20-May-2014 Digital Resources and Self-Directed Learning: The Roles and Integrations In Pedagogy Samarnh PANG, CHARLES DARWIN UNIVERSITY Supervisor Dr Ania Lian, CHARLES DARWIN UNIVERSITY A research project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree in Master of Education Abstract Assisted by technologies, the 21st century education demands self-directed learners in an indispensible way This paper describes the role of digital resources (DR) in a language-learning environment that can be critical to Self-Directed Learning (SDL) in ESL settings The report identifies a number of qualities of DR, which give them the above advantage These relate to features, which help enhance (a) students’ personal motivation, motivational and cognitive strategies, (b) the learning process (self-monitoring, problem-solving, autonomy and collaboration), and (c) the learning contexts (enhanced environment, learning space and community and policies) Table of Content PAGE Keywords Chapter I: Introduction 1.1 Self-Directed Learning from Research Perspectives 1.2 The rise of Digital Resources in Language Education 1.3 Problem Statement 1.4 Research Objectives 1.5 Research Questions 1.6 Rationale 1.7 Research Methods 1.8 Ethics 4 4 5 Chapter II: Digital Resources and SDL Perspectives 2.1 Conceptual Framework 2.2 Cognitive, Emotional and Motivational Perspective 2.3 Functional Perspectives 2.4 Socio-cultural Perspectives 2.5 Political Perspectives 2.6 Teachers Perspectives 11 12 14 Chapter III: Integration of DR in SDL Environment 3.1 Project-based Learning and DR in a SDL Environment: practical implications A Database B Creating a class website C Developing a map of one’s town D Developing an online news network E Creating a game F Creating PowerPoint 3.2 Analysis: The Collaborative Lecture Annotation System (CLAS) 3.3 Implications for EFL Context 3.4 Conclusion Limitations Of The Study References 16 18 19 21 23 24 Keywords: Digital Resources; Self-directed learning; Functional; Socio-cultural; Political, Emotional; Personal Attributes; EFL Context CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION Over the last decade various studies suggest that the goal of learning in the 21st century is not simply the mastery of knowledge, but it is the mastery of learning as in personal attributes, process and discourses (Candy, 2004; Garrison, 2003) As mentioned, education is seen to play an important role to turn novice learners into expert learners While learning involves engagement, today’s classrooms are seen at the center of a revolution that has technology at its core Research studies of the past decade have also established that the major advances in new technologies could offer possibilities for increasing student learning engagement and mastery in higher education institutions (Hill, Wiley, Nelson, & Han, 2003, p36-39) Other studies have explored the functional and social productivities of the integration of technologies in schools such as convenience and flexibility (Poole, 2000), collaborative learning and community, and communication (Song, Singleton, Hill, & Koh, 2004) Learner attributes and learning practice in the contexts of technological environment such as Web 2.0, however, has become equally important for research Some scholars have explored specific attributes including prior knowledge, time, and gender differences and learning preferences (Rovai, 2002) An area of particular interest to researchers exploring internet learning is the learner’s ability to guide and direct his or her own learning, which is known as self-directed learning (SDL) (Rovai, 2002) In connection, we argue in this paper that SDL skills can be developed and supported through the integration of digital resources include internet media and Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) tools for pedagogical activities to encourage students’ self-management, self-monitoring and motivation As such, learning is not seen as a teacher’s activity, but students take initiatives in their own learning in a discourse or set up environment by a teacher, that is, with the systematic engagement of project-based learning and problem-based learning approach, with the assistant of technologies In fact, this particular argument is relevant to the effective teaching practices over the past decade how active and passive learning is primarily the results of instructional designs, teachers’ control and domination, resources, and other related environmental factors (Rovai, 2002) With the growing understanding of the importance of nourishing the ethos of lifelong learning in individual student, schools and teachers are seen as dynamics factors in cultivating, fostering and supporting students the relevant understanding through teaching and learning practices The purpose of the paper is therefore to draw on a research-based conceptual model for understanding the role of digital resources in SDL that will be critical for ESL contexts First, research perspectives on SDL will be reviewed Next, I will introduce the conceptual model for understanding digital resources in supporting SDL from functional, socio-cultural, political and emotional research perspectives Finally, the integration of five most common digital resources for project-based pedagogy, and a web-based learning system called CLAS will be analysed to see how they can be of good supports for ESL learners to enrich their SDL skills 1.1 Self-Directed Learning from Research Perspectives The study of self-direction has been explored primarily on three perspectives: (a) process (Knowles, 1975; Mocker & Spear, 1982), (b) personal attribute (Candy, 1991; Garrison, 1997), and (c) contexts (Candy, 1991, 2004) Though Garrison (1997) states that there is no authoritative definition for SDL, definitions of SDL have evolved around the work of Knowles’ early work Knowles (1975) defines Selfdirected learning as a process by which individuals take the initiative, with or without the assistance of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes Derived from Humanism, Cognitive theory and Constructivism, SDL has attracted scholars across disciplines to emphasize the central role and responsibility of learners in their learning (Candy, 2004) In the learning process, second language learners, for instant, take full responsibility for all selfdirection including decisions concerning their learning and the implementation of these decisions They plan, organize, monitor and adjust the learning for their own needs, and conduct the cognitive modifications at their own wills Some other researchers focus on SDL can be supported through guidance and collaboration from teachers or assistance from peers (Candy, 2004) Candy (2004) also identifies a number of characteristics of self-directed learners For instant, they are able to have a sufficient understanding of what is learnt, formulate their learning objectives, select and use appropriate learning strategies, monitor their use of these strategies, and assess their own learning Other recent studies have focused on SDL-based curriculum that will therefore support students with knowledge, trainings and skills through technologies (Liyan, 2007) Liyan (2007) has summarised SDL from three research