College physics serway faughn vuille 8th edition

COLLEGE PHYSICS EIGHTH EDITION R AYMOND A SERWAY Emeritus, James Madison University CHRIS VUILLE Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University JERRY S FAUGHN Emeritus, Eastern Kentucky University Australia · Brazil · Canada · Mexico · Singapore · Spain · United Kingdom · United States College Physics, Eighth Edition Serway/Vuille Physics Editor: Chris Hall Development Editor: Ed Dodd Assistant Editor: Brandi Kirksey Editorial Assistant: Stefanie Beeck Technology Project Manager: Sam Subity Marketing Manager: Mark Santee Marketing Assistant: Melissa Wong Marketing Communications Manager: Darlene Amidon Brent Project Manager, Editorial Production: Teri Hyde Creative Director: Rob Hugel Art Director: John Walker Print/Media Buyer: Rebecca Cross Permissions Editor: Roberta Broyer Production Service: Lachina Publishing Services Text Designer: Patrick Devine Design Photo Researcher: Jane Sanders Miller Copy Editor: Kathleen Lafferty Illustrator: Lachina Publishing Services, Precision Graphics Cover Designer: Dare Porter/Real Time Design Cover Image: © Matt Hoover, www matthoover.com Compositor: Lachina Publishing Services COPYRIGHT © 2009, 2006 by Raymond A Serway ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems—without the written permission of the publisher For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Academic Resource Center 1-800-423-0563 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com Library of Congress Control Number: 2007937232 ISBN-13: 978-0-495-38693-3 ISBN-10: 0-495-38693-6 Brooks/Cole 10 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil and Japan Locate your local office at international cengage.com/region ExamView ® and ExamView Pro ® are trademarks of FSCreations, Inc Windows is a registered trademark of the Microsoft Corporation used herein under license Macintosh and Power Macintosh are registered trademarks of Apple Computer, Inc Used herein under license Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd For your course and learning solutions, visit academic.cengage.com Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.ichapters.com Printed in Canada 12 11 10 09 08 We dedicate this book to our colleague Jerry S Faughn, whose dedication to all aspects of the project and tireless efforts through the years are deeply appreciated CONTENTS OVERVIEW PART Mechanics CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER Introduction Motion in One Dimension 24 Vectors and Two-Dimensional Motion 54 The Laws of Motion 83 Energy 119 Momentum and Collisions 161 Rotational Motion and the Law of Gravity 190 Rotational Equilibrium and Rotational Dynamics 228 Solids and Fluids 268 PART Thermodynamics CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 12 Thermal Physics 322 Energy in Thermal Processes 352 The Laws of Thermodynamics 385 PART Vibrations and Waves CHAPTER 13 CHAPTER 14 Vibrations and Waves 425 Sound 459 PART Electricity and Magnetism CHAPTER 15 CHAPTER 16 CHAPTER 17 CHAPTER 18 CHAPTER 19 CHAPTER 20 CHAPTER 21 Electric Forces and Electric Fields 497 Electrical Energy and Capacitance 531 Current and Resistance 570 Direct-Current Circuits 594 Magnetism 626 Induced Voltages and Inductance 663 Alternating-Current Circuits and Electromagnetic Waves 696 PART Light and Optics CHAPTER 22 CHAPTER 23 CHAPTER 24 CHAPTER 25 Reflection and Refraction of Light 732 Mirrors and Lenses 759 Wave Optics 790 Optical Instruments 823 PART Modern Physics CHAPTER 26 CHAPTER 27 CHAPTER 28 CHAPTER 29 CHAPTER 30 Relativity 847 Quantum Physics 870 Atomic Physics 891 Nuclear Physics 913 Nuclear Energy and Elementary Particles 937 APPENDIX A APPENDIX B APPENDIX C APPENDIX D APPENDIX E Mathematics Review A.1 An Abbreviated Table of Isotopes A.14 Some Useful Tables A.19 SI Units A.21 MCAT Skill Builder Study Guide A.22 Answers to Quick Quizzes, Example Questions, Odd-Numbered Multiple-Choice Questions, Conceptual Questions, and Problems A.52 Index I.1 iv CONTENTS About the Authors viii Preface ix To the Student xxvii MCAT Test Preparation Guide 6.3 Collisions 169 6.4 Glancing Collisions 176 6.5 Rocket Propulsion 178 Summary 181 xxx CHAPTER Rotational Motion and the Law of Gravity Part 1: Mechanics CHAPTER Introduction 1.1 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time 1.2 The Building Blocks of Matter 1.3 Dimensional Analysis 1.4 Uncertainty in Measurement and Significant Figures 1.5 Conversion of Units 1.6 Estimates and Order-of-Magnitude Calculations 11 1.7 Coordinate Systems 13 1.8 Trigonometry 14 1.9 Problem-Solving Strategy 16 Summary 18 Rotational Equilibrium and Rotational Dynamics 228 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 24 2.1 Displacement 25 2.2 Velocity 26 2.3 Acceleration 31 2.4 Motion Diagrams 34 2.5 One-Dimensional Motion with Constant Acceleration 2.6 Freely Falling Objects 42 Summary 47 CHAPTER Vectors and Two-Dimensional Motion 54 3.1 3.2 3.3 Vectors and Their Properties 54 Components of a Vector 57 Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration in Two Dimensions 60 3.4 Motion in Two Dimensions 62 3.5 Relative Velocity 70 Summary 74 CHAPTER The Laws of Motion 83 4.1 Forces 83 4.2 Newton’s First Law 85 4.3 Newton’s Second Law 86 4.4 Newton’s Third Law 92 4.5 Applications of Newton’s Laws 4.6 Forces of Friction 101 Summary 108 94 119 5.1 Work 119 5.2 Kinetic Energy and the Work–Energy Theorem 124 5.3 Gravitational Potential Energy 127 5.4 Spring Potential Energy 135 5.5 Systems and Energy Conservation 141 5.6 Power 143 5.7 Work Done by a Varying Force 147 Summary 150 CHAPTER Momentum and Collisions 6.1 6.2 35 Torque 228 Torque and the Two Conditions for Equilibrium The Center of Gravity 234 Examples of Objects in Equilibrium 236 Relationship Between Torque and Angular Acceleration 239 8.6 Rotational Kinetic Energy 246 8.7 Angular Momentum 249 Summary 254 232 CHAPTER Solids and Fluids 268 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 States of Matter 268 The Deformation of Solids 270 Density and Pressure 276 Variation of Pressure with Depth 279 Pressure Measurements 283 Buoyant Forces and Archimedes’ Principle 284 Fluids in Motion 290 Other Applications of Fluid Dynamics 296 Surface Tension, Capillary Action, and Viscous Fluid Flow 299 9.10 Transport Phenomena 307 Summary 311 Part 2: Thermodynamics CHAPTER Energy 196 CHAPTER CHAPTER Motion in One Dimension Angular Speed and Angular Acceleration 190 Rotational Motion Under Constant Angular Acceleration 194 7.3 Relations Between Angular and Linear Quantities 7.4 Centripetal Acceleration 199 7.5 Newtonian Gravitation 207 7.6 Kepler’s Laws 215 Summary 218 190 7.1 7.2 Momentum and Impulse 161 Conservation of Momentum 166 161 CHAPTER 10 Thermal Physics 322 10.1 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 10.2 Thermometers and Temperature Scales 324 10.3 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids 328 10.4 Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas 335 10.5 The Kinetic Theory of Gases 340 Summary 345 322 CHAPTER 11 Energy in Thermal Processes 352 11.1 Heat and Internal Energy 352 11.2 Specific Heat 355 11.3 Calorimetry 357 11.4 Latent Heat and Phase Change 359 11.5 Energy Transfer 366 11.6 Global Warming and Greenhouse Gases Summary 377 375 v vi Contents CHAPTER 12 The Laws of Thermodynamics 385 385 388 12.1 Work in Thermodynamic Processes 12.