On the COver The photo on the front cover shows melting water streaming from an iceberg that broke off from a glacier in Disco Bay, Greenland As the ice melts, you might hear a sizzling sound from popping bubbles of air that became trapped and compressed in the ice It is a natural process for ice to break off a snow-formed glacier or ice shelf, forming icebergs that melt After calving, or breaking off, icebergs are pushed by wind or currents, moving up to 17 km (about 10 mi) a day, eventually melting completely Icebergs are made of freshwater ice since they originally formed from compacted snow The ice often has a white or ềWindexă-blueể color, depending on the amount of compaction and the amount of included air Since it is made of freshwater, glacial ice is less dense than seawater As a result, the iceberg you see ßoating above the sea surface is about a tenth of the entire iceberg Icebergs can range in size from a height above the sea surface of less than m (about ft), called a growler, to 75m (240 ft) above the sea surface Large icebergs have been tracked and reported since the time the Titanic struck an iceberg and sank in 1912 Today, icebergs are tracked by satellites, radar, and visual sightings There has been some discussion about towing large icebergs to shore for use as a source of fresh water, but this has not yet been attempted LabOratOry ManuaL The Laboratory Manual to accompany Physical Science, written by the author of the text, presents a selection of laboratory exercises speciÞcally written for the interest and abilities of non-science majors The Laboratory Manual features ¥ Invitations to Inquiry, which provide opportunities for critical thinking ¥ Laboratory exercises designed for a more structured learning environment that require measurement and data analysis ¥ Alternative, open-ended exercises ¥ Custom publishing options, which allow the manual to be tailored to course needs McGraw-hiLLÕs arisÑassessment, review, and instruction system www.mhhe.com/tillery McGraw-HillÕs ARIS for Physical Science is a complete electronic homework and course management system designed for greater ease of use than any other system available ARIS enables instructors to create and share course materials and assignments with colleagues with a few clicks of the mouse Instructors can edit questions and algorithms, import their own content, create announcements, and post due dates for assignments ARIS has automatic grading and reporting of easy-to-assign, algorithmically-generated homework, quizzing, and testing Once a student is registered in the course, all student activity within McGraw-HillÕs ARIS is automatically recorded and available to the instructor through a fully integrated grade book that can be downloaded to Excelă Md Dalim #977442 8/1/08 Cyan Mag Yelo Black When the Laboratory Manual is used with the Physical Science textbook, students will have an opportunity to master basic scientiÞc principles and concepts, understand the nature of scientiÞc inquiry from a hands-on perspective, and learn new problem-solving and thinking skills An InstructorÕs Edition Laboratory Manual is also available on the Physical Science ARIS site tiL04527_fm_i-xx.indd Page i 8/7/08 5:47:55 PM user-s180 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out PHYSICALSCIENCE tiL04527_fm_i-xx.indd Page ii 8/7/08 5:47:57 PM user-s180 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out tiL04527_fm_i-xx.indd Page iii 8/7/08 5:47:57 PM user-s180 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out EIGHTH EDITION PHYSICALSCIENCE BILL W TILLERY ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY tiL04527_fm_i-xx.indd Page iv 8/7/08 5:47:58 PM user-s180 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out PHYSICAL SCIENCE, EIGHTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020 Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Previous editions © 2007, 2005, 2002, 1999, 1995, and 1993 No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States This book is printed on recycled, acid-free paper containing 10% postconsumer waste QPD/QPD ISBN 978–0–07–340452–3 MHID 0–07–340452–7 Publisher: Thomas Timp Sponsoring Editor: Debra B Hash Director of Development: Kristine Tibbetts Senior Developmental Editor: Mary E Hurley Senior Marketing Manager: Lisa Nicks Senior Project Manager: Vicki Krug Senior Production Supervisor: Sherry L Kane Lead Media Project Manager: Judi David Manager, Creative Services: Michelle D Whitaker Cover/Interior Designer: Elise Lansdon (USE) Cover Image: © Paul Souders/Corbis Senior Photo Research Coordinator: John C Leland Photo Research: David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC Supplement Producer: Mary Jane Lampe Compositor: Aptara, Inc Typeface: 10/12 Minion Printer: Quebecor World Dubuque, IA The credits section for this book begins on page 666 and is considered an extension of the copyright page Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Tillery, Bill W Physical science / Bill W Tillery — 8th ed p cm Includes index ISBN 978–0–07–340452–3 — ISBN 0–07–340452–7 (hard copy : alk paper) Physical sciences I Title Q158.5.T55 2009 500.2—dc22 2008022993 www.mhhe.com tiL04527_fm_i-xx.indd Page v 8/7/08 5:47:58 PM user-s180 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out BRIEF CONTENTS Preface xii What is Science? PHYSICS Motion 25 Energy 61 Heat and Temperature 85 Wave Motions and Sound 115 Electricity 139 11 Water and Solutions 275 21 Geologic Time 511 12 Organic Chemistry 299 22 Atomosphere of Earth 529 13 Nuclear Reactions 327 23 Weather and Climate 551 24 Earth’s Waters 581 ASTRONOMY 14 The Universe 355 Appendix A 605 15 The Solar System 379 Appendix B 613 16 Earth in Space 405 Appendix C 614 Light 177 Appendix D 615 EARTH SCIENCE Appendix E 620 CHEMISTRY 17 Rocks and Minerals 431 Atoms and Periodic 18 Plate Tectonics 451 Properties 203 Chemical Bonds 229 10 Chemical Reactions 251 19 Building Earth’s Surface 471 Glossary 650 Credits 666 Index 669 20 Shaping Earth’s Surface 493 v tiL04527_fm_i-xx.indd Page vi 8/7/08 5:47:59 PM user-s180 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out CONTENTS Preface xii What Is Science? Objects and Properties Quantifying Properties Measurement Systems Standard Units for the Metric System Length Mass Time Metric Prefixes Understandings from Measurements Data Ratios and Generalizations The Density Ratio Symbols and Equations 10 How to Solve Problems 11 The Nature of Science 13 The Scientific Method 14 Explanations and Investigations 14 Science and Society: Basic and Applied Research 15 Laws and Principles 17 Models and Theories 17 Summary 19 People Behind the Science: Florence Bascom 20 Key Terms 21 Applying the Concepts 21 Questions for Thought 23 For Further Analysis 23 Invitation to Inquiry 24 Parallel Exercises 24 vi Summary 55 Key Terms 56 Applying the Concepts 56 Questions for Thought 59 For Further Analysis 59 Invitation to Inquiry 59 Parallel Exercises 59 PHYSICS Motion 25 Describing Motion 26 Measuring Motion 27 Speed 27 Velocity 29 Acceleration 29 Science and Society: Transportation and the Environment 31 Forces 32 Horizontal Motion on Land 34 Falling Objects 35 A Closer Look: A Bicycle Racer’s Edge 37 Compound Motion 38 Vertical Projectiles 38 Horizontal Projectiles 38 A Closer Look: Free Fall 39 Three Laws of Motion 40 Newton’s First Law of Motion 41 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 41 Weight and Mass 43 Newton’s Third Law of Motion 44 Momentum 46 Conservation of Momentum 46 Impulse 48 Forces and Circular Motion 48 Newton’s Law of Gravitation 49 Earth Satellites 52 A Closer Look: Gravity Problems 53 Weightlessness 53 People Behind the Science: Isaac Newton 54 Energy 61 Work 62 Units of Work 62 A Closer Look: Simple Machines 64 Power 64 Motion, Position, and Energy 67 Potential Energy 67 Kinetic Energy 68 Energy Flow 69 Work and Energy 69 Energy Forms 70 Energy Conversion 71 Energy Conservation 74 Energy Transfer 74 Energy Sources Today 74 Science and Society: Grow Your Own Fuel? 75 Petroleum 75 Coal 75 People Behind the Science: James Prescott Joule 76 Moving Water 76 Nuclear 77 Conserving Energy 77 Energy Sources Tomorrow 78 Solar Technologies 78 Geothermal Energy 79 Hydrogen 80 Summary 80 Key Terms 81 tiL04527_fm_i-xx.indd Page vii 8/7/08 5:48:03 PM user-s180 Applying the Concepts 81 Questions for Thought 83 For Further Analysis 83 Invitation to Inquiry 83 Parallel Exercises 83 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out Heat and Temperature 85 The Kinetic Molecular Theory 86 Molecules 86 Molecules Interact 87 Phases of Matter 87 Molecules Move 88 Temperature 89 Thermometers 89 Temperature Scales 90 A Closer Look: Goose Bumps and Shivering 92 Heat 92 Heat as Energy Transfer 93 Measures of Heat 94 Specific Heat 94 Heat Flow 96 Science and Society: Require Insultation? 97 Energy, Heat, and Molecular Theory 98 Phase Change 99 A Closer Look: Passive Solar Design 101 Evaporation and Condensation 102 Thermodynamics 104 The First Law of Thermodynamics 104 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 105 The Second Law and Natural Processes 106 People Behind the Science: Count Rumford (Benjamin Thompson) 107 Summary 108 Key Terms 109 Applying the Concepts 109 Questions for Thought 111 For Further Analysis 112 Invitation to Inquiry 112 Parallel Exercises 112 Forces and Elastic Materials 116 Forces and Vibrations 116 Describing Vibrations 117 Waves 118 Kinds of Mechanical Waves 119 Waves in Air 119 Describing Waves 120 Sound Waves 122 Sound Waves in Air and Hearing 122 Medium Required 122 A Closer Look: Hearing Problems 123 Velocity of Sound in Air 123 Refraction and Reflection 124 Interference 126 Energy of Waves 127 How Loud Is That Sound? 