perspectives that provide framework for this project As well, the foci of SDL have been expanded from learning process, personal attributes, to contexts Besides learning process, Garrison (2003) recognises the potentials of SDL through the learners’ attributes including motivation, moral behaviours in learning, self-management, goal orientation as well as self-discipline in learning, while some research have further recognized the importance of the learning context for SDL (Candy, 1991), noting that learners may exhibit different levels of self-direction in different learning situations According to Candy (2004), learners may have a high level of self-direction in an area in which they are familiar, or in areas that are similar to a prior experience Moreover, Candy (2004) points out that the presence of technology has changed the ways student learn and perceive knowledge, and therefore research focus may need to be shifted from traditional learning approach to educational technology to be included in curriculum, instruction, learning process and assessment The examples which follow illustrate how the three components work together with the support of technological resources One area that is particularly promising for SDL research is online contexts (Sloan, 2004), created to provide and enhance opportunity for individual self-directed learner in managing his/her own learning, searching, obtaining information, interacting and collaborating with other learners and teachers This trend is demonstrated in the popularly emerging distant learning or E-learning with technological supported courseware Since online technology become widely used among students, it is very likely that most students have a high level of self-direction in learning through online means, and a learner who regularly writes blog perform dynamically in self-direction when learning in web-based mode More research is needed in this area if we are to gain a richer understanding of how SDL functions in specific contexts 1.2 The rise of Digital Resources in language education With the eminent rise of digital resources in diverse types and forms, education providers, sociologists, neuroscientists and theorists across disciplines believe that learning today is an entirely new game Zhang (2009, as cited from Pearson et al., 2005) defines digital resources as tools that include a wide range of media forms such as images, video and audio clips, hypertext, hypermedia, software applications, and web pages Since 1990s, many achievements in foreign language teaching and learning with the aid of network and multimedia have been widely obtained Conventional teacher-centered language acquisition model, merely imparting language skills and knowledge (Zhu, 2004; Zhang &Wu, 2005), is not only hard to meet the practical demand of the new generation students, but also difficult to improve students’ initiative abilities of using English language through self-directed learning and collaborative learning, form an effective strategy, and ultimately acquire language competence For example, teacher centric instruction would limit students to certain direction determined by teacher, and therefore knowledge is basically constrained within the understanding of teachers and curriculum Such phenomena are illustrated in the practice most conventional instructional practices including lectures, drilling and oral quizzes In such regards, students are frequently intimidated by teachers and their pedagogy as conditions to teacher-centric environment In contrast, research found that students are more independent when they are less controlled by teachers or their oppressive environment (Zhu, 2004) Moreover, with the aids of technologies, students are well supported to engage their learning with freedom and self-esteem which allow them to exhibit their inner self and creativity (Zhu, 2004) Additionally, the rapid development of modern internet technology has long been propelling the modernization process of the whole society, and irrevocably calls for modernization of present day education (Berk, 2009) For brighter education, they established that teaching materials should go along with the progress of information technology, and electronic courseware will gradually replace the conventional paper teaching materials With the increasing trend of online learning in higher education, Sloan (2004) argues that SDL has started to attract more attention due to its speculated and reported impact in these contexts For example, students are found to exhibit high performance in an online collaboration in text and voice/video conference mode since online technology allows interaction beyond the limit of classroom walls (Sloan, 2004) Multiple research exploring online learning have indicated that SDL skills may assist the learner with the learning process in these contexts (Berk, 2009; Rovai, 2002; Ina & Shafiq, 2012) 1.3 Problem Statement The current study will describe the role of digital resources (DR) in Self Directed Learning (SDL) in order to understand how to integrate these resources in a language learning environment This study will synthesize and analyse the currently available research, and this knowledge will be shared with Cambodian EFL teachers 1.4 Research Questions What makes digital resources critical to self-directed learning in English as Second Language classrooms, and how? 1.5 Research Objectives This study seeks to clarify the role of DR in SDL pedagogy, an issue which appears to be unresolved, at least in Cambodian ESL classrooms Using Liyan (2007) models for understanding SDL, we will examine the contributions of DR in three main aspects of SDL i.e Process, Personal attributes, and contexts Such objectives are to be examined from four primary perspectives—functional, socio-cultural, political and emotional— to see the roles digital resources, the experiences they provide, and their features The findings of this study will then propose techniques and strategies for the integration in the classroom to encourage self-directed learning 1.6 Rationale Chou & Chen (2008) confirms that schools are now recognizing the importance of selfdirected learning as a necessary skill needed for the 21st century as well as the need for teachers to enhance students’ abilities for accessing self-directed learning Likewise, in Cambodia improving students' self directed learning has gained increasing recognition as being an essential goal of many language training programs across institutions Such motives are vastly demonstrated through school policy documents as well as pedagogical practices Candy (2004) suggests that self-directed learning provides a more direct route into understanding the actual dynamics of and relationship between learning and technologies In fact, a myriad of studies support that technology (in an exciting way) can impacts students’ self-directed learning through motivation, engagement and outcomes as well as instilling lifelong learning in individual student (Chou & Chen, 2008; Candy, 2004, ChanLin, 2008; Darwson et al., 2012) However, with the growing presence of digital technologies in Cambodian EFL classrooms, especially among private schools, the problems of understanding its roles, applications and