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics 12.3 Thermal Processes 390 12.4 Heat Engines and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 399 12.5 Entropy 408 12.6 Human Metabolism 413 Summary 416 Part 3: Vibrations and Waves CHAPTER 13 Vibrations and Waves 425 13.1 Hooke’s Law 425 13.2 Elastic Potential Energy 428 13.3 Comparing Simple Harmonic Motion with Uniform Circular Motion 432 13.4 Position, Velocity, and Acceleration as a Function of Time 436 13.5 Motion of a Pendulum 439 13.6 Damped Oscillations 442 13.7 Waves 443 13.8 Frequency, Amplitude, and Wavelength 445 13.9 The Speed of Waves on Strings 447 13.10 Interference of Waves 448 13.11 Reflection of Waves 449 Summary 450 CHAPTER 17 Current and Resistance 570 17.1 Electric Current 570 17.2 A Microscopic View: Current and Drift Speed 572 17.3 Current and Voltage Measurements in Circuits 574 17.4 Resistance, Resistivity, and Ohm’s Law 575 17.5 Temperature Variation of Resistance 579 17.6 Electrical Energy and Power 580 17.7 Superconductors 584 17.8 Electrical Activity in the Heart 585 Summary 588 CHAPTER 18 Direct-Current Circuits 594 18.1 Sources of emf 594 18.2 Resistors in Series 595 18.3 Resistors in Parallel 598 18.4 Kirchhoff’s Rules and Complex DC Circuits 603 18.5 RC Circuits 607 18.6 Household Circuits 611 18.7 Electrical Safety 612 18.8 Conduction of Electrical Signals by Neurons 613 Summary 615 Magnetism 626 459 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 Magnets 626 Earth’s Magnetic Field 628 Magnetic Fields 630 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor 633 Torque on a Current Loop and Electric Motors 636 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field 639 Magnetic Field of a Long, Straight Wire and Ampère’s Law 642 19.8 Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel Conductors 645 19.9 Magnetic Fields of Current Loops and Solenoids 646 19.10 Magnetic Domains 650 Summary 652 14.1 Producing a Sound Wave 459 14.2 Characteristics of Sound Waves 460 14.3 The Speed of Sound 461 14.4 Energy and Intensity of Sound Waves 463 14.5 Spherical and Plane Waves 466 14.6 The Doppler Effect 468 14.7 Interference of Sound Waves 473 14.8 Standing Waves 475 14.9 Forced Vibrations and Resonance 479 14.10 Standing Waves in Air Columns 480 14.11 Beats 484 14.12 Quality of Sound 486 14.13 The Ear 487 Summary 489 CHAPTER 20 Induced Voltages and Inductance 663 Part 4: Electricity and Magnetism CHAPTER 15 Electric Forces and Electric Fields 555 CHAPTER 19 CHAPTER 14 Sound 16.7 The Parallel-Plate Capacitor 547 16.8 Combinations of Capacitors 549 16.9 Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor 16.10 Capacitors with Dielectrics 557 Summary 562 497 15.1 Properties of Electric Charges 497 15.2 Insulators and Conductors 499 15.3 Coulomb’s Law 500 15.4 The Electric Field 505 15.5 Electric Field Lines 510 15.6 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium 513 15.7 The Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment 515 15.8 The Van de Graaff Generator 516 15.9 Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law 517 Summary 523 CHAPTER 16 Electrical Energy and Capacitance 531 16.1 Potential Difference and Electric Potential 531 16.2 Electric Potential and Potential Energy Due to Point Charges 538 16.3 Potentials and Charged Conductors 542 16.4 Equipotential Surfaces 543 16.5 Applications 544 16.6 Capacitance 546 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Induced emf and Magnetic Flux 663 Faraday’s Law of Induction 666 Motional emf 670 Lenz’s Law Revisited (The Minus Sign in Faraday’s Law) 674 20.5 Generators 676 20.6 Self-Inductance 680 20.7 RL Circuits 683 20.8 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field 686 Summary 687 CHAPTER 21 Alternating-Current Circuits and Electromagnetic Waves 696 21.1 Resistors in an AC Circuit 696 21.2 Capacitors in an AC Circuit 699 21.3 Inductors in an AC Circuit 701 21.4 The RLC Series Circuit 702 21.5 Power in an AC Circuit 707 21.6 Resonance in a Series RLC Circuit 708 21.7 The Transformer 710 21.8 Maxwell’s Predictions 712 21.9 Hertz’s Confirmation of Maxwell’s Predictions 21.10 Production of Electromagnetic Waves by an Antenna 714 713 Contents 21.11 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves 715 21.12 The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves 720 21.13 The Doppler Effect for Electromagnetic Waves 722 Summary 723 Part 5: Light and Optics CHAPTER 22 Reflection and Refraction of Light 732 22.1 The Nature of Light 732 22.2 Reflection and Refraction 733 22.3 The Law of Refraction 737 22.4 Dispersion and Prisms 742 22.5 The Rainbow 745 22.6 Huygens’s Principle 746 22.7 Total Internal Reflection 748 Summary 751 CHAPTER 29 Nuclear Physics 913 29.1 Some Properties of Nuclei 913 29.2 Binding Energy 916 29.3 Radioactivity 918 29.4 The Decay Processes 921 29.5 Natural Radioactivity 926 29.6 Nuclear Reactions 927 29.7 Medical Applications of Radiation 929 Summary 931 CHAPTER 24 Wave Optics 790 24.1 Conditions for Interference 790 24.2 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment 791 24.3 Change of Phase Due to Reflection 795 24.4 Interference in Thin Films 796 24.5 Using Interference to Read CDs and DVDs 800 24.6 Diffraction 802 24.7 Single-Slit Diffraction 803 24.8 The Diffraction Grating 805 24.9 Polarization of Light Waves 808 Summary 815 CHAPTER 30 Nuclear Energy and Elementary Particles 937 30.1 Nuclear Fission 937 30.2 Nuclear Fusion 941 30.3 Elementary Particles and the Fundamental Forces 943 30.4 Positrons and Other Antiparticles 944 30.5 Classification of Particles 945 30.6 Conservation Laws 947 30.7 The Eightfold Way 949 30.8 Quarks and Color 950 30.9 Electroweak Theory and the Standard Model 952 30.10The Cosmic Connection 954 30.11 Problems and Perspectives 955 Summary 956 CHAPTER 25 Optical Instruments 823 Relativity 847 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 Galilean Relativity 847 The Speed of Light 848 Einstein’s Principle of Relativity 850 Consequences of Special Relativity 851 Relativistic Momentum 858 Relativistic Energy and the Equivalence of Mass and Energy 859 26.7 General Relativity 863 Summary 865 27.1 Blackbody Radiation and Planck’s Hypothesis 870 27.2 The Photoelectric Effect and the Particle Theory of Light 872 27.3 X-Rays 875 27.4 Diffraction of X-Rays by Crystals 876 27.5 The Compton Effect 879 27.6 The Dual Nature of Light and Matter 880 27.7 