25 ways to improve learning a collection

A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes 25 Ways to Improve Learning A collection of research briefs on quality education from the IIEP Learning Portal Edited by Catherine A Honeyman with contributions from Que Anh Dang, Anna Persson, Matthew Thomas, and Matthew Waugh © International Institute for Educational Planning, 2016 learningportal.iiep.unesco.org A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes learningportal.iiep.unesco.org A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes Executive Summary Following the recent negotiations on the Sustainable Development Goals, leaders around the world have committed to ensuring quality primary and secondary education for their populations As Presidents, Prime Ministers, and royalty turn to their Ministries of Education to accomplish this goal, planners may justifiably wonder how to prioritize their time and funding in order to achieve “relevant and effective learning” for all There have been many studies of the factors that contribute to educational quality, and many models have been developed to illustrate their interrelationships A great deal of research shows that teacher quality is the most important factor affecting students’ learning outcomes However, both teacher quality and student learning are connected to many other issues: teacher education and motivation; learner characteristics and available support structures; curriculum and materials; school characteristics and leadership; and the management of the education system as a whole Education is complex, but planners need clarity Here, we summarize the research to give you 25 ways to improve learning in just one sentence each For more details, take a look at the research briefs presented in this document, and the resources on the IIEP Learning Portal 25 Ways to Improve Learning Learners & Support Structures Ensure that all students—at all ages—arrive at school ready to learn by attending to the basic pre-requisites for learning: protecting children’s physical and socio-emotional health, and ensuring that they have enough time to rest, study, and play Implement a mix of centre- and home-based early childhood education programming that focuses on the holistic development of the child while supporting parenting skills Support school professionals to teach to the diverse cognitive abilities of all students Involve parents in promoting, encouraging, and enriching their child’s learning Coordinate with other social services in order to help resolve the socio-economic inequities that contribute to lower learning outcomes for disadvantaged children learningportal.iiep.unesco.org A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes Teachers & Pedagogy Recruit enough strong teacher candidates into the profession and deploy them equitably throughout the education system Motivate teachers by improving their status and conditions Prepare future teachers for the realities of their teaching contexts through strong coursework in pedagogical content knowledge and field experiences Empower teachers to use effective and appropriate pedagogy, using a range of approaches to meet the needs of different content areas, different children, and different contexts 10 Support in-service teachers through context-relevant, on-going, and collaborative opportunities for continuous professional development Curriculum & Materials 11 Teach children in their mother tongue language for at least years before they switch fully to a different language of instruction 12 Develop relevant and effective curriculum and standards, and ensure their dissemination and implementation 13 Procure relevant and effective textbooks and teachers’ guides, and ensure that students and teachers have regular access to them 14 Use cost-effective supplementary materials to enrich teaching in every subject, to engage students in multi-dimensional learning, and to build students’ abilities to apply their knowledge 15 Develop the digital literacy of teachers and students through appropriate and cost-effective use of information and communications technology (ICT) Schools & Classrooms 16 Prepare and support school leaders who have a vision for improving quality and learning outcomes, and who are also effective at ongoing management tasks 17 Design the physical school space to be accessible, safe, hygienic, reasonably comfortable, and cognitively stimulating 18 Institute school-wide policies that reinforce positive school relationships through open dialogue and violence prevention, that ensure a reasonable student workload, and that promote students’ sense that what they are learning is meaningful 19 Ensure students have enough time to learn in school by adhering to planned schedules, improving teacher attendance and motivation, and building skills for effective classroom management and quality instruction 20 Ensure student achievement is assessed throughout the year, that diverse methods of instruction and assessment methods are utilised, and that assessment practises meet quality standards of fairness, validity, and reliability learningportal.iiep.unesco.org A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes Education System Management 21 Ground education sector analysis and strategic planning in reliable research and data to identify priority issues and means for improving learning outcomes 22 Allow decentralized decision-making to determine the most important local priorities for learning, while ensuring that capacity-building and other resources are distributed fairly 23 Ensure school inspections give accurate reports and explicit feedback to inform the school’s improvement plan 24 Design large-scale and summative assessments that are valid, reliable, and equitable, and use the resulting data to improve learning through systemic change 25 Dedicate sufficient resources to education and design school funding formulae to link resource deployment with key inputs and processes that can improve learning outcomes Does your education system meet all of these recommendations? Read on to learn more about specific issues you can