effects on student self-directed learning have yet to be discussed and clarified Therefore, confusion and misunderstanding may lead to poor acceptability and use in those schools Therefore, clarifying the relationship between digital resources (DR) and SDL pedagogy will be worthwhile to better understand how SDL can be supported in ESL contexts 1.7 Research Methods This is a theoretical study based on secondary data sources, providing a critical review of the relevant literature In the first instance I will examine the literature which will help provide insights as to the ways in which the characteristics, roles and relationship of DR that are linked to SDL Then, this study will also review literature that provides insights to leverage the conventional learning environments with the help of DR This review will further offer the study with a conceptual framework which underpins the use of DR in SDL environments I will primarily approach published literature and employ it as a core part of this academic paper In the process of searching and evaluating literature sources, I will adopt the selection and elimination methods in a consistent and systematic fashion, so that resource obtainable may be efficient and misevaluation on data interpretation may be avoided I will use electronic library search of Charles Darwin University called Summon as the mainstream to search As such, selection and elimination methods are applied For instant, by selecting only research journal and books options (or publication date specific, subject terms and languages) (while eliminating unrelated resources) for the searched topic, the resource obtainable will be specific to types and contents oriented While the findings and conclusion of each literature are primary targets for content reading, I will employ critical approach to reading research articles on number of selected articles (that I am convicted to have direct impact on my study) In critical review, I will examine the published academic articles based on framework, problems, organization of evidences, methodologies, analysis, synthesis and critique to be taken place As a result, published literatures will provide an academic basis to this study; clarify my ideas and findings; find research methods to approach this study; identify the potential issues concerning the scope of this study 1.8 Ethics This study is mainly based on the review of literature in the area of technology and pedagogy It primarily concerns itself with referencing which the research will adopt throughout this study The study process raises no ethical concerns CHAPTER II: PERSPECTIVES ON DIGITAL RESOURCES AND SDL 2.1 Conceptual Framework SDL Liyan (2007) Personal Attributes The Role of DR The Jobs, Experiences and Features Emotional, Cognitive and Motivational Perspective Emotion & Learning, Concentration & Intellectual Management, learning motivation, Self-esteem and Addiction & Multitasking Wu, Yen & Marek (2011) Elisabeth and Lennart (2004) Immordino-Yang & Damasio (2007) Caldwell & Cunningham (2010) Jennie, Debby, Joan & Jon (March 2010): Multi-tasking, distraction, and boundary management Robertson, Elliot & Robinson (2007): Cognitive tools Process Functional Perspective Digital resources in diverse forms, types, characteristic, and what does it Liyan (2007) Candy (2004) Berk (2009) Socio-cultural Perspective Digital Network Community; Learner’s Control Randal (2003) Christopher (2010) McInnerney & Roberts (2004) Context Political Perspective Environment, Accessibility, Creative Curriculum, Responsibility, Policies, ethics Fuchs (2008): Educational technology environment Ormiston (2011) Randal (2003) Chou & Chen (2008) Singh, H (December 2003): Blended learning, Ethics Considering the differences in approaches to learning and the roles of students, teachers and learning materials that have developed over the years in the field of language teaching, it is critical to specify the forms of learning that SDL favours and which are also consistent with the 21st century learning skills Learning is an interactional process whereby learners engage to a participatory process of interaction in negotiating between what is known and what is to be learned; It is a social process as it involves the interaction between learners and others; a situated process where learning takes place in a context between the participants; a metacognitive process (Shane et al, 2012; Chou & Chen, 2008) Relevant to SDL, meta-cognitive process of learning mainly engage the role of learners in realizing and understanding their own cognitive process and ways of learning (Wu, 2013) Considering the fact that human brain and technology (as a learning advancement) have changed the ways student interact and learn, it is critical to look at how technology could be of use to enhance students’ learning from many variables In this study, we are seeking to reflect on how technology (i.e internet and CALL tools) could be of value to self-directed learning from the following four perspectives They include (1) emotional, cognitive and motivational perspective of technology on SDL, (2) functional perspective on SDL, (3) Socio-cultural perspective, and (4) political perspective 2.2 Cognitive, Emotional and Motivational Perspective Technology today allows for diverse ways for working and learning (Small & Vogan, 2008) Small & Vogan (2008) explain the daily exposure to today technology—computers, smart phones, video games, search engines— stimulates brain cell alteration and neurotransmitter release, gradually strengthening new neural pathways in our brains while weakening old ones, literally shaping our brains evolving right at a speed like never before Robertson, Elliot and Robinson (2007) in their research cognitive tools discover that technology can be used to benefit learner’s cognition through four main roles: (1) Information seeking (Databases or Search engines i.e Google, Wikipedia, and E-corpus like Encarta Encyclopaedia), (2) Information Representation, (3) Knowledge organisation, and (4) Knowledge integration For instant, databases and search engine tools such as Google, Yahoo, Alta Vista and E-Corpus allow learners to retrieve and identify information through learning situations; Graphic, Organizers and Concept Maps tools such as PowerPoint and Word Processing enable information to be represented in a meaningful representation; Spreadsheets, Presentation tools and Notebook tools including Inspiration, Excel, Word and HyperAuthor are used to establish relationships among information by structuring; Mapping and Simulation tools such as online discussions, teleconferences, video streaming and podcasting allow students to connect new information to prior knowledge therefore learners can build a larger array of information In the recent years, study of affect and emotion in the context of technology in education and the role that they play in technology acceptance have gained much interest among educational technologists and educational neuroscientists The inner state of a person involving emotion, mood, feeling and sentiments determine a person’s behaviour and personalities toward learning Though the scale of how technology affecting emotions in learning is somehow varied, neurology