The Wave Function 883 27.8 The Uncertainty Principle 884 Summary 886 28.1 Early Models of the Atom 891 28.2 Atomic Spectra 892 28.3 The Bohr Model 894 28.4 Quantum Mechanics and the Hydrogen Atom 899 28.5 The Exclusion Principle and the Periodic Table 902 28.6 Characteristic X-Rays 905 28.7 Atomic Transitions and Lasers 906 Summary 908 23.1 Flat Mirrors 759 23.2 Images Formed by Concave Mirrors 762 23.3 Convex Mirrors and Sign Conventions 764 23.4 Images Formed by Refraction 769 23.5 Atmospheric Refraction 772 23.6 Thin Lenses 773 23.7 Lens and Mirror Aberrations 781 Summary 782 CHAPTER 26 Quantum Physics 870 Atomic Physics 891 Mirrors and Lenses 759 Part 6: Modern Physics CHAPTER 27 CHAPTER 28 CHAPTER 23 25.1 The Camera 823 25.2 The Eye 824 25.3 The Simple Magnifier 829 25.4 The Compound Microscope 830 25.5 The Telescope 832 25.6 Resolution of Single-Slit and Circular Apertures 25.7 The Michelson Interferometer 840 Summary 841 vii 835 Appendix A: Appendix B: Appendix C: Appendix D: Appendix E: Mathematics Review A.1 An Abbreviated Table of Isotopes A.14 Some Useful Tables A.19 SI Units A.21 MCAT Skill Builder Study Guide A.22 Answers to Quick Quizzes, Example Questions, Odd-Numbered Multiple-Choice Questions, Conceptual Questions, and Problems A.52 Index I.1 ABOUT THE AUTHORS Raymond A Serway received his doctorate at Illinois Institute of Technology and is Professor Emeritus at James Madison University In 1990 he received the Madison Scholar Award at James Madison University, where he taught for 17 years Dr Serway began his teaching career at Clarkson University, where he conducted research and taught from 1967 to 1980 He was the recipient of the Distinguished Teaching Award at Clarkson University in 1977 and of the Alumni Achievement Award from Utica College in 1985 As Guest Scientist at the IBM Research Laboratory in Zurich, Switzerland, he worked with K Alex Müller, 1987 Nobel Prize recipient Dr Serway also was a visiting scientist at Argonne National Laboratory, where he collaborated with his mentor and friend, Sam Marshall In addition to earlier editions of this textbook, Dr Serway is the coauthor of Principles of Physics, fourth edition; Physics for Scientists and Engineers, seventh edition; Essentials of College Physics; and Modern Physics, third edition He also is the coauthor of the high school textbook Physics, published by Holt, Rinehart and Winston In addition, Dr Serway has published more than 40 research papers in the field of condensed matter physics and has given more than 70 presentations at professional meetings Dr Serway and his wife, Elizabeth, enjoy traveling, golf, gardening, singing in a church choir, and spending time with their four children and eight grandchildren Chris Vuille is an associate professor of physics at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University (ERAU), Daytona Beach, Florida, the world’s premier institution for aviation higher education He received his doctorate in physics from the University of Florida in 1989 and moved to Daytona after a year at ERAU’s Prescott, Arizona, campus Although he has taught courses at all levels, including postgraduate, his primary interest has been the delivery of introductory physics He has received several awards for teaching excellence, including the Senior Class Appreciation Award (three times) He conducts research in general relativity and quantum theory, and was a participant in the JOVE program, a special three-year NASA grant program during which he studied neutron stars His work has appeared in a number of scientific journals, and he has been a featured science writer in Analog Science Fiction/Science Fact magazine In addition to this textbook, he is coauthor of Essentials of College Physics Dr Vuille enjoys tennis, swimming, and playing classical piano, and he is a former chess champion of St Petersburg and Atlanta In his spare time he writes fiction and goes to the beach His wife, Dianne Kowing, is an optometrist for a local Veterans’ Administration clinic His daughter, Kira VuilleKowing, is a meteorology/communications double major at ERAU and a graduate of her father’s first-year physics course He has two sons, Christopher, a cellist and fisherman, and James, avid reader of Disney comics Jerry S Faughn earned his doctorate at the University of Mississippi He is Professor Emeritus and former chair of the Department of Physics and Astronomy at Eastern Kentucky University Dr Faughn has also written a microprocessor interfacing text for upper-division physics students He is coauthor of a nonmathematical physics text and a physical science text for general education students, and (with Dr Serway) the high-school textbook Physics, published by Holt, Reinhart and Winston He has taught courses ranging from the lower division to the graduate level, but his primary interest is in students just beginning to learn physics Dr Faughn has a wide variety of hobbies, among which are reading, travel, genealogy, and old-time radio His wife, Mary Ann, is an avid gardener, and he contributes to her efforts by staying out of the way His daughter, Laura, is in family practice, and his son, David, is an attorney viii PREFACE College Physics is written for a one-year course in introductory physics usually taken by students majoring in biology, the health professions, and other disciplines including environmental, earth, and social sciences, and technical fields such as architecture The mathematical techniques used in this book include algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, but not calculus This textbook, which covers the standard topics in classical physics and 20thcentury physics, is divided into six parts Part (Chapters 1–9) deals with Newtonian mechanics and the physics of fluids; Part (Chapters 10–12) is concerned with heat and thermodynamics; Part (Chapters 13 and 14) covers wave motion and sound; Part (Chapters 15–21) develops the concepts of electricity and magnetism; Part (Chapters 22–25) treats the properties of light and the field of geometric and wave optics; and Part (Chapters 26–30) provides an introduction to special relativity, quantum physics, atomic physics, and nuclear physics OBJECTIVES The main objectives of this introductory textbook are twofold: to provide the student with a clear and logical presentation of the basic concepts and principles of physics, and to strengthen an understanding of the concepts and principles through a broad range of interesting applications to the real world To meet those objectives, we have emphasized sound physical arguments and problem-solving methodology At the same time, we have attempted to motivate the student through practical examples that demonstrate the role of physics in other disciplines CHANGES TO THE EIGHTH EDITION A number of changes and improvements have been made to this edition Based on comments from users of the seventh edition