127 Resonance 128 Sources of Sounds 129 Vibrating Strings 129 Science and Society: Laser Bug 131 Sounds from Moving Sources 131 People Behind the Science: Johann Christian Doppler 132 A Closer Look: Doppler Radar 133 Summary 133 Key Terms 134 Applying the Concepts 134 Questions for Thought 137 For Further Analysis 137 Invitation to Inquiry 137 Parallel Exercises 139 Electrostatic Forces 144 Force Fields 144 Electric Potential 145 Electric Current 146 The Electric Circuit 146 The Nature of Current 148 Electrical Resistance 150 Electrical Power and Electrical Work 151 People Behind the Science: Benjamin Franklin 153 Magnetism 154 Magnetic Poles 154 Magnetic Fields 154 The Source of Magnetic Fields 156 Electric Currents and Magnetism 158 Current Loops 158 Applications of Electromagnets 158 Electromagnetic Induction 161 A Closer Look: Current War 162 Generators 162 Transformers 162 Circuit Connections 165 Voltage Sources in Circuits 165 Science and Society: Blackout Reveals Pollution 166 Resistances in Circuits 166 A Closer Look: Solar Cells 167 Household Circuits 168 Summary 170 Key Terms 172 Applying the Concepts 172 Questions for Thought 175 For Further Analysis 175 Invitation to Inquiry 175 Parallel Exercises 175 Wave Motions and Sound 115 Light 177 Electricity 139 Concepts of Electricity 140 Electron Theory of Charge 140 Measuring Electrical Charges 143 Sources of Light 178 Properties of Light 180 Light Interacts with Matter 180 Reflection 182 Refraction 183 Dispersion and Color 185 A Closer Look: Optics 186 Evidence for Waves 189 Interference 189 CONTENTS vii tiL04527_fm_i-xx.indd Page viii 8/7/08 5:48:09 PM user-s180 A Closer Look: The Rainbow 190 Polarization 190 A Closer Look: Lasers 191 A Closer Look: Why Is the Sky Blue? 192 Evidence for Particles 192 Photoelectric Effect 193 Quantization of Energy 193 The Present Theory 194 A Closer Look: The Compact Disc (CD) 195 Relativity 196 Special Relativity 196 People Behind the Science: James Clerk Maxwell 197 General Theory 198 Summary 198 Key Terms 199 Applying the Concepts 199 Questions for Thought 201 For Further Analysis 201 Invitation to Inquiry 202 Parallel Exercises 202 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out Summary 221 Key Terms 222 Applying the Concepts 222 Questions for Thought 225 For Further Analysis 225 Invitation to Inquiry 225 Parallel Exercises 226 Atoms and Periodic Properties 203 Atom Structure Discovered 204 Discovery of the Electron 204 The Nucleus 206 The Bohr Model 208 The Quantum Concept 208 Atomic Spectra 208 Bohr’s Theory 209 Quantum Mechanics 212 Matter Waves 212 Wave Mechanics 213 The Quantum Mechanics Model 213 Science and Society: Atomic Research 214 Electron Configuration 215 The Periodic Table 216 Metals, Nonmetals, and Semiconductors 218 A Closer Look: The Rare Earths 219 People Behind the Science: Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleyev 220 viii CONTENTS Chemical Bonds 229 Compounds and Chemical Change 230 Valence Electrons and Ions 232 Chemical Bonds 233 Ionic Bonds 234 Covalent Bonds 236 Bond Polarity 238 Composition of Compounds 240 Ionic Compound Names 241 Ionic Compound Formulas 241 Covalent Compound Names 242 Science and Society: Microwave Ovens and Molecular Bonds 243 Covalent Compound Formulas 244 People Behind the Science: Linus Carl Pauling 245 Summary 245 Key Terms 246 Applying the Concepts 246 Questions for Thought 249 For Further Analysis 249 Invitation to Inquiry 249 Parallel Exercises 250 CHEMISTRY 10 Types of Chemical Reactions 260 Combination Reactions 260 Decomposition Reactions 261 Replacement Reactions 261 Ion Exchange Reactions 262 Information from Chemical Equations 263 Units of Measurement Used with Equations 265 Quantitative Uses of Equations 266 Science and Society: The Catalytic Converter 267 People Behind the Science: Emma Perry Carr 268 Summary 268 Key Terms 269 Applying the Concepts 269 Questions for Thought 271 For Further Analysis 272 Invitation to Inquiry 272 Parallel Exercises 272 Chemical Reactions 251 Chemical Formulas 252 Molecular and Formula Weights 253 Percent Composition of Compounds 253 Chemical Equations 255 Balancing Equations 255 Generalizing Equations 259 11 Water and Solutions 275 Household Water 276 Properties of Water 276 Structure of Water Molecules 277 Science and Society: Who Has the Right? 278 The Dissolving Process 279 Concentration of Solutions 280 A Closer Look: Decompression Sickness 283 Solubility 283 Properties of Water Solutions 284 Electrolytes 284 Boiling Point 285 Freezing Point 286 Acids, Bases, and Salts 286 Properties of Acids and Bases 286 Explaining Acid-Base Properties 288 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases 288 The pH Scale 289 Properties of Salts 290 Hard and Soft Water 290 A Closer Look: Acid Rain 292 People Behind the Science: Johannes Nicolaus Brönsted 293 tiL04527_fm_i-xx.indd Page ix 8/7/08 5:48:13 PM user-s180 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out Measurement of Radiation 335 Measurement Methods 335 A Closer Look: How Is Half-Life Determined? 336 Radiation Units 336 A Closer Look: Carbon Dating 337 Radiation Exposure 338 Nuclear Energy 338 A Closer Look: Radiation and Food Preservation 339 A Closer Look: Nuclear Medicine 340 Nuclear Fission 340 Nuclear Power Plants 343 Nuclear Fusion 346 A Closer Look: Three Mile Island and Chernobyl 346 A Closer Look: Nuclear Waste 348 Science and Society: High-Level Nuclear Waste 349 The Source of Nuclear Energy 349 People Behind the Science: Marie Curie 350 Summary 350 Key Terms 351 Applying the Concepts 351 Questions for Thought 353 For Further Analysis 354 Invitation to Inquiry 354 Parallel Exercises 354 Summary 293 Key Terms 294 Applying the Concepts 294 Questions for Thought 296 For Further Analysis 296 Invitation to Inquiry 297 Parallel Exercises 297 12 Organic Chemistry 299 Organic Compounds 300 Hydrocarbons 300 Alkenes and Alkynes 305 Cycloalkanes and Aromatic Hydrocarbons 306 Petroleum 306 Hydrocarbon Derivatives 309 Alcohols 309 Ethers, Aldehydes, and Ketones 311 Organic Acids and Esters 311 Science and Society: Aspirin, a Common Organic Compound 312 Organic Compounds of Life 313 Proteins 313 Carbohydrates 314 Fats and Oils 315 Synthetic Polymers 316 A Closer Look: How to Sort Plastic Bottles for Recycling 318 People Behind the Science: Alfred Bernhard Nobel 319 Summary 320 Key Terms 320 Applying the Concepts 321 Questions for Thought 323 For Further Analysis 323 Invitation to Inquiry 324 Parallel Exercises 324 13 Nuclear Reactions 327 Natural Radioactivity 328 Nuclear Equations 329 The Nature of the Nucleus 331 Types of Radioactive Decay 332 Radioactive Decay Series 333 A Closer Look: Dark Matter 372 People Behind the Science: Jocelyn (Susan) Bell Burnell 373 Summary 373 Key Terms 374 Applying the Concepts 374 Questions for Thought 377 For Further Analysis 377 Invitation to Inquiry 377 15 Planets, Moons, and Other Bodies 380 Mercury 381 Venus 383 Mars 384 Science and Society: Worth the Cost? 386 Jupiter 387 Saturn 388 Uranus and Neptune 389 Small Bodies of the Solar System 390 Comets 390 Asteroids 393 Meteors and Meteorites 394 Origin of the Solar System 395 Stage A 396 Stage B 396 Stage C 396 Ideas About the Solar System 397 The Geocentric Model 397 The Heliocentric Model 398 People Behind the Science: Percival Lowell 400 Summary 401 Key Terms 402 Applying the Concepts 402 Questions for Thought 404 For Further Analysis 404 Invitation to Inquiry 404 ASTRONOMY 14 The Universe 355 The Night Sky 356 Stars 358 Origin of Stars 358 Brightness of Stars 359 Star Temperature 360 Star Types 361 The Life of a Star 362 Science and Society: Light Pollution 365 Galaxies 366 The Milky Way Galaxy 366 Other Galaxies 367 A Closer Look: Extraterrestrials? 368 The Life of a Galaxy 368 A Closer Look: Redshift and Hubble’s Law 369 A Closer Look: Dark Energy 371 The Solar System 379 16 Earth in Space 405 Shape and Size of Earth 406 Motions of Earth 408 Revolution 408 CONTENTS ix tiL04527_ndx_669-683.indd Page 673 8/7/08 4:04:45 PM user-s180 Elements ancient Greeks, 13 kinetic molecular theory, 86 periodic table, 216–18 surface of Earth, 432 El Niño events, and El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), 572 Empirical formula, 252 Enceladus, 389 -Ene (suffix), 305, 306 Energy See also Fossil fuels; Nuclear energy; Petroleum; Solar energy; Wind energy chemical reactions, 231 conservation, 74, 77–78 conversion, 71–73 force and motion, 62 forms of, 70–71 heat and kinetic molecular theory, 98–103 heat and transfer of, 93–94 ionic bonds, 234–35 motion and position, 67–69 quantization of, 193–94 sources of, 74–80 transfer, 74 waves, 127–28 work, 62–66, 69–70 Energy-form conversion, 73, 93 Energy Information Administration, 77 Energy sublevel, 213–14 English system, of measurement, 4–5, 44 Entropy, 106–107 Environmental cost, of mining, 441 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 594 Environmental science, 31 Eons, 521 Epicenter, of earthquake, 479 Epicycle, 398 Epochs, 521 Equations See also Chemical equations balancing of, 255–59 description of properties and definition of concepts, 10, 43 generalizing, 259–60 nuclear, 329–30 operations in, 605–606 problem solving, 11–13, 606–607 symbols, 605 of time, 415–16 Equator, and solar radiation, 539, 555 Equilbrium position, 116 Equinoxes, 409 Era(s), 521 Erbium, 219 Eris, 380 Erosion glaciers, 501–503 mass movement, 499 principle of uniformity, 518 running water, 499–501 shaping of Earth’s surface, 493 weathering processes and, 494–95, 499, 506 wind, 504 Escherichia coli, 594 Esters, 310, 312–13 Estuary, 594 Ethane, 301, 302, 303, 304, 306, 308 Ethanol, 310, 311 Ether, 310, 311 I-5 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out Ethyl alcohol, 185, 310, 311 Ethyl butyrate, 312 Ethylene, 238, 305 Ethylene glycol, 286, 311 Ethyl formate, 312 Ethyne, 306 Europa, 388 European Space Agency (ESA), 384, 389 Europium, 219, 342 Evaporation, 102–103, 540–44 Ewing, Maurice, 464 Excited states, 210, 332 Exfoliation, and weathering, 495–96, 497 Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), 267 Exosphere, 535 Expansion, of universe, 370–71 Experiment(s), and scientific method, 14–15 Experimental group, 15 Experimental variable, 15 Exponential notation, 609 External energy, 93, 106 Extinctions, and fossil records, 394, 523–24 Extraterrestrial life, 368 Extrusive igneous rocks, 440 Eye of human, 186, 187 of hurricane, 563–64 Eyepiece lens, of microscope, 187 F Fahrenheit, Gabriel D., 90 Fahrenheit scale, 90–91 Falling objects, and motion, 35–38 Faraday, Michael, 144, 161, 197 Fats, 315–16 Fatty acids, 311, 316 Faulting, of rocks, 476–77, 478, 482–83 Fault plane, 476, 478 Faunal succession, principle of, 518–19 Feedwater, of nuclear reactor, 345 Feldspars, 435, 