research claimed that all learning is emotional (Immordino-Yang, 2011; Immordino-Yang & Damasio, 2007) Immordino-Yang (2011) states that emotion and cognition are intertwined, and involve interplay between the body and mind Furthermore, social processing and learning are found to internalize our subjective interpretations of other people’s beliefs, goals, feelings and actions Aside from face-to-face human interaction, technology can equally engage learner’s emotions on individual and social processing from teachers, peers and school (Caldwell & Cunningham, 2010; Jennie, Debby, Joan & Jon, March 2010) Such excitements are numerously found within the engagement of teaching and learning using internet multimedia, simulation, games and social networking spaces (Wu, Yen & Marek, 2011) More than extrinsic motivation, research establish that intrinsic motivation is the most significant contribution to learning success (Caldwell & Cunningham, 2010; Jennie, Debby, Joan & Jon, March 2010) Proficiency in SDL necessitates not only a certain degree of motivation to engage in the learning process, but also the capacity to assess achievement and performance against established criteria or goals (Garrisons, 1997) Wu, Yen & Marek (2011) also argue that technology can have a positive impact on learners’ self-esteem and confidence in learning performance For instant, Social networking can also be used as a motivational tool to promote self-efficacy amongst students In a study by ) Wu, Yen & Marek (2011) indicate that Facebook was used as an academic motivation tool for students in a developmental reading course Social networking sites such as Facebook and Tweeter are virtual communities not only for people interested in a particular subject or just to hang out together, but also can be used as a potential space for learning collaboration With members communicate by voice, chat, instant message, video conference, and blogs, students are able to read and share comments, interact as well as explore ideas of their interest Students engaging learning activities with such technology space allow them to manifest what they believe, think and want to create because this new leaning environment provides high flexibility, relationship-center, and control free as well as promote share experiences A key element influencing student task motivation is feedback While student motivation to persist is also influenced by a range of intrinsic and extrinsic factors (e.g grades, future career goals, instructor, assessment), it is critically impacted by the level and quality of feedback received (Jennie, Debby, Joan & Jon, March 2010) Jennie, Debby, Joan and Jon (2010) note that technologies can be very dynamic with feedback and connectivity as they encourage flexibility and efficiency Many profound outcomes in this area are demonstrated through various Learning Management Systems (i.e Learnline, CLAS, WebCT, Blackboard, Wikispace and Blogging), social networking sites (e.g Facebook), Blogging (e.g Blogspot) On the negative side effects, many research also points out that technology i.e internet and mobile technologies alike could have tremendous effects on learners’ health, inter-personal skills, personality and emotional-intelligent (Elisabeth and Lennart, 2004) Such phenomena are usually diagnosed as a result of technology addiction, resulted from poor learning management and discipline, learning behaviours, or the lack of efficient policies (school level) Other studies also discover that the exponential growth of multitasking with technologies such as doing reading while chatting, participating in social networking and listening to online radio can lead to the break of concentration, which is the primary component for learning (Caldwell & Cunningham, 2010) A different research found that the habit of multitasking performed by students can lead to some detrimental impacts including time wasting, long term memory effect, mental block and work productivity (Rubinstein, Meyer & Evans, 2001) Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (Burma) and Vietnam The noble goal of ASEAN is to accelerate economic growth, social progress, socio-cultural evolution among its members, protection of regional peace and stability, and opportunities for member countries to discuss differences peacefully In the article 10, ASEAN will enhance the well-being and livelihood of the peoples of ASEAN by providing them with equitable access to human development opportunities by promoting and investing in education and life-long learning, human resource training and capacity building, encourage innovation and entrepreneurship, promote the use of English language, ICT and applied science and technology in socio-economic development activities (ASCC, 2009, p3) As per the objectives of advancing and prioritising education, twenty one action plans are put in place to ensure the integration of education priorities into ASEAN’s development agenda and creating a knowledge based society; achieving universal access to primary education; promoting early child care and development; and enhancing awareness of ASEAN to youths through education and activities to build an ASEAN identity based on friendship and cooperation(ASCC, 2009, p4) With this development plan and policies being laid out, the role of technologies such as online will become prominent in community, and thus will allow the establishment of the ASEAN nations through techno- connectivity for creating knowledge society Article 14 states that ASEAN will promote Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to implement human resource development programme which will facilitate the implementation of regional ICT initiatives This policy will greatly benefit Cambodia to improve her education programme, technology and human resources 2.6 Teacher perspectives A research conducted on the Teaching ESL Large Classes with the Help of CALL Tools in EPL501 provides a significant contribution on how teachers can make good use of technology to support large class environment Since most respondents of this survey are mainly Cambodians and Thais, the responses may be subjective to their education culture and perceptions of what works and what does not However, this study may provide conceptual understanding for later studies on the role and the impacts of technologies in limited opportunist nations Through project-based learning approach, teachers can make use of various technologies, both web-based media and CALL tools, in teaching multiple skills of English instruction including listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary and grammar In relation to the success of integrating technologies in learning class, technological tools such as internet media and learning softwares provide powerful assisting ways to boost up students’ learning as in dividual and in groups However, the data from this study shows that English teachers lack their enthusiasm and strategic knowledge in regard to using technologies for teaching Such phenomenon may indicate that English teachers might have experienced fear, doubt or drawback Lian (2004) calls this phenomenon the negative attitudes toward technologies However, since the integration of technology for