and reviewers’ suggestions, a major effort was made to increase the emphasis on conceptual understanding, to add new end-of-chapter questions and problems that are informed by research, and to improve the clarity of the presentation The new pedagogical features added to this edition are based on current trends in science education The following represent the major changes in the eighth edition Questions and Problems We have substantially revised the end-of-chapter questions and problems for this edition Three new types of questions and problems have been added: ■ Multiple-Choice Questions have been introduced with several purposes in mind Some require calculations designed to facilitate students’ familiarity with the equations, the variables used, the concepts the variables represent, and the relationships between the concepts The rest are conceptual and are designed to encourage conceptual thinking Finally, many students are required to take multiple-choice tests, so some practice with that form of question is desirable Here is an example of a multiple-choice question: 12 A truck loaded with sand accelerates along a highway The driving force on the truck remains constant What happens to the acceleration of the truck as its trailer leaks sand at a constant rate through a hole in its bottom? (a) It decreases at a steady rate (b) It increases at a steady rate (c) It increases and then decreases (d) It decreases and then increases (e) It remains constant ix I.10 Index Guanine, 878 GUT See Grand unified theory H Hadrons, 945–946, 946t, 956 quark model of, 950–952, 951t, 956–957 Hahn, Otto, 862 Hale telescope, 834f, 838 Half-life (T1/2), 919, 921, 932 Halogens, 905 Hammer (ear bone), 487f, 488 Hard magnetic materials, 627, 651 Harmonic(s) in air column waves, 480–481, 481f, 482–483, 490 and quality (timbre) of sound, 486–487, 486f in string waves, 475f, 476–479, 476f Harmonic oscillator equations, 427 Harmonic series, 476–477 Hearing, human, 464–466, 465t, 487–488, 487f, 488f Heart artificial, 635 electrical activity of, 585–587, 585f, 586f Heat See also Molar specific heat convection, 371–372, 371f, 378 definition of, 323, 353, 377 and energy transfer, 141 ideal absorbers, 373 ideal reflectors, 373 latent (L), 359, 377 of fusion, 360, 360t units of, 359 of vaporization, 360–361, 360t, 362 mechanical equivalent of, 353, 377 for phase change, 359–362, 377 radiation, 372–375, 372f, 373f, 378 to raise mass m by ⌬T, 355–356 specific heat (c), 355–357 definition of, 355, 377 measurement of, 357–359, 377 of selected substances, 355t thermal conduction, 366–368, 366f, 377–378 conductivity of selected substances, 367t and home insulation, 368–370 units of, 353–355 Heat engines, 399–408, 399f, 417 Carnot engine, 405–408, 406f, 417 cyclic process in, 399, 400–402 PV diagram for, 399, 399f refrigerators and heat pumps as, 402–404, 403f, 417 thermal efficiency of, 399–400, 404, 406–407, 417 work done by, 399–400, 417 Heat pumps, 402–404, 403f, 417 Heisenberg, Werner, 884, 884f, 899 Helicopters, Newton’s third law and, 93 Heliocentric model, 24–25, 215 Helium (He) ground-state configuration, 903, 904t helium-neon laser, 907, 908f latent heat of fusion, 360t Helium (He) (Continued ) latent heat of vaporization, 360t liquid, storage of, 375 molar specific heat, 391t as noble gas, 904 speed of sound in, 462t thermal conductivity, 367t Henry (H), 681, 687 Henry, Joseph, 663, 681 Herman, Robert, 954f Herschel, William, 720 Hertz (Hz), 434 Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf, 713–714, 713f, 720, 724, 733, 872 Higgs boson, 953 Hilbert, David, 850f Hooke, Robert, 135, 425 Hooke’s law, 135, 425–428, 426f, 450 Horsepower (hp), 143 Household circuits, 600–601, 611–612, 612f Hubble Space Telescope, 723, 834 Human body arteriosclerosis, vascular flutter in, 297, 297f blood cleansing, by kidneys, 308–309, 309f in oxygen diffusion, 308 pressure, measuring of, 283–284, 284f speed of, measuring, 460 viscosity of, 305, 305t brain boxing injury to, 163 fluid supporting, 163, 286 circulatory system and Poiseuille’s law, 305–306 and Reynolds number, 306–307 DNA, structure of, determining, 877–878, 878f ear anatomy and function, 464–466, 465t, 487–488, 487f, 488f efficiency of, 416, 416t and exercise energy expenditure in, 147 physical fitness and oxygen consumption, 415–416, 416t physiology of, 354–355 and weight control, 414–415 eye, 824–829, 825f accommodation, 825–826 anatomy, 824–825, 825f conditions of, 825–829, 826f, 827f, 841 diving masks with vision-correcting lens, 776 fluid pressure in, 169 image formation in, 824–825 red-eye in photographs, 735 and sunglasses UV protection, 720f underwater vision, 770 vision correction, 826–828, 826f, 827f wavelength sensitivity of, 722 heart artificial, 635 electrical activity of, 585–587, 585f, 586f Human body (Continued ) intravenous solutions, and osmotic balance, 308 kidneys artificial, 309, 309f blood cleansing by, 308–309, 309f dialysis, 309, 309f, 635 lung fluid surface tension, 301 nervous system, electrical signal conduction in, 613–614, 614f neurons electrical signal conduction in, 613–614, 614f structure of, 614, 614f types of, 614–615 physical fitness, 415–416, 416t potassium ion channels, 614–615 power output of, 146–147, 147t sodium ion channels, 614–615 thermal efficiency of, 416, 416t Human metabolism, 413–416 first law of thermodynamics and, 413–414 metabolic rate, 414–415, 415t oxygen consumption and metabolic rate, 414–415, 415t and physical fitness, 415–416, 416t and weight gain, 414–415 Hummingbirds, feather color in, 790f Huygens, Christian, 732, 733f Huygens’ principle, 746–748, 746f, 747f, 752 Hydraulic brakes, 281 Hydraulic press, 281, 281f Hydrogen (H) atom, size of, 3t, Balmer series, 897, 897f Bohr model of, 894–898, 894f, 908 emission spectrum, 892, 893f, 894, 896 energy level diagram, 895–896, 896f fusion of, in Sun, 941 ground-state configuration, 903, 904t ionization energy, 896 isotopes, 913 quantum mechanical model of, 899–902, 908–909 quantum state energies, 895, 908 rms speed of, 343, 344t speed of sound in, 462t thermal conductivity of, 367t Hydrogen bomb, 941 Hydrogen-like atoms, Bohr model and, 898–899, 908 Hyperopia (farsightedness), 825–827, 826f, 841 I ICDs See Implanted Cardioverter Defibrillators Ice density, 276t, 334 index of refraction, 738t specific heat, 355t thermal conductivity, 367t Ice-pail experiment (Faraday), 514, 514f Ice (freezing) point, 324, 325–326, 326f Ideal absorbers, 373 Ideal fluid, characteristics of, 290 Index Ideal gas definition of, 335 internal energy change in, 390 properties macroscopic, 335–340, 345–346 molecular models for, 340–345, 346 vs real gas, 335 Ideal gas law, 336, 340, 346 applications, 336–339 Ideal reflectors, 373 Ideal transformers, 711, 724 Image barely resolved, 835, 836f definition of, 759 just resolved, 835, 836f, 841 not resolved, 835, 835f, 836f real, 759, 762, 765t, 782 