Telecollaboration and the development of

Foreword This publication is the outcome of almost three years of research and learning at the University of Essen in Germany It was originally written as a Ph.D thesis under the guidance of Prof Dr Bernd Rüschoff and I would like to thank him for his help and expertise during this time I am also very grateful to Prof Dr Frederikke Klippel for giving me the opportunity to publish this version of my research in this series Many thanks also go to Markus Ritter, James Pankhurst and all the Essen Team who supported me so much in the writing process I would also like to acknowledge the hard work of all the language learners and educators who took part in the telecollaborative projects described in these pages I hope that many of them will have taken away good memories of their experiences with on-line intercultural learning Finally, I would like to thank my family for their support during this time, especially my wife Susana who gave me all the time I needed to get the job done and who continues to show me the value of living interculturally Contents Foreword .3 Contents Introduction Culture in Foreign Language Education 13 1.1 Introduction 13 1.2 The Developing Role of Culture 15 1.2.1 Approaches in the Post-War Period 16 1.2.2 The 1980's and the Rise of Communicative Competence 18 1.2.3 The Native and the Intercultural Speaker 21 1.3 Intercultural Communicative Competence 27 1.3.1 The Affective Domain: Attitudes and General Education 27 1.3.2 The Cognitive Domain: Knowledge 37 1.3.3 The Skills Domain 42 1.3.4 Central Characteristics of Intercultural Learning 45 1.4 Developing Intercultural Communicative Competence 46 1.4.1 Materials and Methods .46 1.4.2 Specialised Approaches to Developing ICC 52 1.5 Conclusion 62 Network-Based Language and Culture Learning .65 2.1 Introduction 65 2.2 Early Approaches to CALL and Culture Learning .66 2.2.1 Behaviouristic CALL 66 2.2.2 Communicative CALL .67 2.3 CALL and the Cultural Dimension in the 1990's 70 2.3.1 Constructivist and Sociocognitive Approaches 70 2.3.2 Constructivist and Sociocognitive Approaches and Culture .72 2.4 Characteristics of NBLT 74 2.4.1 Interaction and Reflection .76 2.4.2 Equal Levels of Participation 79 2.4.3 Authenticity 81 2.4.4 Collaborative Construction of Knowledge .83 2.4.5 Working with Hypermedia 86 2.4.6 Intercultural Contact .88 2.5 Conclusion 92 Research Questions and Research Methodology .97 3.1 Introduction 97 3.2 Arriving at the Research Questions .97 3.3 Research Methodology 98 3.4 Data Collection 100 3.5 Choosing Classes and Negotiating Entry 104 On-line Exchanges in the Language Classroom 107 4.1 Introduction 107 4.2 Project Background 107 4.2.1 Profile of the German Class 107 4.2.2 Establishing the Exchange 108 4.3 Monitoring and Integrating the Exchange 111 4.4 Research findings 115 4.4.1 Knowledge of Social Groups and their Products and Practices 116 4.4.2 Attitudes of Curiosity and Openness 119 4.4.3 Skills of Discovery and Interaction 121 4.4.4 Cultural Awareness and the Skills of Interpreting and Relating .127 4.5 Integrating the Michigan Exchange 133 4.6 The Role of the Teacher 139 4.7 Influence of the Socio-cultural Context 140 4.8 Conclusion 144 A Blended Approach to Cultural Studies .147 5.1 Introduction 147 5.2 Web-based Approaches to Cultural Studies 147 5.3 The Virtual Learning Environment 149 5.3.1 The Structure of the On-line Courses 149 5.3.2 Limitations of the Platform 150 5.4 'Ireland and the Irish' 153 5.4.1 Ireland the Irish and Cultural Studies .156 5.5 Profile of the German Class .159 5.6 Research Findings 160 5.6.1 Changing Attitudes to Culture Learning 161 5.6.2 Researching the Message Board Exchange .166 5.7 Conclusion 182 Virtual Ethnographic Interviewing 185 6.1 Introduction 185 6.2 Ethnographic Interviewing 185 6.3 Videoconferencing: Face-to-Face Communication .188 6.3.1 What is videoconferencing? 190 6.3.2 Videoconferencing and Foreign Language Learning 191 6.3.4 Drawbacks of the Medium 193 6.4 Project Background: Essen-Zanesville .195 6.4.1 Development of the Exchange 197 6.5 Research Findings 198 6.5.1 The Contribution of Videoconferencing to the Intercultural Exchange .199 6.5.2 Combining Videoconferencing and E-mail .205 6.5.3 On-line Ethnographic Interviewing 209 6.5.4 Reflection on the Home Culture 220 6.6 Conclusion 221 Conclusion 223 7.1 Looking Back 223 7.2 Network-Based Language Teaching and ICC 223 7.3 The Role of the Teacher in NBLT 225 7.4 Implications for the Cultural Dimension 228 7.5 Looking Forward .230 Bibliography .231 Introduction This study sets out to explore the educational outcomes of bringing language learners into contact with members of other culture(s) through the use of networked technologies It also attempts to identify how such on-line exchanges can most effectively be organised in the foreign language classroom As part of my work with language learners at universities in Spain and in Germany over the past number of years, I have engaged my students in many on-line exchanges with partners in foreign cultures In some cases, the educational outcomes of these exchanges have been enlightening and very positive However, in other cases, they have been very disappointing The following comments, which were made by English and Spanish