language learning is still at its early stage in most countries, this survey shows some positive signs that teachers are excited, yet sceptical about adopting it as an active trend for their teaching As suggested earlier, the survey indicates that teachers focus heavily on using technological tools for teaching rather than creating teaching and learning tools through technology which in turn make learning more engaging and productive Mainly, teachers integrate technological resources to teach content, not create content Lian (2006) suggests that project-based 14 approach can be a dynamic teaching trend for language classrooms in order to increase learning performance and enhance learning productivity For example, the survey shows that teachers are interested in two project-based activities i.e Blogging and Podcast projects Using Blogging as a writing E-portfolio activities such as writing Journals, writing a critique for an article, writing a review on a product, creating Weblog to keep record of their interest, writing on a topic of technology, and using social networking to teach writing, has received most attention from teacher Blogging project exists on the foundation of writing and publishing, which essentially promote freedom, motivation, enjoyment and creativity By engaging Blogging, students enjoy working both by themselves and in group They learn by reading one another blog articles on any topics (e.g travelling, sport, food), and by providing feedback It may imply that online-base technology not only could be used to enrich students’ receptive skills such as reading, but also an important to productive skills such as writing It seems like podcast is not a brand new activity at all Eight teachers show their positive attitudes toward using radio and podcast as a tool to teach listening and speaking skill 85 per cent of the teachers show their optimism in using radio to teach listening skill In fact there are numerous radio programs recorded less than fifteen minute on various subjects from popular radio and podcast channel such as BBC, VOA, ABC Australia, and Grammar girl podcast These short radio clips are quite authentic and available online for download and use in classroom Activities such as Jigsaw, Dictation and Debate can also be used to enhance students’ comprehension in listening and speaking activities Overall, the data shows that the roles of technologies or CALL software in classroom are not maximized or aware For instant, creating podcast using sound recording materials such as a phone or a computer, can be shared like Blogging Research on podcast shows that activities such as interview, role play, team-based project, storytelling, debate and critical discussion can be used as podcast projects to improve students’ pronunciation, vocabulary and social communicative skills (Anne, 2008) By engaging podcast project, students not only learn English through acting (e.g interviews), but also they learn English in a more purposeful and conscious ways Students thus learn to prepare, select, rehearse, and produce appropriate vocabulary, registers, jargons, and conversation gambits It thus makes learning practical and productive 15 CHAPTER III: INTEGRATION OF DR IN SDL ENVIRONMENT 3.1 Project-based Learning and DR in a SDL Environment: practical implications Since learning primarily is situated or context-dependent, PBL has become widely recognised among researchers (Lian, 2011) Numerous research have confirmed the effective outcomes of using technology such as internet and multimedia tools to the vein of project-based pedagogy that will as a result increase SDL performance (Howard, 2002; ChanLin, 2008) “We are where we are today because of huge technological development in the 20th and 21st centuries This has empowered ordinary persons beyond their wildest dreams and it has and will continue to have a wonderful contribution to make to the quality of learning” (Lian & AP, 2013: slide 4) Lian (2006: slide 4) states that functioning in a language is an intensely personal complex task of meaning-construction and text-production resulting from interaction involving learners’ personal histories in contact with contextual settings Therefore, designing and utilizing tasks requires teacher wide understanding on students’ culture, ability, preferences and technologies to be used Given that L2 learning strongly happens in contexts even at the beginning stages (Lian, 2006: slide 5), technology and technical knowledge would not hold the ground for success, but intellectual and strategic educational framework and development can exponentially expand learning performance and outcomes The one strategy suggested from a coherent intellectual framework is called "throw away the past" (Lian & Lian, 2013: slide 15) This strategy requires teachers to initially acquire the knowledge on educational technology and the involvement of such knowledge classroom practices Teachers’ professional development on technological pedagogy for teaching and assessment is important to ensure the sustainability and creativity for modern schooling Lian (2006) states that learning spaces cannot be successful if they all suffered from a lack of resources and strategies capable of meeting the individual needs of learning as and when they were required It is explicated that effective tools must fit within the intellectual structure and can be incorporated into learning contexts (Lian, 2006) Lian (2006) provide eight characteristics of effective technological resources that can be used for learning activities: 1) an open-ended set for maximum flexibility, portability, and individual use, 2) strongly focus on increasing understanding, awareness-raising and critical analytical thinking, 3) provide ondemand access to information, 4) open to questioning the system, 5) place learners in control, 6) allow maximum interaction, 7) contain automatic feedback, 8) able to connect to webbased database management system Following are the typical examples of the tasks have been studied and used across schools that can be integrated in PBL to encourage students’ self-direction and creativity A Creating a class website Creating class website is one of the most engaging project-based learning tasks Such a task responds to the theoretical framework in supporting to outcome-oriented instruction based on Lian (2006) The expected learning outcomes achieved by students include the ability to work in team, ability to negotiate as well as to create products that reflect their views It helps improve their writing as well their content-focused skills There could be many ways to structure and operate it The first thing to be done is to assign roles/responsibilities for each team such as by dividing content writing, layout design as well as resource/information management A good example of classroom website is from Hilton Central School These 16 high school students at first received instruction and brief training in regards to building classroom websites However, they didn’t fully grasp the technicality on website building concerning tools Such phenomenon allows students use their interaction and communication skills in order to discuss and acquire knowledge needed for this task with their teammates