resolved, 835, 835f virtual, 759–760, 765t, 782 Image distance, 759, 759f, 763, 769, 782 Image point, of spherical mirror, 762–763, 762f, 763f Impedance (Z), 703f, 704, 705t, 724 Impending motion, 102 Implanted Cardioverter Defibrillators (ICDs), 586–587, 587f, 587t S Impulse ( I ), 162, 181 Impulse-momentum theorem, 162–163, 181 Index of refraction, 737, 738t, 742, 742f, 751 Indium, as superconductor, 584 Induced current, 666 Induced emf applications, 675–680 back emf, 679–680, 679f definition of, 663–664, 664f direction of, 667–668, 667f, 674–675, 674f, 675f Faraday’s law of magnetic induction, 666–670, 687 in generators, 676–680 Lenz’s law, 667–668, 674–675, 674f, 675f motional, 670–674, 670f, 671f, 687 self-induced, 680–683, 680f, 681f, 687 Induced polarization, of molecules, in dielectric, 561, 561f Inductance (L), 681, 687 of solenoid, 682–683, 687 Induction, 663–664, 664f applications, 675–680 back emf, 679–680, 679f charging by, 499–500, 500f eliminating charge from houses, 514 direction of induced emf, 667–668, 667f, 674–675, 674f, 675f Faraday’s law of, 666–670, 687 in generators, 676–680 Lenz’s law, 667–668, 674–675, 674f, 675f motional emf, 670–674, 670f, 671f, 687 self-induced emf, 680–683, 680f, 681f, 687 Inductive reactance (X L), 701–702, 701f, 723–724 Inductor(s) in AC circuits, 701–702, 701f, 723–724 RL circuits, 705t RLC series circuits, 702–706, 702f, 703f, 724 Inductor(s) (Continued ) circuit symbol for, 683, 683f in DC RL circuits, 683–687, 683f, 684f, 688 definition of, 683 energy stored in magnetic field of, 686–687, 688 impedance, 705t phase angle, 705t Inelastic collisions, 169, 176, 177–178, 181 perfectly inelastic, 169, 170–173, 181 Inertia, 85–86, 108 Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion, 937f, 942 Inertial laser confinement fusion, 942 Infrared waves, 721, 721f Infrasonic waves, 460, 489 In phase, defined, 449, 449f Insects, ears of, 489 Instantaneous acceleration (a) in one dimension, 32–33, 47 from velocity vs time graph, 32, 32f in two dimensions, 61, 74 Instantaneous angular acceleration (a), 193 tangential acceleration and, 196, 218 Instantaneous angular speed (v), 192 tangential speed and, 196, 218 Instantaneous electric current (I), 571, 588 Instantaneous power (ᏼ), defined, 143 Instantaneous speed, defined, 30, 47 Instantaneous thrust, 179–180 Instantaneous velocity (v) in one dimension, 28–31, 47 in two dimensions, 61, 74 Insulation See Thermal insulation Insulators defined, 499, 523 induced charge on, 500, 501f Intensity (I) of electromagnetic wave, 716, 724 of sound wave, 464, 465, 466, 489 variation with distance, 466, 467–468 Intensity level, of sound wave (decibels), 464–466, 465t, 489 Interference of light waves, 733 (See also Diffraction) conditions for, 790–793, 792f, 796–797, 815 constructive conditions for, 792–793, 792f, 796–797, 815 location of, 793, 815 destructive conditions for, 792, 792f, 793, 796–797, 815 location of, 793 in single-slit diffraction, 803, 815 in Michelson interferometer, 840–841, 840f Newton’s rings, 797–798, 797f in phase change due to reflection, 795–797, 795f, 796f, 815 in thin films, 796–800, 796f, 797f, 815 problem-solving strategies, 798 Young’s double-slit experiment, 791–795, 815 I.11 Interference (Continued ) of sound waves, 473–475, 473f, 489–490 of waves, generally, 448–449, 449f, 451 beats, 484–486, 484f, 490 constructive, 449, 449f, 451, 473, 489 destructive, 449, 449f, 451, 473–474, 490 Interferometer, Michelson, 840–841, 840f, 849, 850f Internal combustion engine as heat engine, 399 work done by, 393–394 Internal energy (U ) change in in adiabatic processes, 393–395, 417 first law of thermodynamics, 388–390, 416–417 in generic processes, 397–398 for ideal gas, 390 in isobaric processes, 390–393, 417 in isothermal processes, 396–397, 396f in isovolumetric processes, 395–396 conservation of energy and, 141 definition of, 353, 377 degradation of, 413 of isolated system, 388 of monatomic gas, 343, 390 of polyatomic gas, 353 International Committee on Weights and Measures, 326 Interneurons, 613–614, 614f Intravenous solutions, and osmotic balance, 308 Inverse sine function, 14 Inverse-square laws, 208 Inverse tangent function, 14 Iodine (I), as radioactive tracer, 930 Ionization energy, 896 Iris, 824, 825, 825f Iron (Fe) ground-state configuration, 904t and magnetism, 626, 627, 628, 651 resistivity, 577t specific heat, 355t speed of sound in, 462t temperature coefficient of resistivity, 577t thermal conductivity, 367t work function, 873t Irreversible process, defined, 404 Isobaric processes, 390–393, 417 definition of, 386 PV diagram of, 387, 387f, 391 work done on gas in, 385–388, 390–393, 417 Isochoric processes See Isovolumetric processes Isothermal processes, 390, 417 work done in, 396–397, 396f, 417 Isotopes, 913, 931 Isovolumetric processes, 390, 417 work done in, 395–396, 417 I 2R loss, 581 I.12 Index J L Jensen, Hans, 915f Joule (J), 120, 124, 128 conversion to electron volt, 860–861 Joule, James P., 352, 353f Junction rule, 603–606, 603f, 616 Jupiter escape speed, 214t planetary data, 217t Just resolved image, 835, 836f, 841 Lakes, convection currents in, 371–372, 372f Lambda (⌳0), 946t, 951t Laminar flow, 290 Land, E H., 809 Large Electron-Positron (LEP) collider, 953f Laser(s), 907, 908f, 909 Laser printers, 545–546, 545f Latent heat (L), 359, 377 of fusion, 360, 360t units of, 359 of vaporization, 360–361, 360t, 362 Lateral magnification of microscope, 831, 841 of mirror, 760, 765t, 782 of spherical refracting surface, 769, 782 of thin lens, 774, 782 Laue pattern, 876–877 Law of conservation of baryon number, 947 Law of conservation of lepton number, 948 Law of equilibrium See Zeroth law of thermodynamics Law of refraction (Snell), 737–742, 751–752 Law of universal gravitation (Newton), 90, 108, 207–215, 218–219 Lawson’s criterion, 942, 956 LCDs See Liquid crystal displays Lead latent heat of fusion, 360t latent heat of vaporization, 360t resistivity, 577t specific heat, 355t speed of sound in, 462t as superconductor, 584, 584t temperature coefficient of resistivity, 577t thermal conductivity, 367t work function, 873t Length contraction of, in special relativity, 856–858, 857f, 865 elasticity of solids, 270–271 proper, 856, 865 units of, 1–2, 2–3, 3t Lens(es) See also Thin lenses aberrations in, 781–782, 781f, 782f, 783 angular magnification of, 829–830, 841 of eye, 824, 825, 825f gravitational, 865f nonreflective coatings, 799 Lens-maker’s equation, 775 Lenz’s law, 667–668, 674–675, 674f, 675f Lepton(s), 943, 946–947, 946t, 956 Lepton number, conservation of, 948 Leucippus, Lever arm, 230, 230f Life, on Earth, and water, 334 Lift, of aircraft wing, 297–298, 297f Light and light waves coherent source of, defi ned, 790 diffraction See Diffraction K Kaons (K), 946t, 951t Keck telescopes, 823f, 834 Kelvin (K), 326 Kelvin, Lord, 405f Kelvin scale, 325–326, 345 conversion to/from Celsius