address to improve the quality of the education offered to children and youth in your context learningportal.iiep.unesco.org A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes learningportal.iiep.unesco.org A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes Table of Contents Executive Summary The theory behind the Improve Learning model Learners & Support Structures 13 Basic pre-requisites for learning 15 Early childhood education 19 Diverse learning abilities and challenges 23 Parental and community involvement in learning 27 Social inequities 31 Teachers & Pedagogy 35 Recruiting and deploying effective teachers 37 Teacher motivation and incentives 41 Pre-service teacher preparation 45 Effective and appropriate pedagogy 49 Supporting in-service teachers 53 Curriculum & Materials 57 Language of instruction 59 Curriculum and expected learning outcomes 63 Textbooks and teachers’ guides 67 Supplementary learning and teaching materials 71 Information and communications technology (ICT) in education 75 learningportal.iiep.unesco.org A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes Schools & Classrooms 81 School leadership and management 83 The physical school environment 87 The psycho-social school environment 89 Instructional time and classroom management 93 Formative assessment 97 Education System Management 99 Education sector analysis and strategic planning 101 Decentralisation of education management 105 Systems for accountability, supervision, and control 109 Large-scale and summative assessments 113 Financing education and addressing corruption 117 Epilogue 121 What works best to improve learning outcomes? 121 learningportal.iiep.unesco.org A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes The theory behind the Improve Learning model A review of eleven models of quality education Catherine A Honeyman Gain insight into the theory and research behind the 25 issues featured in the IIEP Learning Portal’s Improve Learning model The IIEP Learning Portal’s “Improve Learning” model focuses attention on five major components of the education system: learners and support structures, teachers and pedagogy, curriculum and materials, schools and classrooms, and education system management Within each of these components, we present research briefs on five major issues—giving education planners a basic overview of a total of 25 areas they may need to address in order to improve learning outcomes and attain high-quality education systems The Improve Learning model conceives of these 25 areas as highly interconnected and mutually reinforcing, and the briefs often link to one another to illustrate this Why did we choose to emphasize these 25 areas? In developing the Improve Learning model, the IIEP Learning Portal reviewed ten models of quality education that have been influential in shaping research and practice over the past 15 years We also reviewed nine meta-analyses of impact evaluations on efforts to improve learning outcomes, and produced our own decision tree summarizing their conclusions A full list of references is provided at the end of this article Each of these eleven models emphasizes a different set of factors to address in the effort to achieve quality education for all students (see Figure 1) Some are organized in the traditional categories of context, input, process and output Others emphasize the nested and interconnected nature of interventions, and the feedback loops that bind them together Many have extended narrative explanations to discuss the detailed decisions that must be made when working on a particular issue, and the contextual factors to take into account when deciding what to address, when, and how The Improve Learning model aims to address as comprehensively as possible all of the major factors identified by these different sources Our objective is to provide an introduction to the many issues that may prove to be relevant to education planners working in diverse education systems and contexts around the world This comprehensive overview, we hope, will in turn serve as a portal to the wealth of other detailed studies, policies, and initiatives that have been undertaken in each area Which areas matter most? Given that the Improve Learning model attempts to cover such a comprehensive array of issues, it is fair to ask which of these matters most In the face of financial and human resource constraints, it is simply not possible to address every issue at once—where should you focus your attentions first? learningportal.iiep.unesco.org A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes Fundamentally, the answer to this question depends on understanding your own context and diagnosing its needs The question of “what works best?” probably cannot be answered in a universal and uniform way—reviews of the existing evidence have produced contradictory conclusions, and specific implementation details and contextual factors have an enormous influence on the effects of a given initiative The earliest model considered for this review, from the Improving Educational Quality Project, states: "The only certainty… is that educational reform is extremely complex, differing Figure 1: Linking the Improve Learning model to other influential studies on education quality learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 10 A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes 18 McNamara, G and O'Hara, J 2012 From Looking at Our Schools (LAOS) to Whole School Evaluation-Management, Leadership and Learning (WSE-MLL): The Evolution of Inspection in Irish Schools over the Past Decade, Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 24(2):79-97 19 Maguire, M ; Perryman, J ; Ball, S and Braun, A 2011 The Ordinary School – What is it?, British Journal of Sociology of Education, 32(1):1-16 20 Morrison K 2009 School Inspection in Small States and Territories: an Overview and Case Study of Macau, Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 39(6):751-767 21 Mullen, C., Stover, L and Corley, B 2001 School Accreditation and Teacher Empowerment: an Alabama Case, Teacher Development: An international journal