Their full effort collaboration and interaction not only allow students to complete their tasks efficiently, but also encourages them to subconsciously develop their language competence in regards to linguistic and strategic competence There are a wide range of web design tools such as google, wordpress, weebly, wikispaces, and yahoo, just to name a few B Developing a map of one’s town Not so different from Creating Classroom Website project, developing a map of one’s town is a fun, yet interesting thing to engage It does not only allow students to learn about geography and location, but it inspires them to acquire the language of the real world, in this respect to build an authentic map of one’s own town It is not the skills of building interactive map that we solely want them to master, but in the process of doing so, students are channelled to engaging in active learning and cooperation These tools by mapbox.com, zeemaps.com, scribblemaps.com, click2map.com, and stepmap.com are made easy for user to carry out the designing task However, Ormiston (2011) establishes that designing an excellent digital project does not totally confine to technical knowledge; it also requires ability to identify and describe locations in order to decide landmarks It is important to engage group presentations for this task in class or arrange for exhibitions in order to show off students’ work C Developing an online news network This task requires students to develop ability to search, evaluate and categorise news stories from online environment (Pierson, 2001) The first skill students are trained for is the ability to read and understand the news stories content to be collected Such skill encourages students to actively engage in reading; to experience multiple types of news stories; to select the kinds of news stories of worth-spreading Further, it helps students develop knowledge of referencing and widen social and political knowledge happening around them Pierson (2001) recommends that students are instructed to evaluate the kind of news stories that most suit the objectives of the assigned tasks Allowing comments and feedbacks across the work platform encourages interaction between students Tools available to be used include facebook.com, blogspot.com, and wordpress.com D Creating a game Putting aside the technical difficulties, creating a game is a real opportunity that helps develop student language cognition and memory building (Ormiston, 2011) Interactive games are highly engaging Games such as English Dustbin, English Fishbone, English Jigsaw, English Power Bowl, and other flash games are convenient to create; they can be done in just a matter of minutes (Ormiston, 2011) The real challenge lies within creating content as well as writing direction/instruction for the game For instant, English Dustbin: Romeo and Juliet allows students to learn about the relationship between characters to both families Before creating games, students need to first obtain the knowledge of all the characters and their relationship status It is advised that students are assigned with a topic that relates their learning areas Pointing them to some game samples and game designing tools and allowing them to test and try with their team members is an effective start 17 E Creating PowerPoint Designing PowerPoint presentation almost becomes a classical and generic task to assign to students However, the education value embedded within this task could surpass such simplicity (Pierson, 2001) For example, assigning students to create PowerPoint presentation on Child abuse allows students to research and synthesize information in order to complete the task For more productivity, group collaboration and feedbacks could be engaged and be published on school or classroom website Presentation on top of designing and managing information allows students to demonstration their communication skills 3.2 Analysis of the Collaborative Lecture Annotation System (CLAS) on SDL skills development From the University of South Australia, they developed educational technology, called the Collaborative Lecture Annotation System (CLAS) CLAS is a web-based annotation resource, designed to leverage the primary products of existing pedagogical practice (lectures) and student learning approaches (e.g note-taking and review of important highlighted points) in a manner that encourages both the development of lifelong learning skills and reflection on teaching practice As a web-based video annotation tool, CLAS enables students to flag points that they believe to be significant for their learning Darwson, et al (2012) describe that using CLAS students can annotate lecture videos in the same way that they highlight important sections in text passages within a prescribed course reading CLAS can also be used in the classroom during live lecture presentations that are also recorded and uploaded at a later stage for student and instructor review Alternatively, students and instructors can use CLAS to interact directly with any previously uploaded multi-media content (e.g podcasts, vodcasts, or lecture capture) In essence, CLAS allows for a cohort of students to share annotations, review peer annotations and allow for instructor feedback in the one collaborative space In sum, three functional roles of CLAS in SDL highlighted are CLAS annotation of educational media; learners and teachers can view group annotations; CLAS analytics allow sophisticated student tracking and support Darwson et al (2012) argue that SDL skills can be developed and promoted in a environment through careful design of interactive tools that extract the artefacts of existing practice to encourage self-management, self-monitoring and motivation (core factors in Garrison’s 2003 SDL model) Darwson, et al (2012) mention that CLAS is an interactive tool to illustrate that SDL skills and lifelong learning can be cultivated and fostered through technologies From CLAS experiment, they discover three primary principles that learning management system like CLAS impact students’ SDL First, CLAS leverages existing teaching and learning structures The current learning theory contends that learning is, overwhelmingly, a social process (McWilliam, 2011) As such, McWilliam (2011) argues that lecturers and traditional schooling alike offers only limited opportunities for diverse learning discussion and debate Beside from learning as an individualized activity, He (2011) proposes that nowadays education should be a cafe society, where social and cultural connections become the mainstream for knowledge acquisition and sharing Similarly, technological tools such as CLAS has been designed to facilitate both selfdirected and collaborative learning opportunities using easily captured video- or audiorecordings of in-class lectures, and offers the possibility of turning transmissive pedagogy and solitary learning into moments of rich engagement 18 Second, technology such as CLAS motivates learner engagement and creates opportunities for self-management (Darwson, et al., 2012) They (2012) found that students usually learn more in less time when their learning experiences are enhanced on the basis of flexibility, accessibility and engagement Students are found to