scale, 325, 326 conversion to/from Fahrenheit scale, 327 Kepler, Johannes, 215 Kepler’s laws, 215–218, 219 first, 215, 216 second, 215, 216 third, 215, 216–218 Kidneys artificial, 309, 309f blood cleansing by, 308–309, 309f dialysis, 309, 309f, 635 Kilogram (kg), 2, 2f Kilowatt-hour (kWh), 143, 581–583 Kinematic equations linear in one dimension, 35–36, 36t, 194t in two dimensions, 63, 74 rotational, 194–195, 194t Kinematics, 24 See also Motion Kinetic energy (KE), 124–125, 150 See also Rotational kinetic energy; Work-energy theorem conservation of, in elastic collisions, 173–176 and conservation of mechanical energy, 130–133 of fluid See Bernoulli’s equation in human vertical jump, 147 relativistic expression for, 859, 861, 865 in rotational motion, 247, 254 S Kinetic friction ( f k ), 101–102, 102f, 104–106, 109 coefficient of (mk), 102, 103t, 109 as nonconservative force, 126 Kinetic theory of gases, 340–345, 346 Kirchhoff, Gustav, 604f Kirchhoff’s rules, 603–606, 603f, 604f, 616 problem-solving strategies, 604 Knievel, Evel, 54f, 70 Krypton (Kr) ground-state configuration, 904t molar specific heat, 391t as noble gas, 904 Kwan, Michelle, 250f Light and light waves (Continued ) dispersion of, 742–746, 742f, 743f, 745f, 746f, 752 dual nature of, 880 gravitational bending of, 863f, 864–865, 865f Huygens’ principle, 746–748, 746f, 747f, 752 interference See Interference nature of, 716, 724, 732–733, 751 ordinary, incoherence of, 791 polarization See Polarization in quantum theory, 873–874, 886 ray approximation of, 734, 734f reflection of, 733, 734–736, 734f, 747, 747f, 751 angle of reflection, 735, 735f, 742, 751 phase change due to, 795–797, 795f, 796f, 815 polarization by, 811–812, 811f total internal reflection, 748–751, 748f, 749f, 752 refraction of See Refraction speed of, as constant, 850–851 and ether wind theory, 849–850, 849f, 850f and inertial reference frames, 848 Michelson-Morley experiment, 849– 850, 850f, 851 wave fronts, 734, 734f Huygens’ principle, 746–748, 746f, 747f, 752 wavelength See Wavelength Lightbulbs Christmas lights in series, 596–597 circuit symbol for, 549, 549f dimming of, with age, 578 failing of, 582 three-way, 600–601 Lightning, 497f and automobiles, safety of occupants in, 515 deflection by Earth’s magnetic field, 635 thunder produced by, 462–463 Lightning rods, 514 Limit (lim), 29–30 Linear accelerator See Cyclotron Linear density, of string, 447 Linear expansion coefficient (a), 329, 329t, 345 Linear kinematic equations in one dimension, 35–36, 36t, 194t in two dimensions, 63, 74 Linearly polarized light, 809, 809f See also Polarization S Linear momentum ( p ), 161–166, 181 carried by electromagnetic wave, 717, 724 conservation of, 166–168, 169, 170–177, 181 defining of system in, 167 and rocket propulsion, 178–181, 178f, 179f definition of, 161–162 impulse-momentum theorem, 162–163, 181 Index Earth (Continued ) and injury, 163, 165–166 relativistic expression for, 858–859, 865 and total energy, 860–861, 866 Linear quantities, relation to angular quantities, 194, 196–199, 218, 228–229 Liquid(s) See also Fluid dynamics boiling point of, 324, 325–326, 326f characteristics of, 268–269, 269f density of, 276, 276t freezing point of, 324, 325–326, 326f speed of sound in, 461–462, 462t surface of, 302–303, 302f, 303f surface tension, 299–302, 300f, 300t thermal expansion of, 329t, 333–335 Liquid crystal displays (LCDs), 813–814, 814f Lithium (Li), ground-state configuration, 903, 904t Lloyd’s mirror, 795, 795f Load, maximum, 272–273 Load resistance, 595 Locomotive, drive wheel of, 433, 433f Loma Prieta earthquake, 480 Longitudinal waves characteristics of, 444, 444f, 445, 445f, 451 speed in solid rod, 462 Loop rule, 603–606, 604f, 616 Luminiferous ether, 849–850, 849f, 850f Lungs, fluid surface tension in, 301 Lyman series, 893 M Mach number, 472 Magic-dot process, 286, 287f Magnesium (Mg), ground-state configuration, 904t Magnet(s), 626–628, 627f permanent, 651 poles of, 626–627 Magnetic declination, 629 Magnetic domains,S651, 651f Magnetic field(s) (B ) charged particle motion in, 639–642, 639f, 652 of current loops, 646–648, 647f, 652 direction of finding, with compass, 627–628, 627f notation for, 633 right-hand rule, 642, 642f of Earth, 628–629, 628f, 629f, 635– 636, 665 inductors, energy stored in, 686–687, 688 of long straight wire, 642–645, 642f, 652 magnitude of, defined, 630 SI units of, 630, 652 of solenoid, 648–650, 648f, 650f, 652 torque on current loop in, 636–638, 636f, 652 Magnetic field lines, 627–628, 627f, 628f Magnetic flux (⌽B), 664–666, 664f, 665f, 687 of Earth’s magnetic field, 665 induced emf applications, 675–680 back emf, 679–680, 679f definition of, 663–664, 664f direction of, 667–668, 667f, 674–675, 674f, 675f Faraday’s law of magnetic induction, 666–670, 687 in generators, 676–680 Lenz’s law, 667–668, 674–675, 674f, 675f motional, 670–674, 670f, 671f, 687 self-induced, 680–683, 680f, 681f, 687 SI unit, 664–665 Magnetic force, 84 applications, 634–635, 634f on charged particle, 630–632, 652 on current-carrying conductor, 633– 636, 633f, 634f, 652 direction of (right-hand rule #1), 631– 632, 631f, 634, 652 torque on current loop, 636–638, 636f, 652 between two parallel conductors, 645– 646, 645f, 652 S Magnetic moment (m ), 637–638, 637f, 652 Magnetic monopoles, 627 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 931, 931f Magnetism applications, 626, 634–635 Earth’s magnetic field, 628–629, 628f, 629f, 635–636, 665 hard magnetic materials, 627, 651 magnetic monopoles, 627 magnets characteristics of, 626–628, 627f permanent, 651 poles of, 626–627 microscopic view of, 650–651, 650f, 651f soft magnetic materials, 627, 651 types of magnetic materials, 627, 651 Magnification See also Microscopes; Telescopes angular of simple magnifier, 829–830, 841 of telescope, 833, 841 lateral of microscope, 831, 841 of mirror, 760, 765t, 782 of spherical refracting surface, 769, 782 of thin lens, 774, 782 simple magnifiers, 829–830, 829f, 841 Malus’s law, 810–811, 815 Manganese (Mn), ground-state configuration, 904t Mars escape speed, 214t planetary data, 217t Marsden, Ernest, 891–892, 892f I.13 Mass (m) and acceleration (Newton’s second law), 86–88, 108 of atomic particles, 501t, 914, 914t energy equivalent of, 860, 862, 914 in general relativity, 863–864 and gravitational force, 90, 863–864 and inertia, 85–86, 108 unified mass unit (u), 914 units of, 2–3, 2f, 3t, 85 Mass number (A), 913, 931 Materials, strength of, 272–273, 273t, 275–276 See also Solids, deformation of Matter dark, 269 dual nature of, 880–883, 887 states of, 268–269, 268f, 311 (See also Gas(es); Liquid(s); Solids) structural levels of, 4–5, 4f, 18 Maxima, 802 for diffraction grating, 805–806, 805f, 815 in single-slit diffraction, 803–804 Maximum angular magnification, 829– 830, 841 Maximum load, 272–273 Maxwell, James Clerk, 626, 712–713, 712f, 720, 724, 733 Maxwell velocity