496 Ferromagnesian silicates, 434–35, 437, 440 Ferromagnetic properties, 154 Fertilizers, 255, 445 Fetch, of waves, 594–95 Fiber optics, 177 Field magnet, 160 Field model, 145 Field-particle model, 145 Film badges, 335 Final velocity, 31 First-class lever, 65 First law of motion, 41 First law of thermodynamics, 104–105 First quarter, phase of moon, 422 Fishing industry, 572, 591 Fizeau, Armand, 132 Flank eruption, of volcano, 484 Flood(s) and flooding, 500–501, 564 Floodplain, 500 Flow, of energy, 73 Fluids, 88 Fluorescent lights, 211 Fluoride, 613 Fluorine, 215, 221, 235 Fluorite, 438 Fly ash, 76 Focus, of earthquake, 479 Folding, of rocks, 474, 482 Fog, 544–45 Foliation, of metamorphic rock, 445 Folk medicine, and crystal healing, 434 Food, radiation and preservation of, 339 See also Diet; Nutrition Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 339 Footprints, as fossils, 515, 519 Foot wall, 476–77 Force(s) elastic materials, 116–18 energy, 62 lines of, 145 motion, 32–34, 44, 48–49, 50 Force field, 144–45 Ford, Henry, 307 Formaldehyde, 311 Formalin, 311 Formic acid, 287, 311 Formula(s), of covalent and ionic compounds, 235, 237, 241–42, 244 See also Chemical formulas Formula weight, 253, 263 Fossil(s) See also Dinosaurs correlation, 518–19 early ideas about, 512–13 geologic time scale, 521–23 length of day, 425 mass extinctions, 523–24 stromatolites, 511 types of fossilization, 513 Fossil fuels See also Hydrocarbons; Petroleum acid rain, 292, 505 air pollution, 328 energy sources, 76, 328 Foucault, J L., 192, 410 Foucault pendulum, 410 Fractions, 605 Fracture, of minerals, 438 Fracture strain, 474 Framework silicates, 435 Francium, 216 Franklin, Benjamin, 148, 153 Free fall, 36, 39 Freezing, of seawater, 598 Freezing point, 99, 286 Freon, 534 Frequency of vibration, 117 of wave, 121, 194 Freshwater, 582, 583 Fresnel, A J., 190 Friction, 37, 69, 70, 141–42 Front(s), and weather, 556–57, 558, 559, 576 Frontal thunderstorms, 561 Frost, 543 Frost wedging, 495, 497 Fructose, 314 Fuel cell, 80 Fuel rods, of nuclear reactors, 343–44 Fulcrum, 65 Full moon, 422 Functional group, 309 Fundamental charge, of electron, 143 Fundamental forces, 32, 34 Fundamental frequency, 130 Fundamental properties, Fuses, 168, 169 Index 673 tiL04527_ndx_669-683.indd Page 674 8/7/08 4:04:45 PM user-s180 G Gabbro, 443 Gaia hypothesis, 545 Galactic clusters, 366–67 Galactic disk and halo, 367 Galaxies, 366–71 See also Milky Way Galilean moons, 388 Galileo, 14, 34, 35, 36, 37, 41, 388, 401 Gallium scans, 341 Galvanometer, 159 Gamma camera, 341 Gamma radiation, 194, 329, 332 Ganymede (moon), 388 Gas(es) inert gases, 218 natural gas, 285, 307, 308 noble gases, 218, 221 phases of matter, 87, 88, 99–100 pressure and solubility of, 284 rare gases, 218 Gasohol, 310 Gasoline, 9, 307–308 Gay-Lussac, Joseph, 17, 264 Geiger counter, 335–36 Geminid meteor shower, 394 Generalizing, of equations, 259–60 General theory of relativity, 196, 198, 371, 389 Generator, electrical, 161, 162 Geocentric model, of solar system, 397–98, 408 Geologic time, 519–24 Geology, 512 See also Earthquakes; Minerals; Plate tectonics; Rocks; Surface; Volcanoes Geopressurized resources, 79 Geosynchronous satellite, 52 Geothermal energy, 79–80, 465 Germanium, 221 Geysers, 79 Giant planets, 380, 381 Gibbs, Josiah, 447 Giotto spacecraft, 391 Glaciers, 501–503, 507, 573 Glass, and formation of minerals, 439 Glass technology, and nuclear waste, 346 Glen Canyon Dam (Arizona), 63 Global climate change, 574–76 Global Positioning System (GPS), 53 Global warming, 31, 487, 574–76 See also Greenhouse effect Globular clusters, 367 Glucose, 252, 259, 314 Gluons, 145 Glycerol, 311 Glycogen, 315 Glycol, 311 Gneiss, 445–46 Gnomon, 413 Gold electrical conductors, 143 specific heat, 96 variable-charge ions, 236 Golding, William, 545 Goldschmidt, Victor, 447 Gondwanaland, 524 Goose bumps, 92 Graben, 477 Gram-atomic weight, 265 Gram-formula weight, 265 Gram-molecular weight, 265 674 Index Grand Canyon (Arizona), 472, 475, 496, 517, 518 Granite composition, 440, 442, 496 groundwater, 586 weathering, 496, 498 Graph, and relationships between variables, 10, 611–12 Graphite, 439 Grasses, and Chesapeake Bay, 596 Gravel, 443, 586 Gravitational field, 144 Gravitational forces, 32, 34 Gravitational potential energy, 67, 100 Gravitons, 145 Gravity Newton’s law of gravitation, 49–54 theory of relativity, 198 tides, 424 work, 63, 69, 70 Gray (Gy), 337 Great Dark Spot (Neptune), 379 Great Red Spot (Jupiter), 387–88 Greeks, ancient aqueducts, 582 astronomy, 397 atom, 86, 204 fossils, 512 magnetism, 154 nature of science, 13–14 optics, 186 shape of Earth, 406 units of measurement, Greenhouse effect, 383, 425, 534, 574 See also Global warming Green River Formation (Wyoming), 514 Greenwich Observatory (England), 412 Gregorian calendar, 418 Gregory XIII, Pope, 418 Ground-fault interrupter (GFI), 170 Ground state, 210 Groundwater, 583, 584, 585–87 Gulf of Mexico, 424, 590 Gulf Stream, 598 Gypsum, 438 Gyre, 598 H Hahn, Dorothy, 268 Hahn, Otto, 340 Hail, 561, 562 Hair hygrometer, 542 Half-life, and radioactive decay, 334–35, 336, 520 Halite, 438 Hall, Sir James, 488 Halley, Edmund, 54 Halley’s comet, 390, 391, 393, 394 Halo of comet, 391 around Moon, 544 Halogens, 216 Hanging wall, 476–77 Hardness, of mineral, 437, 438 Hard water, 290–92 Harmonic instruments, 130–31 Hawaiian Islands, 484, 601 Health hazards, and radiation exposure, 276, 277, 338, 534 See also Safety Hearing, 123 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out Heat See also Specific heat; Temperature defined, 92–93 energy and kinetic molecular theory, 98–103 energy transfer, 93–94 heat flow, 96–98 measurement, 94 thermodynamics, 104–108 Heat death, 107 Heat engine, 104, 105 Heat flow, 96–98 Heat of formation, 234 Heat pump, 105 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 214 Heliocentric model, of solar system, 398–401 Heliostats, 78 Helium, 215, 217, 532 Hematite, 436 Henry, Joseph, 161 Heptadecane, 308 Heptane, 303, 304, 305, 308 Herodotus, 512 Hertz, Heinrich, 197 Hertz (Hz), 117 Hertzsprung, Ejnar, 361 Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, 361–62 Hess, Harry Hammond, 464 Hexadecane, 308 Hexane, 302, 303, 304, 308 High-density polyethylene, 318 Highland climate, 570, 571 High latitudes, 566, 567 High-level nuclear wastes, 348 High-pressure center, and weather, 560 High-quality energy, 106 Himalayan Mountains, 462 Hipparchus, 359 Historical geology, 512 Hogback, of volcano, 485 Holmes, Mary, 20 Holmium, 219 Honesty, ethic of in science, 16 Hooke, Robert, 388 Horizontal motion, on land, 34 Horizontal projectiles, 38–39, 40 Hornblende, 434–35, 437 Horsepower, 65, 66 Horst, 477 Hot water, and geothermal energy, 79 Household chemistry, 267 Household circuits, 168–70 Household water, 276 Howard, Luke, 545 Hubble, Edwin, 132, 362, 367, 368, 369, 371 Hubble’s law, 362, 369 Hubble Space Telescope, 365, 368, 370 Huggins, William, 132 Humid climates, 570 Humidity, and atmosphere, 541–42 Humus, 498 Hurricanes, 563–64, 565 Hutton, James, 472, 488, 520 Huygens, Christian, 189, 191 Hydration, 280, 496 Hydrocarbons See also Fossil fuels; Petroleum air pollution, 267 combustion and balanced equations, 259 derivatives of, 309–13 organic chemistry, 300–306 I-6 tiL04527_ndx_669-683.indd Page 675 8/7/08 4:04:45 PM user-s180 Hydrochloric acid, 285, 287, 289, 290 Hydrogen alternative energy sources, 80 atmosphere, 532 atomic weight, 207 chemical equation for water, 264 covalent bonds, 236–37 electron configuration, 215 ions, 235 periodic table, 216 Hydrogenation, of oils, 316 Hydrogen bonding, 278–79 Hydrogen carbonate, 236 Hydrogen chloride, 237, 284 Hydrogen peroxide, 253, 281–82 Hydrogen sulfate, 236 Hydrogen sulfide, 484 Hydrologic cycle defined, 552 main events of, 532, 552, 553 ocean, 581, 582–83 Hydronium ion, 284–85, 288 Hydropower, 74, 76–77 Hydrostatics, 532 Hydroxide, 236, 613 Hydroxide ion, 241 Hyperopia, 186, 187 Hypo- (prefix), 241 Hypochlorite, 236 Hypothesis, 14–15 I -Ic (suffix), 241 Ice ages, 573, 599 Ice-cooling nuclei, 555 Ice-crystal process, of precipitation formation, 554 Iceland, and plate tectonics, 460 -Ide (suffix), 240, 242, 244 Igneous rocks, 440–43, 458 Immiscible fluids, 279 Impermeability, of sediments, 586 Impulse, 48 Incandescent light sources, 178, 209 Incident ray, 182, 183, 184 Inclination, of Earth’s axis, 408 See also Milankovitch cycles Inclined plane, 64–65 Incoherent motion, 106 Index fossils, 519, 521 Index of refraction, 185, 189 Indian Ocean, 460, 482, 590, 600 See also Tsunami Indian Plate, 482 Indicated operations, and equations, 605, 606 Indirect solar gain, 101 Indonesia Tambora volcanic eruption in 1815–16, 487 tsunami in 2004, 482 Induction, 142 Industrial Revolution, and climate change, 573 Inert gases, 218 Inertia, 34, 41, 43, 69, 70 Inertial confinement, of nuclear waste, 349 Infrared radiation, 71 Infrasonic sound waves, 122 Initial velocity, 31 Inorganic chemistry, 300 Insoluble substances, 279 Instantaneous speed, 27 I-7 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out Insulation, of buildings, 97 Intangibles, Intensity, of sound, 127 Interference light, 189–90 sound waves, 126 Interference pattern, 190 Interglacial warming period, 573 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 576 Intermediate-focus earthquakes, 479 Intermittent stream, 583 Internal energy, 93, 104, 106 Internal potential energy, 99 Internal reflection, 184 Internal restoring force, 116 International Astronomical Union (IAU), 380 International Bureau of Weights and Measures, International date line, 416, 417 International System of Units (SI), 5, 337 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), 302, 309 Intertropical convergence, 538–39 Intrusive rocks, 440, 485 Inverse, meaning of, 605 Inversely proportional, 42 Inverse square, 11, 51 Inversion, and atmospheric temperature, 535, 556 Invert sugar, 314 Io (moon), 388 Iodide, 613 Iodine, 235, 334, 342 Ion(s) See also Ionic bonds; Ionic compounds chemical reactions, 232–33 electric charges, 141 noble gases, 218–19 Ion exchange reactions, 262–63 Ion exchanger, and water softening, 291–92 Ionic bonds, 233, 234–35, 239–40 Ionic compounds, 235, 241, 252, 280 Ionization counter, 335 Ionosphere, 535 Ion-polar