have developed more positive attitudes toward learning abstract concepts The key element that drives students’ motivation in CLAS is the opportunity in real collaboration with feedback through Learning Analytics program functionality Selfreflection, and peer engagement can, however, offer additional opportunities for learner feedback and can therefore assist with maintaining task motivation and persistence (Darwson, et al., 2012) What is more, CLAS allows students to self-manage their own engagement with available learning resources and with peers, and therefore the degree and style of interaction with each captured lecture or media resource depends entirely on the needs and preferred learning strategy of the individual student Similarly, other similar web-based learning application such as Khanacademy.com, design with user-friendly interface, simple language, and the projection of sense of humanity in their resources allow wide participation, improve students’ academic and social engagement The third finding principle is CLAS offer tools for monitoring and self-monitor learning Relevant with Garrison (1997), Darwson, et al (2012) discovers that CLAS offers learners is the capacity for self-monitoring: reflection on new information (meta-cognition) gained through adoption of a particular learning strategy (cognition), and the subsequent construction of personal meaning For example, CLAS program features aggregate and represent data to learners by creating opportunities for review, reflection and benchmarking that assist in shifting the responsibility of learning from instructor to learner, regardless of the pedagogical approach adopted in delivery of in-class lectures 3.3 Future Direction for EFL Contexts As explained in the above sections, it is evident that the primary role of education will mainly be placed with students’ ownership of their learning (self-directed learning), active learning and the learning contexts/environment to be provided Self directed learning can, thus, be understood as the most sustainable approach for lifelong learning, which most school curricula aim to achieve However, since knowledge, skills, creativity and innovation are the demanding souls for the 21st century employment and uncertainties, it is significant to interrogate on how technologies will make a difference in education? And how could instructional technology promote self-directed learning, particularly for EFL contexts such as Cambodia’s? Such questions require attentions from various stakeholders (i.e teachers and educationalists) to rethink on their conventional practices including instructional approach, learning activities, engagement methods, assessment and more importantly, the types of resources used to leverage SDL cultivation and advancement Hew (2007) identified six factors that affect successful technology integration They are lack of resources, lack of specific knowledge and skills, institutional structures, teacher attitudes and beliefs toward technology, and types of assessment and subject culture Below are the discussions of the future implications that may lead to better understanding, enhancing learning outcomes, as well as reformation in English as a Foreign Language curriculum Research must be advanced: While technologies in developing countries such as Cambodia have become popular, it is possible to assume that such technologies including internet media and learning software applications has been widely used among students, teachers and 19 parents However, there is no significant data as evident for drawing such a conclusion that students are aware of the significance of such technologies for learning, or are actively utilizing them in their self-direction It is, therefore, required multiple research studies in the area of educational technology and self-directed learning to define the various issues concerning learners’ attitudes, preferences, learning contexts and environments as well as supports Hew (2007) recognises that teachers are the first group of people who realize, engage, and evaluate the effects of technologies for students’ learning So far, there are many areas that are, so far, not yet covered in depth For example, the research on wiki, social networking, community technologies and virtual reality technologies for EFL contexts are to be explored As for this study, we are drawing the connection between technology and self directed learning to see how technologies can be utilized to support the advocacy of selfdirected learning through pedagogy Therefore, we must to continue to study and highlight examples of technologies and motivation, technology and learning management, technology and learning evaluation, community technology and community-building projects as a means to disseminate lessons learned and advance our understanding Pedagogical practice must be changed: With the fast growing of technology, we are informed that our traditional approach (i.e teacher-center or lecture based approach) of EFL learning is by far outdated Product-oriented approach is seen as a model for modern classrooms where students are provided with flexibility and freedom to follow their interests, to work independently or inter-dependent as well as to collaborate with group Particularly, Project-based and Problem-based learning approach has gained so much attention in EFL classrooms, especially in western world For EFL contexts, we contemplate that the present of technology such as internet will enhance the practicality and efficiency of project and problem-based learning approach Through technology, Barrett (2010) conducted a research on problem based learning process discovered that problem-based learning (PBL) yields many profound outcomes in the today complex world He (2010) found that PBL are to help the students develop content knowledge, learning virtues and social skills—flexible knowledge, effective problem solving skills, self-directed learning, effective collaboration skills and intrinsic motivation, and active learning A similar study by Yew & Schmidt (2011) supports that PBL and its focus on SDL led to motivation for students to maintain study pace, led to social and academic integration, encouraged development of cognitive skills, and fostered more study progress than students in a conventional learning setting Even better, with the support of technologies PBL can be even more efficient and effective as process of inquiry, critical thinking and constructivist learning (Severiens & Schmidt, 2008) Together with the changes of instructional approach, Funding must be shifted In the present days, one of the many challenging driving forces, especially for less opportunistic nations such as Cambodia, lies in the area of school finance However, based on the costs and benefits principle, it can be suggestive that schools start investing their financial capitals in education models that work Those educational models will response to the world rapid change and uncertainty by seeking to instil in the long term sustainability of education, which research reveals that technology will play significant roles (McLean, Van & Jacqueline 2006) For WEG, it seems that not much financial attention has been placed on advancing educational