distribution, 343 Measurement See also SI (Système International) units; Units; U.S customary units blood pressure, 283–284, 284f blood speed, 460 electric current, 574–575, 575f pressure, 283, 283f specific heat, 357–359, 377 temperature, 324–328, 345, 580 uncertainty in, 7–9, 18 of voltage, 574–575, 575f Mechanical energy (E) change in, as work, 141, 151 conservation of gravity and, 130–133 problem-solving strategies, 131 in rotational motion, 247–248, 254 springs and, 137–140 Mechanical equilibrium See Equilibrium, mechanical Mechanical equivalent of heat, 353, 377 Mechanical waves, and energy transfer, 141 Mechanics classical, 83 Newtonian, 847 relativistic, 851–858 Medicine arteriosclerosis, vascular flutter in, 297, 297f blood cleansing by kidneys, 308–309, 309f in oxygen diffusion, 308 pressure, measuring of, 283–284, 284f speed of, measuring, 460 viscosity of, 305, 305t I.14 Index Medicine (Continued ) cancer treatment, electric field therapy, 699 cavitron ultrasonic surgical aspirator, 461 circulatory system and Poiseuille’s law, 305–306 and Reynolds number, 306–307 defibrillators external, 556 Implanted Cardioverter Defibrillators (ICDs), 586–587, 587f, 587t fiber optic viewing scopes, 750 heart artificial, 635 electrical activity of, 585–587, 585f, 586f intravenous solutions, and osmotic balance, 308 kidneys artificial, 309, 309f dialysis, 309, 309f, 635 functions of, 308–309, 309f lasers in, 907 lung fluid surface tension, 301 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 931, 931f positron-emission tomography (PET), 945 radiation damage, 929–930, 930t radioactivity, uses of, 930–931, 931f, 945 sedimentation of biological molecules, 310–311, 310f thermograms in, 373, 373f ultrasound devices, 459f, 460–461, 460f, 461f Meitner, Lise, 862 Membranes cellular, 308 selectively permeable, 308 Mendeleyev, Dmitry, 903–904 Mercury (Hg) emission spectrum, 893f specific heat, 355t as superconductor, 584, 584t surface of, 302, 302f surface tension, 300t Mercury (planet) escape speed, 214t orbit of, 864 planetary data, 217t Mercury thermometers, 324, 324f Mesons, 945, 946t, 950, 950f, 951, 951t, 952f Metabolism See Human metabolism Metal(s) alkali, 904–905 bimetallic strips, 330, 331f characteristic x-rays, 876f, 905–906, 905f, 909 photoelectric effect, 872–875, 872f, 873f, 886 thermal conductivity, 367t Metal detectors, 709 Meter (m), 1–2 Methane as greenhouse gas, 376 molar specific heat, 391t Methyl alcohol, speed of sound in, 462t Metric system, 3–4, 3t Michelson, Albert A., 840, 849 Michelson interferometer, 840–841, 840f, 849, 850f Michelson-Morley experiment, 849–850, 850f, 851 Microscopes compound, 830–832, 831f, 841 electron, 882, 883f optical, limitations of, 831–832 resolution of, 837 (See also Resolution) Microwave(s), 721, 721f polarization of, 810 Microwave background radiation, 955, 955f, 957 Millikan, Robert A., 309, 499, 515 Millikan oil-drop experiment, 515–516, 515f, 516f Minima, 802 Mirage(s), 772f, 773 Mirror(s) aberrations in, 781–782, 781f, 782f, 783 concave, 762, 766–769, 782 convex, 764, 766, 768, 782 flat, 759–762, 759f, 760f, 782 lateral magnification, 760, 765t, 782 mirror equation, 763–764, 782 parabolic, 782, 833 ray diagram for, 764–766, 765f reflecting telescopes, 832–834, 833f sign conventions for, 765t spherical (See also Concave mirrors; Convex mirrors) definition of, 762 spherical aberration in, 762, 762f Mirror equation, 763–764, 782 Moderator, of nuclear reactor, 940, 940f Molar mass, 335 Molar specific heat at constant pressure, 391–393, 391t at constant volume, 390, 391, 391t Molecules in atmosphere, escape speed of, 214 crystallization of, 878 in gas, degrees of freedom, 390 polarization of, in dielectric, 561, 561f sedimentation of, 310–311, 310f Moles, 335, 336–337, 340 Molybdenum, characteristic x-rays, 876f Moment of inertia (mr2), 240–245, 254 and angular momentum, 249–254 of composite object, 241–243, 241f definition of, 240, 254 for extended objects, 243–245, 243f, 244t for ring-shaped object, 243, 243f units of, 241 vs mass, 241, 242 of whole body, 240–241 Momentum See Angular momentum; Linear momentum Monatomic gas internal energy, 343, 390 molar specific heat, 391t Moon escape speed, 214t gravitational force on, 90, 90f planetary data, 217t Morley, Edward W., 849 Motion See also Acceleration; Displacement; Free fall; Newton’s laws; Pendulums; Projectile motion; Rotational motion; Simple harmonic motion; Speed; Uniform circular motion; Velocity impending, 102 in one dimension, 25–46 through viscous medium, 309–310, 309f in two dimensions, 60–73, 74 Motional emf, 670–674, 670f, 671f, 687 Motion diagrams, 34–35, 34f Motor neurons, 613–614, 614f Motors, electric back emf in, 679–680, 680f structure and function, 638–639, 638f, 679 Moving reference frames, 70 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), 931, 931f Müller, K Alex, 584 Multimeter, digital, 575, 575f Multiplication significant figures in, 8, 18 of vector, by scalar, 55–56 Muon (mϪ), 854, 946, 946t Muon neutrino (nm), 946, 946t Musical instruments See also Standing waves quality (timbre) of sound, 486–487, 486f strings sound production in, 447, 459, 477–478, 482 tuning of, 485–486 warming up of, 482 wind instruments, sound production in, 480–483 Myopia (nearsightedness), 826, 827f, 828, 841 N Nadal, Rafael, 83f National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2f Natural convection, 371 Natural radioactivity, 926, 926f, 926t Near point, of eye accommodation, 825 Nearsightedness (myopia), 826, 827f, 828, 841 Ne’eman, Yuval, 950 Negative, of vector, 55 Negative acceleration, 32, 34 Negative electric charge, 498, 498f Negative lenses See Diverging (negative) thin lenses Index Neon (Ne) emission spectrum, 893f ground-state configuration, 904t helium-neon laser, 907, 908f molar specific heat, 391t as noble gas, 904 Neon signs, 892 Neptune escape speed, 214t planetary data, 217t Neptunium (Np), radioactive series, 926, 926t Nervous system, electrical signal conduction in, 613–614, 614f Net force defined, 85 and Newton’s second law, 86–88, 108 Neurons electrical signal conduction in, 613– 614, 614f structure of, 614, 614f types of, 614–615 Neutrinos, 923–924, 932, 941, 946–947, 946t Neutron(s) in atomic structure, 4, 4f as baryons, 945, 946t charge, 498, 499, 501t, 914, 914t discovery of, 927 mass, 501t, 914, 914t quark composition, 951t Neutron number (N), 913, 931 Neutron stars, 251 Newton (N), 87, 90 Newton, Isaac, 84, 86f, 207, 732–733, 797–798, 797f Newtonian focus, 833 Newtonian mechanics, 847 Newton-meter (N · m), 120, 229 Newton’s laws applications of, 94–101, 109 first law of motion, 83, 85–86, 108 rotational analog of, 229 law of universal gravitation, 90, 108, 207–215, 218–219 second law of motion, 83, 86–88, 108 accelerating objects and, 97–101, 109 applications, 94–101 and centripetal acceleration, 203, 204–206 equilibrium objects and, 95–97, 95f, 109 