of teachers' professional development, 5(1):101-118 22 Neves T ; Pereira M J and Nata G 2014 Head Teachers' Perceptions of Secondary School Rankings: Their Nature, Media Coverage and Impact on Schools and the Educational Arena, Education as Change, 18(2):211-225 23 OFSTED 2015 School Inspection Handbook 24 Penninckx, M ; Vanhoof, J ; De Maeyer, S and Van Petegem, P 2014 Exploring and Explaining the Effects of Being Inspected, Educational Studies, 40(4):456-472 25 Perryman J 2007 Inspection and Emotion, Cambridge Journal of Education, 37(2):173-190 26 Perryman J 2009 Inspection and the Fabrication of Professional and Performative Processes, Journal of Education Policy, 24(5):611-631 27 Perryman, J., Ball, S., Maguire, M and Braun, A 2011 Life in the Pressure Cooker -School League Tables and English and Mathematics Teachers’ Responses to Accountability in a Results-Driven Era, British Journal of Educational Studies, 59(2): 179-195 28 Rö nnberg L and Segerholm C 2013 In the Public Eye: Swedish School Inspection and Local Newspapers: Exploring the Audit–Media Relationship, Journal of Education Policy, 28(2):178-197 29 Schildkamp, K ; Visscher A 2009 Factors Influencing the Utilisation of a School Self-Evaluation Instrument, Studies in Educational Evaluation, 35(4):150 -159 30 Schildkamp, K ; Visscher A 2010 The Use of Performance Feedback in School Improvement in Louisiana, Teaching and Teacher Education, 26:1389-1403 31 Thomas, G.1998 A Brief History of the Genesis of the New Schools’ Inspection, System, British Journal of Educational Studies, 46(4):415-427 32 Tokunaga, T and Douthirt-Cohen, B 2012 The Ongoing Pursuit of Educational Equity in Japan: The Accreditation of Ethnic High Schools, Equity & Excellence in Education, 45(2):320-333 33 Wood, C and Meyer, M J 2011 Impact of the Nova Scotia School Accreditation Program on Teaching and Student Learning: An Initial Study, Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, Issues 124 34 Yeung, S 2012 A School Evaluation Policy with a Dual Character, Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 40(1):37-68 35 OECD 2013 Synergies for Better Learning: An International Perspective on Evaluation and Assessment OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 112 A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes Large-scale and summative assessments Que Anh Dang Design large-scale and summative assessments that are valid, reliable, and equitable, and use the resulting data to improve learning through systemic change Summative assessments conducted at regional, national, and international levels can serve two major purposes: certifying students’ academic achievements and monitoring and evaluating educational provision and quality at a systemic level In developing summative assessment systems, the different purposes of summative assessment should be considered, as well as the key properties of content, validity, reliability, quality-assurance, and impact Issues and Discussion: What is Assessment for System Monitoring? Most education systems collect information about students’ learning through regional or national examinations However, examinations are typically used more for certification and selection of individual students, than for monitoring the quality of the education system as a whole Increasingly, countries monitor the quality of the education system through a separate programme of testing or surveys that involves samples of pupils at certain ages or grades These assessments not give scores or feedback to individual students, but rather provide aggregated results for measuring trends over time Examples of such assessments for systemic monitoring include national and regional tests in specific subjects (e.g Finnish education evaluation plan 2012-2015); citizen-led household-based assessments (e.g the basic learning assessments conducted in India, Pakistan, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Mali, and Senegal); or international school-based tests such as the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), the studies conducted by the Latin American Laboratory for Assessment of the Quality of Education (LLECE), the Analysis Programme of the CONFEMEN Education Systems (PASEC), the Southern and Eastern Africa Consotrium for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ), and the Southeast Asia Primary Learning Metric (SEA-PLM) These various assessment instruments are markedly different from one another, and while they are usually lowstakes for pupils and their schools, they are high-stakes and often high-cost for governments, politicians and policy makers Hence, in-depth knowledge of the functions, methods and limitations of each type of assessment proves essential to education planners whose decisions rest on these test results Designing Large-scale and Summative Assessment for System Monitoring As planners decide whether to join an existing assessment regime or design their own, there are a number of key questions to keep in mind These include: What is the purpose of the assessment and how will the results be used to inform practice? What curriculum area (e.g maths, science, mother tongue) or what construct (literacy, numeracy) needs to be assessed? At what stage should learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 113 A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes assessment take place and for what purpose? How often should the assessment take place? What standardised instruments, administration and scoring procedures should be used? What costs need be covered and by whom? Should the assessment be for the total population or a representative sample? How will individual student achievements in different schools/regions be aggregated to the system level? What other background information (school resources, family characteristics) should be collected to analyse the final results? How will the results be analysed, shared, and made use of? While these questions cannot all be answered here, four fundamental considerations should be kept in mind for all processes of assessment design: content, validity, reliability, and quality assurance Content: The content of an assessment is determined by which aspects of learning are most valued and what can be expected of students in terms of progression and achievement Good understanding of educational objectives and clearly defined learning outcomes will help identify the types of tasks to be included in the assessment or portfolios of evidence.