programs It is reflected in the school insufficient supports of technological resources including internet, computers, E-library and reliable learning management system (LMS) While many ASEAN countries such as Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore are moving toward technological pedagogy and educational technology in schools, it may be time for Cambodia private schools such WEG seek that higher ground Therefore, it is suggested that 20 WEG begins with projects to collect funds for building technological infrastructure for the school that support students’ learning Policies must be altered Having sustainable policies concerning supporting students’ learning emerges from the needs for standard, efficiency and effectiveness to occur in the areas of curriculum and pedagogy Since most WEG EFL classrooms still run on the traditional syllabi, it is suggested the school slowly introduce technology into their curriculum beginning with technological PBL that are both familiar by teachers and students Grading and assessing policies can be negotiated between the school and teachers on certain criteria to be used school-wide Since it is at its early stage, policies concerning computer lab, internet, softwares and other technological resources may need to be drafted and put in place This practice will help ensure the equality of accessing technology, ethics, morale and effectiveness of technologies for learning 3.4 CONCLUSION This literature review argues that digital resources, particularly online and CALL tools, are essential in advancing the 21st century SDL skills However, this study also advocates that SDL is not always an isolated process; very often their learning occurs in the context of group membership, and nearly always with the support, encouragement and involvement of other people including community of learners and professionals There is a widespread misconception that the prototypical self-directed learner is understood to be independent, self-reliant and most of all solitary; relying on his or her wits and single-handedly dealing with the barriers and obstacles thrown up by the pursuit of knowledge (Candy, 2004) This characterisation, in this review, is understood to have made pursuing knowledge a difficult or protracted inquiry in unfamiliar territory While most stakeholders at all levels of education expect innovation and more highly communicative pedagogies realised through the exploitation of new educational media, Candy (2004) suggest that we should step back from institutional and practical concerns about virtual learning environments (VLEs), online courses and the like so that we can consider eLearning in terms of the underlying learning processes and interactions that are stimulated, supported or favoured by new media and the contexts or communities in which it is used Therefore we may need to avoid the narrow pedagogies that are predisposed by available technologies, such as those dictated by currently available VLEs, and instead adopt a more holistic approach that considers the necessary relationships between community, communication and cognition (Candy, 2004) In other words, to put the learning into eLearning, it is necessary that we have to treat technology as a mediator of what are, essentially, social learning processes within cultural contexts Suggested by Candy (2004), it is evident that by just adding a technology tool to a traditional teaching approach does not produce more effective instruction and make the process harder and more complex without providing much benefit Technology can be used effectively in the classroom when teachers have to make sure that they are using it as part of an approach that involves the students in the activity This considerate integration corresponds to the constructivist approach which highlights learner-oriented learning supported for a long period that students are required to be engaged in the process of acquiring knowledge and have looked for methods for teachers to become upholders in process of learning rather than as persons who solely prescribe information his approach appear s to have a good correspondence the utilization of technology which are developed nowadays (Candy, 2004) 21 However, well structure, instruction and support within the context of online environment used in this study (illustrated in CLAS), our learner emerges as a basically confident learner, achieving success, without the need for much human interaction This learner disdain for human interaction is in contrast to the findings of many, but not all, researchers In this case it may be due to the factual nature of the subject content material (resources development) Without the widespread availability of networked mobile devices, our learner is following a traditional regime of study in both time and place What schools can when the power and productivity of technology is realized will therefore rest with expectation, policy, funding, and innovation on curriculum as mentioned by Ormiston (2011) As for Cambodia private schools such as WEG, it appears that they may need to take essential initiatives for reaching the high goals contributing to the expectation of the ASEAN community Such initiatives, discussed in the previous sections, include providing training to capacitate teachers’ ability in ICT, and enhancing the accessibility of technological resources (e.g internet, computer and learning applications) Another important factor is to gradually innovating new curriculum to leverage the existing one For instant, while still operating the current curriculum teachers may be encouraged to alter their instructional approaches that use technological resources for activities; PBL could be used in this same manner too Affiliating or partnering with other local or oversee institutions that are experienced in using technology for learning or developing M-learning (e.g Charles Darwin University) will allow experiences and expertise to be exchanged and learned from one another for more future opportunities 22 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY A potential limitation of the study concerns its ability to be reliable, valid and generalizable across times, contexts and technologies Therefore, to tap into technology affecting SDL further studies are necessary to confirm and, possibly, improve our framework Experimental studies in specific contexts such as private/public schools in Cambodia are a necessary way to proceed at this stage It is further acknowledged that the table is not used to serve the purposes for mapping all details to be presented in this paper It is only used as a road map and guide to inform ideas in regards to directions for further detail elaboration and discussion in literature review Because this study specifically discusses the issue of the capability of digital resources in SDL that would particularly answer to Cambodian university contexts and settings, the project-based activities to be devised emerge in accordion with the realization of Cambodian context and might be inappropriate in other contexts, thus advised to be used with thoughtful consideration However, principles of the project-based and problem-based 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