molecule force, 280 Iridium, 524 Iris, of eye, 186, 187 Iron atomic weight, 207 core of Earth, 455 density, electrical conductors, 143 products of nuclear fission, 342 rate of conduction, 97 rust and chemical change, 229, 261 solubility, 613 specific heat, 96 variable-charge ions, 221, 236, 241 Iron meteorites, 394, 395 Irradiation, of foods, 339 Island arcs, 462 Isobutane, 302 Isolated atoms, 233 Isolated solar gain, 101 Isolated tetrahedrons, 435 Isomers, 302 Isoprene, 319 Isopropyl alcohol, 281, 310 Isotopes, 207, 329, 331 See also Radioactive isotopes Italian Space Agency, 389 J Japan, and tsunamis, 481 Jet stream, 540 Johns Hopkins University, 20 Joint, and rock faulting, 476 Joule, James Prescott, 76, 94 Joule (J), 62, 151 Julian calendar, 416, 418 Juan de Fuca Plate, 465, 486, 487 Jupiter description, 380, 387–88 magnetic field, 157 properties, 382 rotation, 409 shape, 407, 410 K Kamchatka, and 1952 earthquake, 482 Katrina (hurricane, 2005), 564 Kelvin, Lord (William Thompson), 91 Kelvin scale, 91 Kepler, Johannes, 399 Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, 399–401 Kepler’s second law, 399, 401 Kepler’s third law, 400–401 Kerosene, 307, 308 Ketone, 310, 311 Kilocalorie (kcal), 94 Kilogram, 44 Kilowatt (kW), 66, 153 Kinetic energy, 68–69, 70 Kinetic molecular theory, 86–88, 98–103 Krypton, 342, 532 Kuiper Belt, 390, 396 Kyoto Protocol, 576 L La Brea tar pit (Los Angeles), 514 Laccolith, 485 Lactic acid, 287, 312 Lactose, 314 Lakes, 292, 585 Land, Edwin H., 192 Land displacement, 481 Landforms, 505 Landscapes, 505–506 Landslide, 499 La Niña, 572 Lanthanide series, 219 Lanthanum, 219 Laser(s), 85, 191 Laser Ranging Retro-reflector Experiment, 462 Last quarter, phase of moon, 422 Latent heat, 99, 277 Latent heat of fusion, 100, 102 Latent heat of vaporization, 100, 102 Latitude, 411–12, 566, 567 Lauric acid, 316 Lava, 157, 439, 484 Law(s), scientific See also Principles defined, 17 Hubble’s, 362, 369 Kepler’s, 399–401 motion, 40–46 Ohm’s, 150 thermodynamics, 104–108 Law of combining volumes, 264 Law of conservation of energy, 74 Index 675 tiL04527_ndx_669-683.indd Page 676 8/7/08 4:04:46 PM user-s180 Law of conservation of mass, 256 Law of conservation of momentum, 46 Law of inertia, 41 Law of reflection, 182–83 Lead density, electrical conductors, 143 pollution, 277 products of nuclear fission, 342 rate of conduction, 97 solubility, 613 specific heat, 96 variable-charge ions, 236, 241 Lead iodide, 251 Lead nitrate, 251 Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italy), 35 Length, Lenses, and optics, 186 Leonid meteor shower, 394 Lever, 64, 65 Life extraterrestrial, 368 origins of, 425 Life cycle of galaxy, 368–71 of star, 359, 362–65 Lignite, 76 Light See also Light pollution particles, 189, 192–94 present theory of, 194–96 properties of, 180–89 sources of, 178–80 theory of relativity, 196–98 waves, 189–92, 194 Lightning, 139, 561–62 Light pollution, 365 Light ray model, 180 Light-year (ly), 356 Limestone carbon dioxide, 532 caves, 498 composition, 444 weathering, 496, 506 Linear model, of radiation exposure, 338 Linear scale, and simple line graph, 611 Linear wave front, 124 Lines of force, 145 Line spectrum, 208–209 Linoleic acid, 316 Linolenic acid, 316 Liquid(s), 87, 88 Liquid-gas phase change, 99 Liquified natural gas (LPG), 258, 307 Liter (L), Lithification, 444 Lithium, 215, 216, 221, 235 Lithosphere, 456, 460 Litmus paper, 287, 288 Little ice age (1400–1860), 573 Little Sundance Mountain (Wyoming), 483 Loam, 498 Loess, 504 Logan, Mount (Yukon Territory), 503 Lone pairs, 237 Longitude, 412 Longitudinal wave, 119, 122 Longshore current, 597 676 Index Los Angeles earthquake (1994), 479 Loudness, of sound, 127–28 Loudspeakers, 160 Lovelock, James Ephraim, 545 Love waves, 453 Low-density polyethylene, 318 Lowell, Percival, 385, 400 Low latitudes, 566, 567, 570, 571 Low-level nuclear waste, 348 Low-quality energy, 106 Lowry, Thomas, 293 Lubricating oils, 308 Luminous objects, 178 Lunar eclipse, 423 Lunar highlands, 418, 419 Lunar Prospector spacecraft, 418 Lure Observatory (Hawaii), 462 Luster, of minerals, 438 Lyell, Charles, 488, 513 Lysine, 313 M Mach, Ernst, 133 Mach number, 133 MACHOs (massive astrophysical compact halo objects), 372 Macromolecule, 313 Magma, 439–40, 484 Magnesium chemical reactions, 231 electron configuration, 215 ions, 235 seawater, 592 solubility, 613 Magnesium bicarbonate, 291 Magnesium hydroxide, 242, 287, 288, 289 Magnetic confinement, of nuclear waste, 349 Magnetic declination, 155 Magnetic dip, 156 Magnetic domain, 157 Magnetic fields compass, 156 defined, 154–55 of Earth, 157 force fields, 144 geomagnetic time scale, 520–21 north and south poles, 155–56 plate tectonics, 457–58 source of, 156–57 Magnetic poles, 154 Magnetic quantum number, 214 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 340, 341 Magnetic reversals, 157, 457–58 Magnetism, 154–61 Magnetite, 154, 458 Magnitude of earthquake, 481 of refraction, 184 of stars, 359, 360 Main sequence stars, 362, 363 Maltose, 314 Mammoths, 514 Manganese, 236, 590 Manipulated variable, 611 Mantle, of Earth, 452, 454, 455 Marble, 446 Maria (moon), 418, 419 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out Marine climate, 570, 571 Mariner spacecraft, 385 Mariner 10 spacecraft, 382, 383 Maritime air mass, 555 Mars, 380, 382, 384–87 Mars Exploration Rovers, 386 Mars Odyssey spacecraft, 385 Mass See also Mass number; Mass ratio metric system, Newton’s second law of motion, 42, 43–44 specific heat, 95 Mass defect, 339 Mass extinctions, 394, 523–24 Mass movement, 499 Mass number, 207, 329 Mass percentage, of compound, 253–54 Mass ratio, 266, 267 Mathematical operations, 12 See also Equations Matter light and interaction with, 180–81 phases of, 87–88 Matter waves, 212–13 Matthews, D H., 464 Mauna Loa (Hawaii), 485 Maxwell, James, 144, 192–93, 197 McDonald Observatory (Texas), 462 Meanders, in rivers, 500 Mean solar day, 414 Mean solar time, 413 Measurement chemical equations, 265 defined, earthquakes, 479–82 heat, 94 motion, 27–34 plate tectonics, 462 radiation, 335–38 significant figures, 607–608 systems, 4–6 temperature, 89–91 time, 6, 413–18 understandings from, 7–13 Mechanical advantage, 64–65 Mechanical energy, 70 Mechanical waves, 119 Mechanical weathering, 495–96 Mechanical work, 62 Media, and pseudoscience, 16 Medicine, nuclear, 340–41 See also Health hazards Mediterranean climate, 570, 571 Mediterranean Sea, 590, 598 Medium, and transmission of sound waves, 122–23 Megawatt (MW), 66 Meitner, Lise, 340 Melting point, 99 Mendeleyev, Dmitri Ivanovich, 220 Mercalli scale, 481 Mercury (element) density, solubility, 613 specific heat, 96 variable-charge ions, 236 Mercury (planet), 157, 380, 381–82, 383 Mercury oxide, 261 Meridians, 412 Mesosphere, 535 Mesozoic era, 521, 523 I-8 tiL04527_ndx_669-683.indd Page 677 8/7/08 4:04:46 PM user-s180 MESSENGER spacecraft, 382 Metabolism, 313 Metal(s) electrical conductors, 143 physical properties, 218–21 replacement reactions, 262 temperature and expansion of, 89 Metal hydroxides, 241 Metallic hydrogen, 387 Metamorphic rocks, 444–46 Meteorology, 530 See also Climate; Weather Meteors and meteorites, 394–95, 455, 524 Meteor shower, 394 Meter, Methane alkanes, 301, 302, 303, 304 composition of atmosphere, 532 natural gas, 307, 308 Methanol, 310 Methyl alcohol, 286, 309, 310 Methyl group, 303 Metric system, of measurement, 4, 5–6, 44 Meyer, Lothar, 220 Mica, 437, 438 Microclimate, 570 Microscope, 187 Microwave ovens, 243 Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 458–59, 460, 590, 601 Middle ear infections, 123 Middle latitudes, 566, 567, 570, 571 Milankovitch, Milutin, 574 Milankovitch cycles, 574 Milky Way (galaxy), 366–67, 368, 369, 406 Miller, Stanley, 425 Millikan, Robert A., 205–206 Millirem (mrem), 337 Millisievert (MSv), 337 Mineral(s) See also Rocks costs of mining, 441 crystal structures, 433–34 defined, 432, 433 formation processes, 439–40 physical properties, 436–39 recycling, 445 silicates and nonsilicates, 434–35 Mineralization, of fossils, 515 Mineral oil, 308 Mining, of mineral resources, 441 Minor features, of landscape, 505 Mirages, 185 Miscible fluids, 279 Mississippi River, 501, 584, 585 Models, use of in science, 17–19 Moderator, of nuclear reactor, 344–45 Mohorovicic discontinuity, 454 Moh’s hardness scale, 438 Molarity (M), 283 Mold, of fossil, 515 Mole, 265, 266, 282–83, 285 Molecular formula, 252, 253 Molecular orbital, 233 Molecular ratio, 266, 267 Molecular weight, 253 Molecules atmosphere, 530, 531, 532 defined, 230 diatomic, 86, 230, 231, 534 I-9 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out kinetic molecular theory, 86–88, 98–103 monoatomic, 87, 230, 231, 534 structure of water, 277–79 triatomic, 230, 231 Mole ratio, 266, 267 Molina, Mario, 545 Momentum, 46–48 Monadnocks, 506 Monoatomic molecules, 87, 230, 231, 534 Monopole, 156 Monosaccharides, 314 Monthly time, 418 Montreal Protocol, 534 Moon composition and features, 420–21 description of surface, 418, 419 eclipses, 423 formation of, 421 gravity and acceleration toward Earth, 51 movement away from Earth, 462 phases of, 421–22 tides, 424–25 weather, 544 Moraines, 503 Motion compound, 38–39 defined, 26 of Earth, 406, 408–11 energy, 62–69 falling objects, 35–38 horizontal on land, 34 laws of, 40–46 measurement, 27–34 momentum, 46–48 Motor oil, 308 Mountains cloud-forming processes, 552 influence on regional climate, 568 origin of, 482–86 stages of landform development, 506 wind patterns, 537 Moving air masses, 552 Moving sources, of sound, 131–33 M type stars, 362 Mudflows, volcanic, 485 Multiple bonds, 238 Multiplication, and significant figures, 607–608 Muscovite, 435 Music, 129–31 Myopia, 186, 187 N Names of alcohols, 309–10 of alkane isomers, 302–304 of compounds, 240–41, 242, 244 of salts, 291 NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), 389, 462, 571 See also Space exploration National Institute of Standards and Technology, 4, National Standard System (Canada), National Weather Service, 538, 564 Native Americans irrigation canals, 582, 583 measurement of time, 414 Natural frequency, of vibration, 128 Natural gas, 307, 308 Natural philosophy, 13–14 Natural radioactivity, 328 Nazca Plate, 461 Neap tides, 424 Near