students in the light of their experiences in an e-mail exchange which I organised between their two classes, are quite representative of both extremes: I think our tasks helped us to discover and think about our own culture and how people see us I agree with Lourdes when she says that you never know the image people have of your country until you something like this (Sonya, from England) My opinion about them [the British] was not good at the beginning and I'm afraid it continues the same […] They've got some stereotypes of Spain and they comply with them They are not interested in learning (Manuel, from Spain) As these extracts illustrate, learning about the foreign culture and becoming more aware of one's own may be the outcome of on-line exchanges, but this is not necessarily the case Indeed, the evidence in a growing number of reports in the literature suggests that many learners engaged in such activities simply confirm their stereotypes and fail to establish good working relationships with their partners (Belz 2002; Meaghar and Castaños 1993; O'Dowd 2003) With this in mind, this study looks at the ways in which communication technologies can contribute to intercultural learning and examines what teachers and students need to know and to in order to fully benefit from their on-line activities First of all, it is important to define the two terms in the title of this book Intercultural communicative competence (ICC) is defined as the ability to interact effectively in a foreign language with members of cultures different to our own (Byram 1997a; Guilherme 2000) This includes the skills of being able to discover and understand the symbolic meaning which is attributed to behaviour in different cultures It also involves an awareness that one's own way of seeing the world is not natural or normal, but culturally determined ICC has been taken up eagerly by many educators as it has served to highlight the important role of culture in communication and in foreign language education Telecollaboration refers to the use of on-line communication tools, such as e-mail, message boards or videoconferencing, to connect language learners in different countries for the development of collaborative project work and intercultural exchange As such, it forms part of what is commonly referred to today as Network-based Language Teaching (NBLT) This refers to the use of computers connected to one another in local or global 10 Error! Style not defined networks for the purpose of teaching foreign languages (Warschauer 2000a; Warschauer and Kern 2000) In order to establish in what ways network-based learning activities can contribute to making foreign language learners better intercultural communicators, I will report on research carried out in three different classes at the University of Duisburg-Essen in Germany In these studies I took on the roles of both course instructor and action researcher and I explored how on-line interaction with members of other cultures, as well as the study of Cultural Studies resources located in virtual learning environments, contributed to the development of learners' intercultural skills, attitudes, knowledge and awareness The topic of this research is of relevance to the area of foreign language education and, in particular to Cultural Studies, as it examines how new technologies can provide a high level of exposure to the target culture to students who are located in their own classrooms Celia Roberts explains why such access is necessary: "One of the challenges for the near future is to support those many thousands of students who have no realistic prospect of visiting Britain or other English-speaking countries as part of their course" (Roberts 1994: 51) While student exchange programs such as Erasmus are more popular than ever, there are many students who, whether due to economic reasons or simply due to a lack of motivation, will not have the experience of learning their chosen foreign language in a country where it is spoken NBLT and telecollaboration offer a powerful alternative to traditional classroom-based culture learning methods, as it allows learners to interact and learn directly from actual members of the target culture while remaining in their home environment Activities which bring together two classes in different cultures, such as collaborating together on the creation of websites, discussing different interpretations of film and literature, or carrying out comparative investigations on different aspects of their cultures, give learners the opportunity to engage in genuine intercultural communication and to learn more about the culture of their distant partners in an authentic and motivating way Of course, the topic of this research also holds relevance for third-level students' overall preparation for living and working in today's information society Network-based activities play an important role in preparing university learners for their careers in a modern society which will probably involve a great deal of on-line work and communication As Warschauer points out: "[…] many students will need to carry out some form of collaborative long-distance inquiry and problem-solving as part of their jobs and community activities" (Warschauer 2000b: 64) Much of this on-line activity will