(6,11) Validity: The overall validity refers to whether an assessment accurately measures what it is intended to measure Not all knowledge can be broken down into tasks that fit the process and time constraints of common summative assessment methods Ideally, assessment tasks should complement each other to measure knowledge in context, application, analysis, and capability.(2) Reliability: A reliable assessment measure produces consistent results across related items within the same test, across different instances of test administration, and across the scores assigned by different raters The reliability of an overall assessment system lies in the methodology used in student sampling, the design of the assessment instruments, administration and scoring procedures, and methods of data aggregation and analysis Reliability also implies that assessment must be consistent and comparable across candidates, with minimisation of bias and error from assessors.(11) Quality Assurance: In those countries where corruption and political nepotism remain part of the social context, transparency and quality assurance procedures become paramount.(3) Generally, the more weight given to the summative assessment, the more stringent the quality assurance system needs to be through such methods as inter-school moderation in scoring, double marking, machinemarkable tests, and the use of special software to analyse the results across cohorts, schools and regions.(8)(16) Impacts of Summative Assessment At the national, regional, and school levels, data from summative assessments is one of the most important sources of information for analysing the performance of the education system, diagnosing problems, projecting trends over time, determining system-wide or targeted intervention, planning institutional capacity building, and teacher training, designing curricula, and budgeting and distributing resources.(10) In many countries, assessment data is also used to hold accountable and improve the performance of schools and teachers.(9) While there may be positive impacts in terms of teachers working harder and more effectively to prepare all their pupils, accountability pressure may also impact negatively on learning and teaching, such as by restricting teaching methods and content, and by reducing teacher morale.(12)(14) At the level of learners themselves, summative assessment can be constructive for individual pupils when assessment tasks embody the desired learning outcomes, and when feedback on the results is used for formative purpose (e.g summative assessment + feedback = formative assessment).(15) When pupils are involved in assessment processes they develop a better understanding of learning goals and they are primed for higher cognitive engagement in progressing towards these outcomes.(4)(5) learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 114 A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes However, an education system that places great emphasis on summative assessment and selectivity produces students with strong extrinsic orientation towards grades and social status, but weak intrinsic motivation for longer term learning.(2) Moreover, frequent use of high-stakes tests and examinations may lead to exam cheating and pressures to expand learning time through the private tutoring industry Inclusiveness and Equity Inequality and Social Injustice: Summative assessments interact in complex ways with social injustice, inequality, deprivation, and other forms of disadvantage.(1) Disadvantaged learners who have low selfesteem and confidence, or who lack motivation and commitment, can be further demotivated by the pressure of tests and examinations Furthermore, misuse of the aggregate results by the media and politicians can considerable damage by consolidating unfair and inaccurate stereotypes Many disadvantaged students can benefit greatly from more personalised modes of summative assessment, such as project and portfolio work, which can foster high levels of engagement.(1)(11) References 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Beets P and van Louw, T (2011) Social justice implications of South African school assessment practices, Africa Education Review, 8(2): 302-317 Boud, D (2000) Sustainable Assessment: Rethinking Assessment for the Learning Society, Studies in Continuing Education, 22:2, 151-167 Bethell , G and Zabulionis, A (2012) The evolution of high-stakes testing at the school–university interface in the former republics of the USSR, Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 19:1, 7-25 Carless, D (2015) Exploring learning-oriented assessment processes Higher Education, 69(6), 963-976 Carless, D (2007) Learning-oriented Assessment: Conceptual Bases and Practical Implications Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 44(1): 57-66 Harlen, W (2007) Assessment of Learning London: SAGE Harlen, W (2009) Improving Assessment of Learning and for Learning, Education 3-13: International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education, 37(3):247-257 Harlen, W (2012) On the Relationship between Assessment for Formative and Summative Purposes, In Gardner, J (Ed.) Assessment and Learning London: SAGE Hutchinson, C and Young, M (2011) Assessment for Learning in the Accountability Era: Empirical Evidence from Scotland, Studies in Educational Evaluation 37: 62–70 Kellaghan, T., Greaney, V and Murray T (2009) Using the Results of a National Assessment of Educational Achievement Washington DC: The World Bank Lau, A.(2015): ‘Formative good, summative bad?’ - A Review of the Dichotomy in Assessment Literature, Journal of Further and Higher Education Lee, J (2008) Is Test-Driven External Accountability Effective? Synthesizing the Evidence from Cross-State Causal-Comparative and Correlational Studies, Review of Educational Research, 78(3): 608-644 R4D 2015 Bringing Learning to Light: The Role of Citizen-led Assessments in Shifting the Education Agenda Washington, DC: Results for Development Institute Stobart, G and Eggen, T (2012) High-stakes Testing – Value, Fairness and Consequences, Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 19(1): 1-6 Taras, M (2010) Assessment for Learning: Assessing the Theory and Evidence Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences (2): 3015–3022 Zupanc, D., Urank, M and Bren, M (2009) Variability analysis for effectiveness and improvement in classrooms and schools in upper secondary education in Slovenia: Assessment of/for Learning Analytic Tool, School Effectiveness and School Improvement, An International Journal of Research, Policy and Practice, 20(1): 89-122 learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 115 A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 116 A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes Financing education and addressing corruption Que Anh Dang Dedicate sufficient resources to education and design school funding formulae to link resource deployment with key inputs and processes that can improve learning outcomes Increased quality and quantity of schooling for children is associated with higher income, better heath and less reliance on public assistance in the long term(15)—but sufficient resources need to be invested in order to achieve these outcomes Education systems need to mobilise and dedicate sufficient funds for schooling, and implement mechanisms that ensure equity, efficiency, accountability and transparency, and maximise positive effects on student learning Issues and Discussion Resources and Expenditure on Education Globally, public expenditure on education accounted for 4.7% of the world’s GDP in 2008, of which expenditure on primary education was 1.5% The Sub-Saharan African region devoted 5.0% of total GDP to public education expenditure, which is the second highest percentage after North America and Europe (5.3%).(18) However, many sources indicate that even more needs to be spent on education in developing countries International recommendations are that countries spent at least 20% of their national budget, or 4% of GNP, on the education sector Currently, one third of countries not meet this recommended minimum Basic education is underfunded by US$26 billion per year worldwide, and in low-income countries, an additional US$6.10 per month per child is needed to provide quality primary education Mobilising Resources for Education The public resources for financing a school system mainly come from national funding and international aid in the case of low-income countries—especially in Sub-Saharan Africa and Central Asia.(17) Budget constraints are acute in low-income countries and put pressure on governments and schools to mobilise resources and establish budget priorities, including trade-offs in allocation In some cases, countries can meet their education needs by reprioritising funding among different sectors—such as reducing military spending in order to free up resources for education In other cases, more innovative approaches may be needed to mobilise additional resources The Leading Group on Innovative Financing for Education has proposed nine mechanisms to raise funds for education, encouraging countries to develop multiple options that fit their regional, bilateral or national contexts These mechanisms include 1) taxes on international financial transactions; 2) local currency education bonds; 3) education venture funds; 4) diaspora bonds; 5) voluntary contributions from migrants; 6) debt-for-education swaps; 7) sports levies; 8) public-private partnerships; and 9) micro donations from individual bank transactions.(6) School Funding Formulae Every system distributes resources through different school funding formulae, which may also change over time In general, however, effective funding formulae link resource deployment with learning outcomes Designing a funding formula that is appropriate for a particular school system requires careful consideration of policy aims and objectives in order to determine the appropriate balance of learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 117 A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes functions such as aligning with directives, promoting equity, and regulating the market In decentralised education systems, funding formula increasingly take the form of contracts, placing the school in the role of provider and the funding agency in the role of purchaser on its own behalf or on behalf of parents, students and citizens as ultimate customers.(8) Main components: National funding formulae for public schools often include four main components:(8) (1) A basic student allocation consisting of a base amount per student and a grade-level supplement according to year group or age level; (2) An additional amount for curriculum enhancement including an incentive to encourage selected schools and students to focus on particular types of curricula and specific subjects; (3) Additional funding for students with special educational needs; and (4) An adjustment for particular school sites depending on factors such as special buildings, school size, and regional cost variations Criteria: The six key criteria which can be useful for either designing or evaluating a funding formula include effectiveness (adequate money for expected outcome), equity (political judgement on equity by addressing cost differentials), efficiency (effective budgeting, disbursement, and successful management of the outputs achieved and inputs used), integrity (indicators in a formula cannot be manipulated by the school, e.g social background of students/parents should not be categorised by the school), administrative costs (formulae should be easy to construct and maintain over time including the collecting of necessary data), and accountability and transparency (easy to understand and high-levels of accountability to all concerned parties and stakeholders).