point, and vision, 186, 187 Nebulae, 358 Negative acceleration, 31 Negative electric charge, 140 Negative ion, 141 Neodymium, 219 Neolithic people, and night sky, 356 Neon, 207, 215, 532 Neptune atmosphere, 392 description, 380, 389–90 Great Dark Spot, 379 properties, 382 Neptunium, 342 Net force, 32, 33, 42 Neutralization, of acids and bases, 288 Neutrinos, 372 Neutron(s), 140, 141, 206–207 Neutron-to-proton ratio, 333 Neutron star, 364 New crust zone, 460 New Madrid earthquake (Missouri 1811), 479 New moon, 422 Newton, Isaac, 14, 46, 49, 50, 54, 188, 189, 401 Newton (N), 43, 44 Newton’s law of gravitation, 49–54 Newton’s laws of motion, 17, 41–46 Nichrome, 143 Nickel, 236, 342 Niobium, 342 Nitrate, 236, 613 Nitric acid, 287, 289, 292, 505 Nitrogen, 207, 215, 531 Nitrogen dioxide, 244 Nitrogen monoxide, 267 Nitrogen oxide, 292, 505 Nitroglycerine, 311 Nobel, Alfred, 311, 319 Nobel, Immanuel, 319 Noble gases, 218, 221 Nodes, 129 Noise, 129 Nonadecane, 308 Nonane, 303, 304, 308 Nonelectrolytes, 284 Nonferromagnesian silicates, 435, 437 Nonmetals, 218–21, 242 Nonsilicates, 434, 435, 436 Noon, 413 Normal fault, 477 North American Plate, 462, 463, 478 North celestial pole, 356 North Pole, 155, 356, 408 North Star, 357, 358, 411 N-type semiconductor, 167 Nuclear accidents, 346–47 Nuclear energy, 71, 74, 77, 338–50 Nuclear equations, 329–30 Nuclear fission, 340–43 Nuclear force, 331 Nuclear fusion, 340, 346–49 Nuclear medicine, 340–41 Index 677 tiL04527_ndx_669-683.indd Page 678 8/7/08 4:04:46 PM user-s180 Nuclear power plants, 343–46 Nuclear reactor, 343 Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 349 Nuclear waste, 345–46, 348–49 Nuclear Waste Policy Act (1982), 349 Nucleation centers, 439 Nucleons, 329 Nucleus of atom, 140, 141, 206–207, 331, 333 of comet, 391 Numerical constant, 11 Nutrients, and water pollution, 594 Nutrition, and pseudoscience, 16 See also Diet; Food; Nutrients O Object(s), 2–3 Objective lens, of microscope, 187 Oblate spheroid (shape of Earth), 408 Observed lapse rate, 534 Observations, and scientific method, 14 Obsidian, 442 Occluded front, 559 Ocean(s) See also Currents; Hydrologic cycle; Ridges; Seafloor spreading hypothesis; Seawater; Trenches carbon dioxide, 532 crust of Earth, 454 definition of seas and, 590, 592 deuterium and potential energy from, 347, 590 floor, 599–601 movement of seawater, 593–98, 599 plate tectonics, 458–59 water on Earth’s surface, 582 waves, 593–97 Ocean basin, 600 Ocean-continent plate convergence, 461 Ocean-ocean plate convergence, 461–62 Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), 79 Oct- (prefix), 302 Octadecane, 308 Octane, 302, 303, 304, 308 Octane number scale, 308 Octet rule, 232 Octyl acetate, 312 Oersted, Jans Christian, 156–57 Ohm, G S., 150 Ohm, 150 Ohmmeter, 159 Ohm’s law, 150, 169 Oil(s), 316 Oil field, 307 -Ol (suffix), 310 Oleic acid, 316 Olivine, 434–35, 437, 455 Oort, Jan, 390–91 Oort cloud, 390, 393, 396 Opaque materials, 180 Operational definition, 10, 43 Optics, 186–87 Orbital electrons, 214, 220 Orbits, of electrons, 210 Ordovician period, 522–23 Organic acid, 310, 311–12 Organic chemistry defined, 300 hydrocarbons, 300–306, 309–13 678 Index organic compounds, 313–19 petroleum, 306–309 Organic compounds, 300, 313–19 Organic foods, and labeling, 16 Organic halides, 309, 310 Orientation, of Earth’s axis, 408 Original horizontality, principle of, 516 Orionid meteor shower, 394 Orthoclase, 437, 438 Oscillating theory, of universe, 371 O type stars, 362 -Ous (suffix), 241 Overtones, 130 Oxbow lake, 500 Oxidation, 70, 496 Oxidation-reduction reaction, 260 Oxide, 435, 613 Oxidizing agents, 260 Oxygen atmosphere, 531 atomic weight, 207 chemical equation for water, 264 diatomic and monoatomic, 534 electron configuration, 215 ions, 235 triatomic molecules, 230 Oxygen-depleting chemicals, 594 Ozone, 230, 534 Ozone layer, 534 P Paceline, 37 Pacific Ocean, 572, 590, 600, 601 Pacific Plate, 461–62, 463, 478 Painted Desert (Arizona), 513 Paleomagnetics, 458, 459 Paleontology, 513 Paleozoic era, 521, 522, 523 Palmitic acid, 312, 316 Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station (Arizona), 328 Parabola, 39 Paraffin, 308, 309 Parallel(s), and Earth’s axis, 411–12 Parallel circuit, 166, 168 Parallel forces, 32, 33 Paraffin series, 301 Particle physics, 372 Particle theory of light, 189, 192–94 Parts per billion (ppb), 281 Parts per million (ppm), 281 Passel, Charles F., 538 Passive solar energy, 78, 101 Pathfinder spacecraft, 385–86 Pauli, Wolfgang, 215 Pauli exclusion principle, 215 Pauling, Linus Carl, 245 PCBs, 277 Peat, 76 Pendulum, 71–73 Peneplain, 506 Pentadecane, 308 Pentane, 303, 304, 308 Per- (prefix), 241 Percent composition, of compounds, 253–54 Percent by volume, of solution, 281 Percent by weight, of solution, 281–82 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out Perchlorate, 236 Perigee, 424 Perihelion, 399 Period of geologic time, 521–23 of vibration, 117 of wave, 121 Periodic disturbances, 119 Periodic motion, 116 Periodic table, 216–18 Permanent magnets, 157 Permanganate, 236 Permeability, of sediments, 586 Permian period, 523 Perpetual motion machine, 106 Perseid meteor shower, 394 Persistent pollutants, 584 Peru-Chile Trench, 461 PET scan (positron emission tomography), 341 Petrified Forest National Park (Arizona), 515 Petroleum See also Fossil fuels; Hydrocarbons alkanes, 301 as energy source, 74, 75 organic chemistry, 306–309 water pollution, 594 Petroleum jelly, 308 pH, 289–90, 505 See also Acid(s); Base(s) Phanerozoic eon, 521 Phase(s), of moon, 421–22 Phase change, 99–100, 102 Phenyl, 306 Philosophae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Newton 1686), 54 Phobos, 386–87 Phoenix, Arizona, and irrigation canals, 582, 583 Phosphate, 236, 445, 613, 590 Phosphor(s), 336 Phosphoric acid, 287 Phosphorus, 215, 445 Photochemical smog, 267 Photoelectric effect, 193 Photons, 194, 208 Photosynthesis, 71, 231–32, 592 Photovoltaics, 78 Physical geology, 512 Physical science, defined, Picocurie (pCi), 336 Pinatubo, Mount (Philippines), 487 Pitch, of sound, 122, 129 Place, identification of, 411–12 Planck, Max, 193, 208 Planck’s constant, 194, 208 Plane of the ecliptic, 406 Planet(s) See also Earth; Jupiter; Mars; Mercury; Pluto; Saturn; Uranus; Venus extraterrestrial life, 368 reflected light from, 356 solar system, 380–90 Planetary nebula, 355, 363, 364 Plant(s), and carbohydrates, 315 See also Agriculture; Grasses; Photosynthesis; Trees Plasmas, 88, 349 Plastic(s), 316–17, 318 Plastic deformation, 474 Plastic strain, 474 Plate boundary, 460 Plate tectonics, 457–65, 472 I-10 tiL04527_ndx_669-683.indd Page 679 8/7/08 4:04:47 PM user-s180 Plato, 204 Playfair, John, 488 Plucking, and glaciers, 503 Pluto, 380, 400 Plutonium, 334, 342, 345 Polar air mass, 555, 557 Polar climate zone, 567, 568, 570 Polar covalent bond, 239, 277 Polaris, 358, 411 Polarization, of light, 190–92 Polarized plug, 169, 170 Polar molecule, 277 Polaroid camera, 192 Poles, magnetic, 154, 155, 156 Pollution See Acid rain; Air pollution; Global warming; Light pollution; Water pollution Polonium, 329 Polyatomic ions, 235, 236, 241, 242 Polyethylene, 309, 317, 318–19 Polymers, 309, 316–19 Polypeptide, 313 Polypropylene, 317, 318 Polysaccharides, 314 Polystyrene, 317, 318, 319 Polytetrafluoroethylene, 317 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 317, 318, 319 Polyvinylidene, 317 Ponds, 585 Poor Richard’s Almanac (Franklin 1732), 153 Porosity and pore spaces, in sediments, 586 Position, and potential energy, 67 Positive electric charge, 140 Positive ion, 141 Positive test charge, 144–45 Post meridiem (p.m.), 413 Potash, 240 Potassium electron structure, 215, 216 ions, 235 radioactive decay, 334, 520 seawater, 592 solubility, 613 Potassium hydroxide, 287, 288 Potassium iodide, 251 Potential difference, of electrical charge, 146 Potential energy, 67, 68, 70, 100 Pound, force unit of, 44 Powell, John Wesley, 506 Power, and work, 64–66, 68 Power tower, 78 Prearchean eon, 521 Precambrian period, 521–22 Precession, 411 Precipitation, 554–55, 582, 584, 586 Prefixes metric system, names of alkanes, 302, 304 names of compounds, 241, 244 Pressure atmosphere, 532–33 mechanical weathering of rocks, 495 solubility of gases, 284 Primary coil, of transformer, 162 Primary loop, of nuclear reactor, 344 Prime meridian, 412 Principle(s), scientific See also Law(s) consistent law principle, 196 I-11 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out of crosscutting relationships, 517 defined, 17 of faunal succession, 518–19 of original horizontality, 516 of superposition, 516–17 of uniformity, 472–73, 516, 517–18, 520 Prisms, 188–89 Problem solving, and equations, 11–13, 606–607 Promethium, 342 Proof, of alcohol, 310–11 Propane hot air balloons, 258 molecular formula, 304 natural gas, 307, 308 structural formula, 302, 303 Properties defined, equations and description of, 10 quantifying, 3–4 specific heat, 95 Proportionality constant, 11 Proportionality statements, 10–11 Proteins, 313–14 Proterozoic eon, 521 Proton(s), 140, 141, 206–207 Proton acceptor, 288 Proton donor, 288 Protoplanet nebular model, 395–97 Protostar, 358, 362 Proxy data, and climate change, 573 Pseudoscience, 16 Psychrometer, 542 Ptolemaic system, 398 P-type semiconductor, 167 Pulley, 65 Pulsar, 364–65, 373 Pupil, of eye, 186, 187 Pure tone, 129 P-wave, 453, 455, 479, 480 P-wave shadow zone, 455 P/Wild comet, 393 Q Quad, 94 Quadrantid meteor shower, 394 Quality of energy, 106 Quanta, 208 Quantification, of properties, 3–4 Quantitative uses, of chemical equations, 266 Quantities, symbols representing, 10 Quantization, of energy, 193–94 Quantum concept, 208 Quantum leaps, 210 Quantum mechanics, 212–15 Quantum numbers, 213, 214 Quartz chemical weathering, 496 colors, 436, 437 crystal structure, 433 hardness, 438 nonferromagnesian silicates, 435, 437 Quartzite, 446 Quaternary period, 524 R Rad, 337 Radar, 133 Radiant energy, 71, 98 Radiation See also Radioactive decay; Radioactive waste; Radioactivity; Radio radiation; Solar radiation; Ultraviolet radiation atmosphere and solar, 533–34 exposure, 337, 338, 534 food preservation, 339 heat transfer, 98 measurement of, 335 units of, 336–38 zone of, 359 Radiationless orbits, 210 Radioactive