require more than just electronic literacy, it will require intercultural electronic literacy While much of the media-hype surrounding the internet may give the impression that on-line environments play down linguistic and cultural differences, there is a considerable amount of evidence in the literature concerning the importance of the social and cultural dimensions of computer-mediated communication (Herring 1996; Kim and Bonk 2002; Kramsch and Thorne 2002; Murray 2000) As the research here will also clearly illustrate, attitudes to how the internet should be used and as regards what is appropriate on-line behaviour can differ radically between cultures Learners (and teachers) therefore need to be given training in how to apply their intercultural communicative skills to on-line as well as to face-to-face environments 11 Although network-based learning and telecollaboration have been in use now for almost 15 years (Cummins and Sayers 1995), it is still relatively unclear how on-line contact actually contributes to intercultural learning While much of the research on NBLT has looked at the development of autonomy and language fluency through on-line interaction, only limited attention has been paid to the cultural learning outcomes (Kern 2002; Moore 1998) Instead of sound research, there often seems to be an assumption on the part of educators that engaging learners in on-line contact with members of the target culture will automatically produce more positive attitudes and a better understanding of the role of culture in language learning (Richter 1997) It is hoped that the research presented in this study will go some way towards addressing this problem However, it is important to note that this study should not be seen as a blind argument in favour of on-line language learning Instead, I would consider this research as an exploration of the internet's potential for intercultural learning and my findings will, I hope, contribute to an understanding of how this potential can best be exploited The research has been organised in the following way: Chapter one sets out to establish what intercultural communicative competence actually involves To achieve this I carry out a review of the changing role of the cultural dimension in foreign language education and I explore the different components of intercultural communicative competence Various methods for developing ICC are also examined and two specialised approaches, Cultural Studies and Ethnography for language learners, are outlined in detail Chapter two explores the developing role of the cultural dimension in Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and identifies certain characteristics of NBLT which can potentially support the development of ICC Following that, chapter three contains a description of the research methodology which was used in the empirical research This combined elements of both ethnography and action research It will be argued that qualitative research methodology was particularly suited to this area as it permitted me to become more aware of the issues which the students considered pertinent in these on-line learning scenarios Chapters four, five and six report on the empirical research which was carried out in the English department at the University of Duisburg-Essen Each chapter explores the application of a different combination of communication tools in order to develop learners' ICC Chapter four focuses on a group of language learners who took part in an e-mail exchange and a Cultura-style web-based exchange with two groups of American students Chapter five explores the outcome of a web-based course in Irish Cultural Studies which involved the study of on-line content and participation in a message-board exchange with Irish students Chapter six reports on an advanced language course dedicated to the development of ethnographic interviewing skills through an exchange with American students via e-mail and videoconferencing In the conclusion, I bring together the results of all three studies in order to examine their implications for telecollaboration and NBLT, foreign language teacher education and the role of culture in foreign language teaching Throughout the text, the reader will notice that particular attention has been paid to the German perspective on this subject This is due to two main reasons Firstly, German academics and teachers have made a tremendous contribution to the literature on this subject and have been instrumental in the development of intercultural perspectives on foreign language teaching Secondly, as this research has been carried out in Germany, it 12 Error! 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Nostrand 1974: 276) The model obviously presents a very vast overview of themes and topics and Stern again questions the adaptability and manageability of the model to the everyday realities of the. .. has, for the most part, been more critical of the interpretation of the communicative competence approach than of the ideas of Canale and Swain and Van Ek themselves The reasons for these narrow... together Therefore, there was no need for learners to ask others what they meant by their utterances and, and as a result, to find out more about the different worldview of their partners In the