(8) In order to meet these criteria, the design of the funding formulae must prevent corruption at all levels A rule of thumb is to keep the formulae as simple as possible Furthermore, careful preparation of the manual of financial procedures (procurement) and regulations (audits), regular staff training and effective management practices will reduce fraud.(7,10) Cost-sharing Models Cost sharing is an arrangement whereby the government, on the one hand, and households and community organisations, on the other hand, share the responsibility of financing education.(19) Although in this funding policy the government is still responsible for some key inputs, such as the remuneration of most teachers and education administrators and funding for some school facilities, many other elements are dependent on parental and community contributions The implementation of cost-sharing models has caused adverse effects on access to education, retention rates, and quality in many low and middle income countries.(19) Voucher Systems Voucher systems allow parents to take their child’s portion of the public per-pupil spending to a school of their choice, thereby promoting competition among schools and making the education system function more like a market.(5,14) In some countries, school vouchers challenge the monopoly status of the public schools, causing improvements in quality (5) However, school vouchers may also exert many adverse effects, including exacerbating segregation by race, socio-economic status, and ability level.(12) Voucher systems can have more positive impacts if they are applied only to public schools, or if private schools must select candidates randomly and accept the voucher as full payment of tuition fees (1,11) learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 118 A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes Funding and Student Learning Outcomes Evidence from research shows mixed results about the causal relationship between school funding and academic performance.(3,9) The overall effects of increased funding appear to be the largest for schools with initially poor performance.(2, 13) On the whole, how the money is spent is more important than the overall size of the increase Inclusiveness and Equity Vertical Equity in Resource Allocation School funding formulae must ensure both horizontal equity (for pupils with the same needs) and vertical equity (for pupils with different needs).(8) For example, there are additional resource needs for teaching pupils with learning disabilities, those who come from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds, or those whose first language is different from the language of instruction at school Additional funds for these populations, permitting additional teaching time, specialised learning material, and smaller classes, can advance equity and quality of education.(4) References 10 11 12 13 14 15 Chakrabarti, R 2013 Do Vouchers Lead to Sorting under Random Private School Selection? Evidence from the Milwaukee Voucher Program, Economics of Education Review, (34):191-218 Chaudhary, L 2009 Education Inputs, Student Performance and School Finance Reform in Michigan, Economics of Education Review, 28(1): 90-98 Chung, Il H 2015 Education Finance Reform, Education Spending, and Student Performance, Education and Urban Society, 2015, 47(4): 412-432 Fazekas, M 2012 School Funding Formulas: Review of Main Characteristics and Impacts, OECD Education Working Papers, No 74, OECD Publishing http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k993xw27cd3-en Filler R and Munich, D 2013 Responses of Private and Public Schools to Voucher Funding, Economics of Education Review, (34):269–285 Leading Group on Innovative Financing for Development 2010 2+3=8 Innovating In Financing Education Report of the Writing Committee to the Task Force on Innovative Financing for Education http://www.leadinggroup.org/IMG/pdf_Innovating_in_Financing_Education_BAT.pdf Levacic, R 2008 Financing Schools: Evolving Patterns of Autonomy and Control, Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 36(2): 221-234 Levacic, R and Ross, K 1999 Principles for Designing Needs-Based School Funding Formulae In Ross, K., & Levacic, R (Eds.) Needs-based Resource Allocation in Education Paris, France: UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning Levacic, R., Jenkins, A.,Vignoles, A., Steele, F and Allen, E 2005 Estimating the Relationship Between School Resources and Pupil Attainment at Key Stage Research Report London: Institute of Education, ISBN 84478 571 Levacic, R and Downes, D 2006 Formula Funding of Schools, Decentralisation and Corruption: A Comparative Analysis Paper presented at the International Seminar on Strategies for Incorruptness within the Educational System organized by the National Centre for Educational Development Research, Ministry of Education,the People’s Republic of China Xi’an Jiaotong University, China, May 15-17th 2006 Luengo-Prado, M.J and Volij O 2003 Public Education, Communities and Vouchers, The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, 43(1):51–73 Mizala, A and Torche, F 2012 Bringing the schools back in: the stratification of educational achievement in the Chilean voucher system, International Journal of Educational Development, 32(1): 132–144 Papke, L 2005 The Effects of Spending on Test Pass Rates: Evidence from Michigan, Journal of Public Economics, 89 (5–6): 821–839 Piolatto, A 2010 Education and Selective Vouchers, Economics of Education Review, 29(6):993-1004 Terman, L and Behrman, R E 1997 Financing schools: Analysis and Recommendations, The Future of children, 7(3):4-23 learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 119 A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes 16 UNESCO 2011 Debt Swaps and Debt Conversion Development Bonds for Education Final Report for UNESCO Advisory Panel of Experts on Debt Swaps and Innovative Approaches to Education Financing 17 UNESCO, World Bank and UNICEF 2014 Education Sector Analysis: Methodological Guidelines Volume 1: Sector-wide Analysis with Emphasis on Primary and Secondary Education 