decay, 329, 332–35, 336 See also Carbon-14 Radioactive isotopes, 520 Radioactive waste, 346 Radioactivity, 328–35 See also Radiation Radiometric age, of rocks, 520 Radiopharmaceuticals, 340–41 Radio radiation, 194 Radium, 329, 342 Radius, of Earth, 531 Radon, 342 Rainbow, 18, 190 Rainbow Bridge National Monument (Utah), 495 Ranks, of coal, 76 Rare earths, 219 Rarefaction, 120 Rare gases, 218 Ratios, and measurement, 7–8, 605, 608 Rayleigh waves, 453 Rayon, 317 Reactor, nuclear, 77 Reagan, Ronald, 349 Real image, 183 Recycling of minerals, 445 of plastics, 318 of wastewater, 589 Red giant stars, 362, 363 Redox reaction, 260 Red Sea, 460 Redshift, 133, 369 Reducing agent, 260 Reference frames, 196 Referent, Reflected ray, 182 Reflecting telescopes, 187 Reflection of light, 180, 181, 182–83 of waves, 124–25 Refracted ray, 183 Refracting telescopes, 187 Refraction, 124, 183–85, 188–89, 595 Rejuvenation, of erosion processes, 506 Relative dating, 519 Relative humidity, 541–42, 614 Relative intensity, of earthquake, 481 Relativity, theory of, 196–98, 371, 389 Relay, electromagnetic, 159 Rem, 337 Renewable energy resources, 465 Replacement reactions, 261–62 Representative elements, 216 Reprocessing plants, for nuclear fuel, 345 Research, types of scientific, 15, 214 Resistance, in electrical circuits, 166, 168 Index 679 tiL04527_ndx_669-683.indd Page 680 8/7/08 4:04:47 PM user-s180 Resistance distance, 64 Resistance force, 64 Resonance, of waves, 128 Resonant frequency, 128 Resource(s), and water supply, 587–89 Resource cost, of mining, 441 Responding variable, 611 Retina, of eye, 187 Retrograde motion, 397–98, 399 Reverberation, 125 Reverse fault, 477 Revolution, of Earth, 406, 408–409 Rhodochrosite, 431 Rhyolite, 442 Richter, Charles, 481 Richter scale, 481 Ridge(s), in oceans, 458, 600, 601 See also MidAtlantic Ridge Ridge-push, and plate tectonics, 464 Rift, 459 Rip current, 597 Rivers, 499–501 Rock(s) See also Granite; Limestone; Minerals; Quartz; Sandstone; Surface defined, 432, 440 faulting, 476–77, 482–83 folding, 474, 483 igneous rocks, 440–43 landforms and structure of, 506 metamorphic rocks, 444–46 porous space in, 586 reading history from, 516–19 rock cycle, 446 sedimentary rocks, 443–44 stress and strain, 474 Rock bedding, 474, 475 Rock cleavage, 445 Rock cycle, 446, 472, 494 Rock flour, 231, 503, 504 Rocky Mountains, 482 Rogue waves, 597 Roman Empire aqueducts, 582 burning glasses, 186 calendar year, 416 magnetic reversals, 457 measurement system, Rotation, of Earth, 406, 408, 409–10 Rounding, of numbers, 608 Rowland, F Sherwood, 545 Rubidium, 216, 520 Rumford, Count (Benjamin Thompson), 107 Running water, and erosion, 499–501 Runoff, of freshwater, 583 Russell, Henry, 361 Russia See Chernobyl nuclear accident; Kamchatka Rust, on iron, 229, 261 Ruthenium, 342 Rutherford, Ernest, 206, 328, 336 S Safety, and earthquakes, 482 See also Health hazards Sagan, Carl, 425 St Helens, Mount (Washington), 473, 484, 486 St Louis, Missouri, and climate, 568 Salinity, 282, 592–93 Salt(s), 216, 290, 291 See also Sodium; Sodium chloride 680 Index Samarium, 219, 342, 520 San Andreas fault (California), 463, 478 Sand, 443, 586 San Diego, California, and climate, 568–69 Sandstone, 443, 444, 472, 586 San Francisco earthquakes (1906 and 1989), 479 San Joaquin Valley, 475 Santa Ana wind, 537 Sargasso Sea, 590, 592 Satellites, 52 Saturated air, 103 Saturated fats, 316 Saturated hydrocarbons, 306 Saturated solution, 283 Saturation, and water in atmosphere, 541 Saturn description, 380, 388–89 magnetic field, 157 position in solar system, 381 properties, 382 rings, 391 shape, 407 Scales, of temperature, 90–91 Scattering, of light, 192 Schiaparelli, Giovanni, 400 Schist, 445 Schrödinger equation, 213 Science See also Astrophysics; Earth sciences; Geology; Laws; Meteorology; Organic chemistry; Physical science; Principles; Theory nature of, 13–19 types of research, 15, 214 Scientific method, 14 Scientific notation, 609–11 Scintillation counter, 335 Screw, 65 Sea breeze, 536 Seafloor spreading hypothesis, 19, 459, 460 Sea level, 564, 574 Seamounts, 601 Sea salt, 592 Seasons, and motions of Earth, 408–409 Seawater See also Oceans composition of, 590, 592–93 conversion to freshwater, 589 density, freezing point, 286 specific heat, 96 Seaweed, 593 Second(s), as unit of time, Secondary coil, of transformer, 162 Secondary loop, of nuclear reactor, 345 Second-class lever, 65 Second law of motion, 41–44 Second law of thermodynamics, 105–108 Sediment(s) See also Sedimentary rocks cementation, 444 chemical sediments, 443, 444 clastic, 443 groundwater, 585–86 Sedimentary rocks, 443–44, 474 Seismic tomography, 457 Seismic waves, 453–54, 455, 477, 480 Seismometer, 479, 480 Selective absorption, 192 Semiarid climates, 570, 571 Semiconductors, 143, 167, 218–21 Series circuit, 165–66, 168 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out Sewage treatment, 588–89 Shale, 444 Shallow-focus earthquakes, 479 Shape, of Earth, 406–408 Shear stress, 474 Shasta, Mount (California), 486 Sheet erosion, 499 Sheet silicates, 435 Shell model, of nucleus, 331 Shield volcanoes, 484–85 Shivering, 92 Shock wave, 131, 132 Shoemaker-Levy Comet, 388, 390 Shooting star, 394 Short circuit, 169 Side chains, 313 Sidereal day, 414 Sidereal month, 418 Sidereal year, 416 Sierra Nevada (California), 483 Sievert (Sv), 337 Significant figures, 607–608 Silent Spring, The (Carson 1962), 600 Silica, 496, 514, 515 Silicates, 434–35, 436 Silicon, 167, 215, 221 Silt, 443 Siltstone, 443 Silurian period, 522–23 Silver electrical conductors, 143 rate of conduction, 97 single-charge ions, 236 solubility, 613 specific heat, 96 Silver polish, 260 Simple harmonic motion, 117, 118 Simple line graph, 611–12 Simple machines, 64–65 Single bond, 238 Single-charge ions, 236 Singularity, and black hole, 365 Sinusoidal (sine) graph, 118 Siple, Paul A., 538 Sky, color of, 192 Slab-pull, and plate tectonics, 465, 466 Slate, 445 Slipstream, 37 Sludge, and sewage treatment, 588 Slug, 44 Small solar system bodies, 380 Smith, William “Strata,” 513, 521 Soap, 279, 280 Soda, 240 Sodium See also Salt(s); Sodium chloride electron structure, 215, 216 ions, 232–33, 235 seawater, 592 solubility, 613 Sodium bicarbonate, 290 Sodium carbonate, 240 Sodium chloride See also Salt(s); Sodium boiling point elevation, 285 crystal form, 438 ionic bonds, 234 ionic compounds, 235 sea salt, 592 solubility in water, 280 I-12 tiL04527_ndx_669-683.indd Page 681 8/7/08 4:04:47 PM user-s180 Sodium hydroxide, 287, 288, 289, 290 Soft water, 290–92 Soil See also Sediments groundwater and permeability, 586 surface of Earth, 498–99 specific heat, 96 Sojourner spacecraft, 386 Solar cells, 78, 167 Solar eclipses, 425 Solar energy, 78–79, 101 Solar radiation See also Sun global climatic patterns, 539, 555, 566 spectrum of sunlight, 180 temperature difference between tropical and polar oceans, 598 warming of atmosphere, 533–34 Solar system See also Planets; Sun artist’s concept of, 407 geocentric model, 397–98, 408 heliocentric model, 398–401 origin of, 395–97 physical model, 17 planets, 380–90, 406 small bodies of, 390–95 Solenoid, 158, 160 Solid(s), 87–88 Solid-gas phase change, 99–100 Solid-liquid phase change, 99 Solstices, 409 Solubility, 283–84, 291, 613 See also Solutions Solutes, 279 Solutions, 280–86 See also Solubility Solvents, 279 Sommerfeld, A., 211 Sonar, 125–26 Sonic boom, 131, 133 Sound quality, 129, 130 sources of, 129–33 waves, 122–27 South America, and El Niño, 572 South American Plate, 461 South celestial pole, 356 Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), 572 South Pole, 356, 408 Space exploration See also Apollo missions; Mariner 10 comets and asteroids, 392 Mars, 385–86 Moon, 418, 420 Venus, 383, 384 Special theory of relativity, 196–98 Specific gravity, 438–39 Specific heat, 94–95, 96, 102, 277, 537 SPECT scan (single photon emission computerized tomography), 341 Spectrum See also Electromagnetic spectrum colors of light, 188–89 temperature of stars, 360 visible light, 194, 209 Speed See also Velocity constancy of, 196–97 defined, 30 of light, 183–84 measurement, 27–29 Spent nuclear fuel, 345 Spherical waves, 124 Spheroidal weathering, 498 I-13 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out Spin, direction of electron, 214–15 Spring equinox, 409, 411 Spring tides, 424 Stable nucleus, 331 Stadium (stadia), Standard atmospheric pressure, 533 Standards Council of Canada, Standard time zones, 416, 417 Standard unit, 4, 5–6 Standing waves, 129–30, 213 Star(s) brightness of, 359–60, 362 life cycle, 362–65 nuclear energy, 349–50 origin of, 358–59 sources of light, 356 temperature, 360, 361, 362 types of, 361–62 Starches, 314, 315 Stardust spacecraft, 393 Static electricity, 141–42 Stationary front, 557 Steam, and geothermal energy, 79 Steam generator, of nuclear reactor, 345 Steam turbine, 72 Stearic acid, 316 Step-down transformer, 163, 164 Step-up transformer, 163, 164 Stock, of batholith, 485 Stonehenge (England), 356, 357 Stone Mountain (Georgia), 496 Stony meteorites, 394, 395, 455 Storms, and weather, 561–64, 565 See also Cyclone; Thunderstorms Strain, and diastrophism, 474 Strassman, Fritz, 340 Stratocumulus clouds, 546 Stratopause, 535 Stratosphere, 535 Stratus clouds, 545, 546, 558 Streak, and mineral, 436 Streams, 499–500, 507, 583, 584 Stress, and diastrophism, 473–74 Strip mining, 441 Stromatolites, 511 Strong acids, 288–89 Strong nuclear force, 32, 34 Strontium electron configuration, 216 fireworks, 216 half-life and radioactive decay, 334 metals and charge of, 219 nuclear fission, 342 solubility, 613 Structural formulas, 252, 253 Styrene, 319 Styrofoam, 318, 319 Subarctic climate, 570, 571 Subcritical mass, 343 Subduction zone, 460, 461 Sublimation, 99 Submarine canyons, 600 Submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV), 596 Subroutines, and equations, 12 Subscripts, and formulas, 241 Subsoil, 498 Substitution reaction, 309 Subtraction, and significant figures, 608 Subtropical climate, 570, 571 Sucrose, 314 Suess, Eduard, 524 Suffixes, and names of alcohols, 310 of alkanes, 302, 303 of alkenes, 305 of compounds, 240, 241, 244 Sugar, and boiling point of solutions, 285 See also Sucrose Sulfate, 236, 435, 592, 613 Sulfide, 613 Sulfite, 236 