18 UIS 2011 Financing Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Meeting the Challenges of Expansion, Equity and Quality Montreal: UNESCO Institute for Statistics http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001921/192186e.pdf 19 Wambugu, J and Mokoena, S 2013 Education financing in Kenya: Parents' perceptions about the implementation of the cost-sharing policy in secondary school education, Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 4(13):441-446 20 World Bank (2013) "World Development Indicators 2013." Washington, D.C.: World Bank http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 120 A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes Epilogue What works best to improve learning outcomes? Catherine A Honeyman Thousands of studies have been conducted to determine the most effective policy approaches to improving education quality in developing countries More than two hundred of these used experimental or quasi-experimental conditions to measure the effects of different interventions on learning outcomes,(3) and a growing number of researchers have begun sorting through these studies to try to draw some generalizable conclusions about which approaches work best Nine reviews of the literature published in the last few years each look at a different selection of research studies on efforts to improve learning outcomes to detect overall trends Not surprisingly, the findings of these meta reviews are complex and often contradictory.(2)     High teacher absenteeism is consistently seen as being linked to poor learning outcomes, although the best mechanisms to reduce absenteeism and incentivize better teaching are not clear.(3)(4)(5) Several reviews find that interventions in teacher professional development to improve pedagogical methods had the greatest effect on learning achievement,(1)(6)(9) while this finding is contradicted elsewhere.(3) One review concludes that basic factors such as functional school infrastructure, greater teacher knowledge, extra tutoring, and a longer school day were linked to improved student learning.(4) Another review draws attention to the effectiveness of less well-known interventions, such as helping parents improve their parenting practices and providing them with more information about the economic returns to schooling and the quality of different schools.(3) Several reviews show how certain interventions increase student attendance without necessarily improving learning outcomes,(3)(7) while another reaches the primary conclusion that the most effective interventions combine two or more approaches at once.(8) What is missing from these literature reviews is the acknowledgement that education planners first need to diagnose the main issues of education quality that they face, before they can draw on the research to design an effective response for their own particular context The decision tree below learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 121 A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes answers that need by linking the findings from these nine meta reviews to a series of diagnostic questions By answering these diagnostic questions, using the example indicators or other relevant data that may be available, education planners can see a set of interventions that are relevant for addressing that particular barrier, and which have proven successful—at least in some contexts Selecting Interventions to Improve Student Learning Outcomes: A Decision Tree * This decision tree assumes that although your education system has already achieved relatively high levels of enrolment, you are now looking for solutions to improve student learning outcomes Interventions that researchers have highlighted as successful in some contexts (see the list of citations following the decision tree) have been grouped according to the major barriers to learning that different education systems may face Keep in mind that each potentially successful type of intervention listed here requires many specific design decisions, some of which may be more effective or appropriate than others The resources in the IIEP Learning Portal Library can help you to learn more about the options for designing and piloting your chosen interventions In your context… Do most teachers regularly show up and teach? Example Indicators:  % of teachers present during unannounced visits to a sample of schools (observation)  Rate of teacher absence over the past X period (records)  % of teachers actually interacting with students during unannounced visits to classrooms (observation) No Interventions successful in some contexts:  Increasing parental involvement and information about school quality and principal performance  Consistent monitoring of attendance, tied to incentives or penalties such as conditional contract renewal  Teacher/principal incentives for student performance; but beware of possible negative effects)  General improvements in teacher salary and conditions; but evidence conflicts Also to consider: interventions aimed at increasing teachers’ intrinsic motivation and dedication to teaching as a vocation No Interventions successful in some contexts:  Early childhood care & education  Parenting education: early care and stimulation, time and support for home study, economic benefits to education, information about student performance  More nearby schools, free transport, free uniforms, or providing glasses  Expand schooling options (vouchers)  Health interventions (nutrition, deworming, latrines) improve attendance; effects on cognitive outcomes debated  Conditional cash transfers or student performance incentives; but design details matter and beware of possible negative effects  Improving other aspects of school quality to attract students (see below) Yes Do most enrolled students attend regularly and make an effort to learn? Example Indicators:  % of students present during unannounced visits to a sample of schools (observation)  % of students absent for X or more days during X period (records)  % of students who complete their assignments (teacher survey/records) Yes learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 122 A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes Do most teachers have advanced knowledge of their subjects and effective pedagogical skills? Example indicators:  % of teachers with subject-specific qualifications and pedagogical training for age level of students  % of teachers with appropriate level of subject knowledge (assessment or observation)  % of teachers using appropriate pedagogical methods, according to defined best practices (observation) No Interventions successful in some contexts:  Teacher induction and mentoring  In-service pedagogical training, best if clearly linked to students’ learning through formative assessment; beware of reductions in instructional time  Providing specific instructions for delivering each lesson (especially when teacher capacity is very low)  Computer assisted learning programs that adapt to students’ level and are integrated into teacher practices  Teacher incentives tied to student performance; but beware of possible negative effects (narrowing, cheating) Also to consider: Channelling more and better candidates to teacher training programs; improving the quality of theory and practice in pre-service training No Interventions successful in some contexts:  Provision of additional pedagogical materials of a variety of kinds, but only if coupled with teacher training in how to use them, and with monitoring to ensure that students have regular access to them  Revising textbooks or supplementary materials to better correspond to the age and reading level of students  Providing mother tongue language materials or materials specially adapted to learning a second language No Interventions successful in some contexts:  Lengthen the school day or reduce long student vacations away from school  Reduce school days lost to in-service teacher training or student testing  Improve classroom management practices to increase time on task Yes Interventions successful in some contexts:  Reduce class size to allow teachers to respond to individual learning needs (especially if current size is very large)  Additional support or penalties to lowperforming teachers/principals  Additional academic and non-academic support to low-achieving students  Computer assisted learning programs that adapt to students’ level and are integrated into teacher practices Yes Are sources of knowledge (such as books, displays, laboratory equipment, and the internet) at the appropriate level available to teachers and students? Example indicators:  Ratio of pupils to textbooks, internet access points, and other materials, for each subject and level (records)  Type and quantity of materials available at a sample of schools (observation/inventory audits)  % of schools where pedagogical materials are being used by students, not locked in storage (observation)  Reading level difficulty of available textbooks and supplementary materials (text analysis) Yes Are students in school and engaged in learning for enough time each day and each year? Example indicators:  Instructional time per day/year, compared to international norms  % of school days devoted to instruction versus other activities  Effectiveness of classroom management practices (observation)  Compare the performance of similar groups of students who receive more instructional time per day or more days in school per year Yes Are there any particularly lowperforming groups of students? Example Indicators:  Disparities in learning outcomes between sub-groups such as school, region, gender, socio-economic status and poverty, ethnicity, immigrant or refugee populations, and religious and other minorities  Number and location of students with special learning needs  Number and location of particularly low-performing teachers/principals learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 123 A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes References: Conn, K (2014) Identifying effective education interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa: A meta- analysis of rigorous impact evaluations Doctoral Dissertation Columbia University New York, NY Evans, D and Popova, A (2015) What really works to improve learning in developing countries? An analysis of divergent findings in systematic reviews World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 7203 Ganiman, A and Murnane, R (2016) Improving Educational Outcomes in Developing Countries: Lessons from Rigorous Impact Evaluations Review of Educational Research: advance copy published online, February 2, 2016 Glewwe, P., Hanushek, E A., Humpage, S D., & Ravina, R (2014) School resources and educational outcomes in developing countries: A review of the literature from 1990 to 2010 In P Glewwe (Ed.), Education Policy in Developing Countries Chicago, IL and London, UK: University of Chicago Press Guerrero, G., Leon, J., Zapata, M., & Cueto, S (2013) Getting teachers back to the classroom A systematic review on what works to improve teacher attendance in developing countries Journal of Development Effectiveness, 5(4), pp 466-488 Kremer, M., Brannen, C., & Glennerster, R (2013) The challenge of education and learning in the developing world Science, 340(6130), pp 297-300 Krishnaratne, S., White, H., & Carpenter, E (2013) Quality education for all children? What works in education in developing countries (Working Paper No 20) International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie) New Delhi, India Masino, S., & Niño-Zarazúa, M (2015) What works to improve the quality of student learning in developing countries? International Journal of Educational Development: advance copy published online, December 23, 2015 McEwan, P (2015) Improving learning in primary schools of developing countries: A meta-analysis of randomized experiments Review of Educational Research 85(3), pp 353-394 learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 124 A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 125 A portal on planning for quality education and improved learning outcomes © International Institute for Educational Planning, 2016 learningportal.iiep.unesco.org 126