Sulfur, 215, 235 Sulfur dioxide, 76, 484, 487 Sulfuric acid, 287, 289, 292, 505 Sulfur oxide, 292, 505 Sumatra, and 2004 tsunami, 482 Summer solstice, 409 Sun See also Solar radiation; Solar system; Sunspots absolute magnitude, 360 atmosphere, 533–34 eclipses, 423 nuclear fusion, 347 origin of, 359 tides, 424 Sundial, 413 Sunspots, 574 Sunset Crater (Arizona), 485 Superconductors, 151 Supercooled air, 555 Supercritical mass, 343 Supernovas, 350, 364 Superplumes, 457 Superposition, principle of, 516–17 Supersaturated air, 554 Surface, of Earth See also Minerals; Plate tectonics; Rock(s) development of landscapes, 505–506 diastrophism, 473–77 earthquakes, 477–82 erosion, 493, 494–95, 499–504 interpretation of, 472–73 oceans, 590, 591 origin of mountains, 482–86 soils, 498–99 weathering, 493, 494–97, 498 Surface currents, 598 Surface tension, of water, 190 Surface water, 276, 584–85 Surface waves, 453, 479 Surf zone, 595–96 Surroundings, and thermodynamics, 104 S-wave, 453, 455, 479, 480 S-wave shadow zone, 455 Swell, and ocean, 595, 596, 597 Symbols, and equations, 10, 241, 330, 605 Syncline, 475 Synodic month, 418 Synthetic polymers, 309, 316–19 T Tahiti, and Southern Oscillation, 572 Tail, of comet, 392, 393 Talc, 437, 438 Tambora volcanic eruption (1815–16), 487 Tarnishing, of silver, 260 Taurid meteor shower, 394 Index 681 tiL04527_ndx_669-683.indd Page 682 8/7/08 4:04:48 PM user-s180 Technetium, 342 Teflon, 319 Telephones, 160 Temperate climate zone, 567, 569 Temperature See also Heat atmosphere and altitude, 530, 531, 532, 553, 554 blackbody radiation, 179 defined, 89 kinetic energy, 103 movement of molecules, 88 nuclear fusion, 348 scales, 90–91 solubility, 283, 284 stars, 360, 361, 362 thermometers, 89–90 velocity of sound in air, 123 warming of atmosphere, 533–34 work against friction, 70 Tensional stress, 474, 477 Terbium, 219 Terrestrial planets, 380–81 Tesla, Nikola, 162 Test charge, 144–45 Testing, of hypothesis, 14–15 Teton Mountains (Wyoming), 483 Tetradecane, 308 Texture, of igneous rocks, 440 Theory, scientific, 19 Theory of relativity, 196–98 Thermal motion, 106 Thermodynamics, 104–108 Thermometers, 89–90 Thermoplastic polymers, 317 Thermosphere, 535 Thermostat, 89 Third-class lever, 65 Third law of motion, 44–46 Thomson, J J., 140, 205 Thorium, 330, 333, 342, 520 Three Mile Island (Pennsylvania) nuclear accident, 346–47 Three-pronged plug, 169 Threshold model, of radiation exposure, 338 Thrust fault, 477 Thunderstorms, 556, 561–62 Tibetan Plateau, 462 Tides, and moon, 424–25 Time geologic, 519–24 motion, 27 measurement, 6, 413–18 nuclear waste, 348 Time zones, 416, 417 Tin, 236, 241 Tinnitus, 123 Titan, 388–89 Tombaugh, Clyde, 400 Topaz, 438 Topsoil, 498 Tornadoes, 562, 563 Torricelli, Evangelista, 532 Total internal energy, 93 Total internal reflection, 184 Tourmaline, 191 Toxic organic chemicals, 594 Trade winds, 572 Transform boundaries, 462–63 682 Index Transformers, 162–65 Transition elements, 216, 221 Transmission axis, 192 Transparent materials, 180, 181 Transverse wave, 119, 191 Trees acid rain, 292 breaking and moving of rock, 495, 497 erosion and creep, 499 Trenches, in ocean floor, 600, 601 Tri- (prefix), 304 Triassic period, 524 Triatomic molecules, 230, 231 Tridecane, 308 Triglyceride, 316 Trihalomethanes, 277 Trilobites, 521 Triple bond, 238 Trisodium phosphate (TSP), 291 Tritium, 330, 334, 342, 347, 348 Trojan asteroids, 394 Trombe wall, 101 Tropical air mass, 555 Tropical climate zone, 567, 568, 570, 571 Tropical depression, 563 Tropical storm, 563 Tropical year, 416 Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, 412, 566 Tropopause, 535 Troposphere, 535 Trough, of wave, 121, 594, 595 Tsunami, 481–82 Tungsten, 143, 236 Tuning fork, 120, 122, 129 Turbidity current, 598 Typhoon, 563 U Ultrasonic sound waves, 122 Ultraviolet radiation (UV), 534 Unconformity, 518 Undertow, 597 Unidentified flying objects (UFOs), 397 Uniformity, principle of erosion and deposition, 517–18 geologic time, 516, 520 history of geology, 488 interpreting Earth’s surface, 472–73 Unit(s) of measurement, of work, 62–63 United Nations, and global warming, 576 U.S Department of Agriculture (USDA), 339 U.S Geological Survey (USGS), 20 Universal solvent, 275, 276 Universal law of gravitation, 49–54 Universe Earth’s place in, 406 galaxies, 366–71 night sky, 356–58 stars, 358–65 University of Maryland, 166 University of Salford (England), 126 University of Wisconsin, 20 Unpolarized light, 191 Unsaturated hydrocarbons, 305 Unsaturated oils, 316 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out Updraft, 561 Uranium, 329, 342, 520 See also Uranium-235; Uranium-238 Uranium-235, 341, 342, 345 Uranium-238 half-life and radioactive decay, 334, 335, 336 nuclear fission, 341, 342 “spent” nuclear fuel, 345 Uranus, 380, 382, 389–90, 392 Urban heat island effect, 559, 570, 571 Urey, Harold, 425 Ussher, Archbishop, 520 V Valance electrons, 232–33, 244 Valine, 313 Valley glaciers, 502 Value, of measurement, Vapor, 88 Vapor pressure, 285 Variable(s), symbols and equations, 10 Variable charge of ions, 236 of transition elements, 221 Variable stars, 362 Vega (star), 411 Vega spacecraft, 391 Velocity See also Speed acceleration, 29–32 defined, 29 sound in air, 123–24, 132 Vent, of volcano, 484 Ventifacts, 504 Venus description, 380, 383–84 greenhouse effect, 425 magnetic field, 157 properties, 382 retrograde motion, 398 Venus Express spacecraft, 384 Vernal equinox, 409 Vertical projectiles, 38, 40 Vibrations, 116–18, 129–31 Viking spacecraft, 385 Vine, F J., 464 Vinyl chloride, 309 Virtual image, 183 Virtual photons, 145 Viruses, and water pollution, 277 Visible light, 194, 209 Volcanoes earthquakes, 479 geothermal energy, 465 origin of mountains, 483–86, 487 principle of uniformity, 473 Volt (V), 146 Voltage, 147, 163, 164 Voltage drop, 147 Voltage source, 147 Voltmeter, 159 Volume, 7, 264 Von Laue, Max, 447 Voyager space missions, 379, 388, 391, 392 W Warm front, 556–57, 559 Wastewater treatment, 588–89 I-14 tiL04527_ndx_669-683.indd Page 683 8/7/08 4:04:48 PM user-s180 Water See also Freshwater; Groundwater; Oceans; Seawater; Surface water; Water pollution; Water quality; Water table; Water vapor acids, bases, and salts, 286–92 atmosphere, 530, 540–45 chemical equation, 264–65 concentration of solutions, 280–83 condensation and evaporation, 103 covalent compounds, 237 density, dissolving process, 279–80 as energy source, 62, 74, 76–77, 147 erosion, 499–501 hard and soft, 290–92 household, 276 human history, 582 properties of, 276–84 properties of solutions, 284–86 rate of conduction, 97 resource management, 278, 587–89 solubility, 283–84 specific heat, 96, 537 structural formula, 253 structure of molecules, 277–79 surface tension, 190 universal solvent, 275 Water pollution degradable and persistent types of, 584 estuaries, 594, 596 health hazards, 276, 277 wastewater treatment systems, 589 Water quality, 584, 588 Watershed, 584–85 Water table, 586 Water vapor, and atmosphere, 531–32, 540, 552 Watson, James, 245 Watt, James, 65 Watt (W), 66, 152 Wave(s) air, 119–20 defined, 118–19 I-15 /Volumes/209/MHDQ042/mhtiL8%0/K4-Checked_Out description, 120–21 energy, 127–28 index of refraction, 185 light, 189–92, 194 mechanical, 119 microwaves, 243 ocean, 593–97 period, 594 resonance, 128 sound, 122–27 weather, 559–60 Wave front, 124, 125 Wave height, 594 Wavelengths See also Electromagnetic spectrum of light, 188, 189 of wave, 121, 594, 595 Wave mechanics, 213 Wave-particle duality of light, 212 Weak acids, 289 Weak base, 289 Weak nuclear force, 32 Weather See also Climate; Weathering air masses, 555–56 atmospheric pressure, 533 clouds, 544–45, 546, 552–54 Doppler radar, 133 fog, 544–45 forecasts and forecasting, 133, 565 fronts, 556–57, 558, 559 myths about Moon, 544 precipitation, 554–55 proverbs, 552 storms, 561–64 waves and cyclones, 559–60 winds, 536–40 Weathering, of Earth’s surface, 493, 494–97, 498, 506 Wedge, 65 Wedging effects, 495 Wegener, Alfred, 457, 524 Weight, and motion, 43–44 See also Mass Weightlessness, 53–54 Westinghouse, George, 162 Wheel and axle, 65 Whipple, Fred, 390 White asbestos, 442 Whitecap, 597 White dwarf stars, 362, 363, 370 Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), 369, 370 Willow tree, 312 WIMPs (weakly interacting massive particles), 372 Wind(s) See also Wind energy erosion, 504 global patterns, 537–40 local patterns, 536–37 Windchill factor, 538 Wind energy, 78–79, 539 Winter solstice, 409 Wood, as energy source, 74 Words, and representation of concepts, 2–3 Work, and energy, 62–66, 69–70, 100, 151 X Xenon, 334, 342, 532 X rays, 328, 340 Y Year and yearly time, 416, 418 Yellowstone National Park (Wyoming), 79, 501 -Yl (suffix), 303 Young, Thomas, 189, 190, 191 Ytterbium, 219 Yttrium, 342 Yucca Mountain (Nevada), 349 Z Zero gravity, 53 Zero reference position, 67, 68 Zinc, 203, 236, 613 Zinc sulfide, 336 Zirconium, 342 Zone of saturation, 586 Index 683 tiL04527_page_after_index.indd Page 684 7/23/08 7:25:45 AM user-s180 /Users/user-s180/K4-Checked_Out Table of Atomic Weights (Based on Carbon-12) Name Actinium Aluminum Americium Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine Barium Berkelium Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Curium Dubnium Dysprosium Einsteinium Erbium Europium Fermium Fluorine Francium Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium Lead Lithium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Meitnerium Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Weight Ac Al Am Sb Ar As At Ba Bk Be Bi Bh B Br Cd Ca Cf C Ce Cs Cl Cr Co Cu Cm Db Dy Es Er Eu Fm F Fr Gd Ga Ge Au Hf Hs He Ho H In I Ir Fe Kr La Lr Pb Li Lu Mg Mn Mt 89 13 95 51 18 33 85 56 97 83 107 35 48 20 98 58 55 17 24 27 29 96 105 66 99 68 63 100 87 64 31 32 79 72 108 67 49 53 77 26 36 57 103 82 71 12 25 109 (227) 26.9815 (243) 121.75 39.948 74.922 (210) 137.34 (247) 9.0122 208.980 264 10.811 79.904 112.40 40.08 242.058 12.0112 140.12 132.905 35.453 51.996 58.933 63.546 (247) (262) 162.50 (254) 167.26 151.96 257.095 18.9984 (223) 157.25 69.723 72.59 196.967 178.49 (269) 4.0026 164.930 1.0079 114.82 126.904 192.2 55.847 83.80 138.91 260.105 207.19 6.941 174.97 24.305 54.938 (268) Note: A value in parentheses denotes the number of the longest-lived or best-known isotope Name Mendelevium Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Neptunium Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium Polonium Potassium Praseodymium Promethium Protactinium Radium Radon Rhenium Rhodium Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium Samarium Scandium Seaborgium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Weight Md Hg Mo Nd Ne Np Ni Nb N No Os O Pd P Pt Pu Po K Pr Pm Pa Ra Rn Re Rh Rb Ru Rf Sm Sc Sg Se Si Ag Na Sr S Ta Tc Te Tb Tl Th Tm Sn Ti W U V Xe Yb Y Zn Zr 101 80 42 60 10 93 28 41 102 76 46 15 78 94 84 19 59 61 91 88 86 75 45 37 44 104 62 21 106 34 14 47 11 38 16 73 43 52 65 81 90 69 50 22 74 92 23 54 70 39 30 40 258.10 200.59 95.94 144.24 20.179 (237) 58.71 92.906 14.0067 259.101 190.2 15.9994 106.4 30.9738 195.09 244.064 (209) 39.098 140.907 144.913 (231) (226) (222) 186.2 102.905 85.468 101.07 (261) 150.35 44.956 (266) 78.96 28.086 107.868 22.989 87.62 32.064 180.948 (99) 127.60 158.925 204.37 232.038 168.934 118.69 47.90 183.85 238.03 50.942 131.30 173.04 88.905 65.38 91.22 Period Beryllium Lithium Yttrium 39 Y Strontium 38 Rubidium 37 Sc (226) (223) Key Ra Fr (227) Ac Actinium 89 138.9 ‡ † 104 (261) Rf symbol of element element name VIB (6) V 180.9 Ta Tantalum 73 92.91 Nb Niobium 41 50.94 105 (262) Db Cr H Protactinium 91 Pa 231.0 Thorium 90 Th 232.0 atomic weight atomic number Pr 140.9 Ce 140.1 1.008 Fe 55.85 (264) Bh (277) Hs Hassium 108 190.2 Os Osmium 76 101.1 Ru 44 (268) Mt 150.4 Sm 62 (237) Np 197.0 Au Gold 79 107.9 Ag Silver 47 63.55 Cu Copper 29 IB (11) 200.6 Hg Mercury 80 112.4 Cd Cadmium 48 65.39 Zn Zinc 30 IIB (12) (244) Pu Names and symbols for elements 110–118 are under review (272) Eu 152.0 (243) Am (247) Cm Curium 96 157.3 Gd 204.4 Tl Thallium 81 114.8 In Indium 49 69.72 Ga Gallium 31 26.98 Al Aluminum 13 207.2 Pb Lead 82 118.7 Sn Tin 50 72.61 Ge Germanium 32 28.09 Si Silicon 14 12.01 C Carbon IVA (14) 209.0 Bi Bismuth 83 121.8 Sb Antimony 51 74.92 As Arsenic 33 30.97 P Phosphorus 15 14.01 N Nitrogen VA (15) 162.5 Dy Dysprosium 66 (284) Uut 164.9 Ho Holmium 67 (289) Uuq 167.3 Er Erbium 68 (288) Uup (247) Bk (251) Cf (252) Es (257) Fm Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium 97 98 99 100 158.9 Tb Terbium 65 (285) Uuu Uub Europium Gadolinium 63 64 (281) Uun Neptunium Plutonium Americium 93 94 95 (145) Pm 61 Values in parentheses are the mass numbers of the most stable or best-known isotopes 238.0 U Uranium 92 144.2 Nd 60 195.1 Pt Platinum 78 106.4 Pd Palladium 46 58.69 Ni Nickel 28 VIIIB (10) 10.81 B Boron IIIA (13) (209) Po Polonium 84 127.6 Te Tellurium 52 78.96 Se Selenium 34 32.07 S Sulfur 16 16.00 O Oxygen VIA (16) 173.0 Yb Ytterbium 70 (210) At Astatine 85 126.9 I Iodine 53 79.90 Br Bromine 35 35.45 Cl Chlorine 17 19.00 F Fluorine VIIA (17) Halogens 175.0 Lu Lutetium 71 (294) Uuo 118 Ununoxtium (222) Rn Radon 86 131.3 Xe Xenon 54 83.80 Kr Krypton 36 39.95 Ar Argon 18 20.18 Ne Neon 10 4.003 He Helium VIIIA (18) Noble Gases (258) Md 101 (259) No 102 (262) Lr 103 Mendelevium Noblelium Lawrencium 168.9 Tm Thulium 69 (292) Uuh Meitnerium Ununnilium Unununium Ununbium Ununtrium Ununquadium Ununpentium Ununhexium 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 192.2 Ir Iridium 77 102.9 Rh Rhodium 45 58.93 Co Cobalt 27 VIIIB (9) Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium (266) Sg 59 Hydrogen 186.2 Re Rhenium 75 (98) Tc 43 Seaborgium Bohrium 106 107 183.8 W Tungsten 74 95.94 Mo 42 Cerium 58 54.94 Mn Iron 26 VIIIB (8) Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium 52.00 †Lanthanides ‡Actinides VIIB (7) Transition Elements Periodic Table of the Elements Vanadium Chromium Manganese 23 24 25 VB (5) Rutherfordium Dubnium 178.5 Hf Hafnium 72 91.22 Zr Zirconium 40 47.88 Ti Titanium 22 IVB (4) Nonmetals Semiconductors Metals Inner Transition Elements Radium 88 Francium 87 La Ba 137.3 Cs 132.9 Lanthanum 57 Barium 56 Cesium 55 88.91 Sr 87.62 Rb 85.47 44.96 Ca 40.08 Calcium 20 Potassium 19 K 24.31 39.10 Scandium 21 Mg IIIB (3) Na Magnesium 12 Sodium 11 22.99 Be 9.012 Li 6.941 H IIA (2) Alkaline Earth Metals 1.008 Hydrogen IA (1) Alkali Metals tiL04527_IFB_IBC.indd Page 7/23/08 7:23:27 AM user-s180 /Users/user-s180/K4-Checked_Out tiL04527_IFB_IBC.indd Page 7/23/08 7:23:27 AM user-s180 Conversion Factors Length in = 2.54 cm cm = 0.394 in ft = 30.5 cm m = 39.4 in = 3.281 ft km = 0.621 mi mi = 5280 ft = 1.609 km light-year = 9.461 × 1015 m Mass lb = 453.6 g (where g = 9.8 m/s2) kg = 2.205 lb (where g = 9.8 m/s2) atomic mass unit u = 1.66061 × 10−27 kg Volume liter = 1.057 quarts in3 = 16.39 cm3 gallon = 3.786 liter ft3 = 0.02832 m3 Energy cal = 4.184 J J = 0.738 ft⋅lb = 0.239 cal ft⋅lb = 1.356 J Btu = 252 cal = 778 ft⋅lb kWh = 3.60 × 106 J = 860 kcal hp = 550 ft⋅lb/s = 746 W W = 0.738 ft⋅lb/s Btu/h = 0.293 W Absolute zero (0K) = –273.15°C J = 6.24 × 1018 eV eV = 1.6022 × 10–19 J Speed km/h = 0.2778 m/s = 0.6214 mi/h m/s = 3.60 km/h = 2.237 mi/h = 3.281 ft/s mi/h = 1.61 km/h = 0.447 m/s = 1.47 ft/s ft/s = 0.3048 m/s = 0.6818 mi/h Force N = 0.2248 lb lb = 4.448 N Pressure atm = 1.013 bar = 1.013 × 105 N/m2 = 14.7 lb/in2 lb/in2 = 6.90 × 103 N/m2 /Users/user-s180/K4-Checked_Out Metric Prefixes Prefix exapetateragigamegakilohectodekaunit decicentimillimicronanopicofemtoatto- Symbol E P T G M k h da d c m μ n p f a Meaning quintillion quadrillion trillion billion million thousand hundred ten one-tenth one-hundredth one-thousandth one-millionth one-billionth one-trillionth one-quadrillionth one-quintillionth Unit Multiplier 1018 1015 1012 109 106 103 102 101 10−1 10−2 10−3 10−6 10−9 10−12 10−15 10−18 Physical Constants Quantity Gravity (Earth) Gravitational law constant Earth radius (mean) Earth mass Earth-Sun distance (mean) Earth-Moon distance (mean) Fundamental charge Coulomb law constant Electron rest mass Proton rest mass Neutron rest mass Bohr radius Avogadro’s number Planck’s constant Speed of light (vacuum) Pi Approximate Value g = 9.8 m/s2 G = 6.67 × 10−11 N⋅m2/kg2 6.38 × 106 m 5.97 × 1024 kg 1.50 × 1011 m 3.84 × 108 m 1.60 × 10−19 C k = 9.00 × 109 N⋅m2/C2 9.11 × 10−31 kg 1.6726 × 10−27 kg 1.6750 × 10−27 kg 5.29 × 10−11 m 6.022045 × 1023/mol 6.62 × 10−34 J⋅s 3.00 × 108 m/s π = 3.1415926536 Greek Letters Alpha Beta Gamma Delta Epsilon Zeta Eta Theta Iota Kappa Lambda Mu Α Β Γ ∆ Ε Ζ Η ϴ Ι Κ Λ Μ α β γ δ ϵ ζ η θ ι κ λ μ Nu Xi Omicron Pi Rho Sigma Tau Upsilon Phi Chi Psi Omega Ν Ξ Ο Π Ρ Σ Τ Υ Φ Χ Ψ Ω ν ξ ο π ρ σ τ υ ϕ χ ψ ω On the COver The photo on the front cover shows melting water streaming from an iceberg that broke off from a glacier in Disco Bay, Greenland As the ice melts, you might hear a sizzling sound from popping bubbles of air that became trapped and compressed in the ice It is a natural process for ice to break off a snow-formed glacier or ice shelf, forming icebergs that melt After calving, or breaking off, icebergs are pushed by wind or currents, moving up to 17 km (about 10 mi) a day, eventually melting completely Icebergs are made of freshwater ice since they originally formed from compacted snow The ice often has a white or ềWindexă-blueể color, depending on the amount of compaction and the amount of included air Since it is made of freshwater, glacial ice is less dense than seawater As a result, the iceberg you see ßoating above the sea surface is about a tenth of the entire iceberg Icebergs can range in size from a height above the sea surface of less than m (about ft), called a growler, to 75m (240 ft) above the sea surface Large icebergs have been tracked and reported since the time the Titanic struck an iceberg and sank in 1912 Today, icebergs are tracked by satellites, radar, and visual sightings There has been some discussion about towing large icebergs to shore for use as a source of fresh water, but this has not yet been attempted LabOratOry ManuaL The Laboratory Manual to accompany Physical Science, written by the author of the text, presents a selection of laboratory exercises speciÞcally written for the interest and abilities of non-science majors The Laboratory Manual features ¥ Invitations to Inquiry, which provide opportunities for critical thinking ¥ Laboratory exercises designed for a more structured learning environment that require measurement and data analysis ¥ Alternative, open-ended exercises ¥ Custom publishing options, which allow the manual to be tailored to course needs McGraw-hiLLÕs arisÑassessment, review, and instruction system www.mhhe.com/tillery McGraw-HillÕs ARIS for Physical Science is a complete electronic homework and course management system designed for greater ease of use than any other system available ARIS enables instructors to create and share course materials and assignments with colleagues with a few clicks of the mouse Instructors can edit questions and algorithms, import their own content, create announcements, and post due dates for assignments ARIS has automatic grading and reporting of easy-to-assign, algorithmically-generated homework, quizzing, and testing Once a student is registered in the course, all student activity within McGraw-HillÕs ARIS is automatically recorded and available to the instructor through a fully integrated grade book that can be downloaded to Excelă Md Dalim #977442 8/1/08 Cyan Mag Yelo Black When the Laboratory Manual is used with the Physical Science textbook, students will have an opportunity to master basic scientiÞc principles and concepts, understand the nature of scientiÞc inquiry from a hands-on perspective, and learn new problem-solving and thinking skills An InstructorÕs Edition Laboratory Manual is also available on the Physical Science ARIS site ... SCIENCE, EIGHTH EDITION Published by McGraw- Hill, a business unit of The McGraw- Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020 Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw- Hill Companies,... acknowledge the very special contributions of my wife, Patricia Northrop Tillery, whose assistance and support throughout the revision were invaluable MEET THE AUTHOR BILL W TILLERY Bill W Tillery. .. Earth’s Waters 581 Water on Earth 582 Freshwater 583 Science and Society: Water Quality 584 Surface Water 585 Groundwater 585 Freshwater as a Resource 587 A Closer Look: Water Quality and Wastewater