frictional forces and, 103–107 momentum and, 162 problem-solving strategies, 95 rotational analog, 241, 245–246, 249–250 third law of motion, 83, 92–94, 92f, 109 Newton’s rings, 797–798, 797f New York Times, 178, 299 Nichrome resistivity, 577t, 578–579 temperature coefficient of resistivity, 577t Nickel (Ni) as ferromagnetic substance, 651 ground-state configuration, 904t Night vision technology, 374 Niobium (Nb), as superconductor, 584t Nitrogen (N) ground-state configuration, 904t latent heat of fusion, 360t latent heat of vaporization, 360t molar specific heat, 391t rms speed of, 343, 344t thermal conductivity, 367t Nitrous oxide, as greenhouse gas, 376 Nobel Prize, 309, 516, 584, 862, 873, 878, 879f, 881f, 884f, 913f, 915f, 918f, 924f, 944f, 950f Noble gases, 904 Node, of standing wave, 475–476, 475f, 480, 481f Nonconservative forces, 126–127, 150 rotational motion with, 247, 248–249, 254 work done by, 128, 133–135 Nonohmic materials, 576, 577f Nonreflective coatings, 799 S Normal force ( n ), 93, 93f, 102 Normal vector, 517 North pole of Earth, 628, 628f of magnet, 626 Notation circuit elements See Electric circuits, symbols many-digit numbers, nucleus, atomic, 913, 931 power of ten, 3, 3t vector quantities, 26 vectors, 54 Nuclear fission, 860, 862, 937–940, 938f, 956 Nuclear force, 915, 952 Nuclear fusion, 941–943, 956 Nuclear magnetic resonance, 931 Nuclear power plants, 860, 913f, 939– 940, 940f, 956 Nuclear reactions, 927–929, 932 endothermic, 928, 932 exothermic, 928, 932 fission, 860, 862, 937–940, 938f, 956 fusion, 941–943, 956 Q values, 928–929, 932 threshold energy of, 929, 932 Nuclear reactors, 860, 913f, 939–940, 940f, 956 Nuclear weapons atomic bomb, 879f, 939, 944f hydrogen bomb, 941 Nucleus, atomic binding energy, 916–917, 917f, 931 daughter, 921 decay of See Radioactivity density of, 915 history of concept, 891 parent, 921 properties, 913–916, 931 size of, 914–915, 931 stability of, 915–916, 915f structure of, 4, 4f, 498, 913 symbols for, 913, 931 Nylon dielectric constant, 558t dielectric strength, 558t I.15 O Object distance, 759, 759f, 763, 769, 782 Objective, of microscope, 830, 831f Ocean water, speed of sound in, 462t, 463 Ocean waves, 425f, 444 Ocular lens, of microscope, 830, 831f Oersted, Hans Christian, 642, 642f, 663 Ohm (⍀), 576, 588 Ohm, George Simon, 576, 576f Ohmic materials, 576, 577f Ohm’s law, 576, 588 Oil-drop experiment (Millikan), 515– 516, 515f, 516f Omega (⍀), 946t, 950, 951t, 952 O’Neill, Gerard, 203 Onnes, H Kamerlingh, 584 Open-circuit voltage, of battery, 595 Open-tube manometer, 283, 283f Optical activity, 812–813, 813f Optic disk, 825f Optic nerve, 825f Optics geometric, 790 wave, 790 (See also Diffraction; Interference; Polarization) Orbital magnetic quantum number (m ᐉ), 899–900, 900t, 902, 909 Orbital quantum number (ᐉ), 899–900, 900t, 902, 908 Order number, of fringe, 793, 815 Order-of-magnitude calculations, 11–13, 18 Origin, of coordinate system, 13 Oscillation See also Pendulums; Simple harmonic motion; Wave(s) damping of, 442, 442f standing waves in air columns, 480–484, 481f, 490 on strings, 475–479, 475f, 476f, 490 OSHA noise regulations, 466 Osmosis, 308–309, 309f Out of phase, defined, 449, 449f Oval window, 487f, 488 Overdamping, 442, 442f Oxygen (O) diffusion through cell membranes, 308 ground-state configuration, 904t latent heat of fusion, 360t latent heat of vaporization, 360t molar specific heat, 391t rms speed of, 343, 344t speed of sound in, 462t thermal conductivity, 367t Oxygen consumption, in human metabolism and metabolic rate, 414–415, 415t and physical fitness, 415–416, 416t P Paintings, x-raying of, 876 Paper dielectric constant, 558t dielectric strength, 558t Parallel-plate capacitors, 523, 547–549, 547f, 562–563 I.16 Index Paramagnetic substances, 651 Parent nucleus, 921 Particle(s) See also specific particles antiparticles, 918, 924, 944–945, 946t, 956 charged accelerating, energy radiated by, 714 magnetic force on, 630–632, 652 motion in magnetic field, 639–642, 639f, 652 storing of, 640 classification of, 945–947, 946t, 956 conservation laws, 947–950, 956 de Broglie wavelength of, 881–882, 887 eightfold way, 949–950, 950f field, 944, 944t fundamental, 943 hadrons, 945–946, 946t, 956 leptons, 946–947, 946t, 956 wave function (⌿) for, 883–884, 887, 902 Particle accelerators See Cyclotron(s) Pascal (Pa), 270 Pascal, Blaise, 281 Pascal’s principle, 281–282, 311 Paschen series, 893 Pauli, Wolfgang, 900, 903, 903f, 923 Pauli exclusion principle, 902–903, 903t, 909 Peak acceleration, 40 Pendulums applications, 440, 441 physical, 441–442, 441f simple, 439–441, 439f, 440f, 451 Penning trap, 640 Penzias, Arno A., 955, 955f Perfectly inelastic collisions, 169, 170– 173, 181 Period (T) of circular motion, 433 of pendulum, 439–440, 451 of planet, 216 of simple harmonic motion, 426, 433– 436, 437–438, 450 of wave, 445–446, 447 Periodic table, 335, 903–905, 909 Periscopes, submarine, 749 Permanent magnet, 651 Permeability of free space (m0), 643, 652 Permittivity of free space (P0), 519, 523, 547 Phase angle (f), 703–706, 703f, 705t, 724 Phase change, 359–366, 361f, 377 incomplete, 363–364 molecular view of, 362 problem-solving strategy for, 362 Phasor(s), 703, 703f Phasor diagrams, 703, 703f Phonograph records, rotation of, 198–199 Phosphorus (P), ground-state configuration, 904t Photocells, 872, 872f, 875 Photoconductors, in xerography, 545– 546, 545f Photocopiers, 545–546, 545f Photoelectric effect, 733, 872–875, 872f, 873f, 886 Photoelectrons, 872 maximum kinetic energy, 873–874, 873f, 886 Photographs, red-eye in, 735 Photon(s) in electroweak theory, 953 emitted by hydrogen orbit change, 896–897, 908 energy and momentum of, 860 energy of, 733 as field particle, 944, 944t as fundamental particle, 943 gamma (g) rays, 721f, 722, 918, 924 history of concept, 733 as quanta, 873–874, 886 spontaneous emission, 907, 907f, 909 stimulated absorption, 906–907, 907f, 909f stimulated emission, 907, 908f, 909 virtual, 944, 944f Physical fitness, and oxygen consumption, 415–416, 416t Physical pendulums, 441–442, 441f Physiology of exercise, 354–355 Picture tube, of television, 648, 648f Piezoelectric effect, 460–461 Pigeons, homing, navigation in, 812 Pions (p), 945, 946t, 951t Pitch, vs frequency, 487 Planck, Max, 872, 872f Planck’s constant (h), 733, 751, 872 Plane of polarization, 809 Plane polar coordinates, 14, 14f conversion to/from Cartesian coordinates, 14–15 Plane polarized light, 809, 809f See also Polarization Planets escape speed, 213–215, 214t formation of, 213 period of, 216 planetary data, 217t Plane waves electromagnetic, 715, 716f sound, 467, 467f Plano-concave lens, 773f Plano-convex lens, 773f Plasma, 268, 269, 942 Plasma confinement time (t), 942, 956 Plasma ion density (n), 942, 956 Plastic, optical activity in, 813, 813f Platinum as paramagnetic substance, 651 resistivity, 577t temperature coefficient of resistivity, 577t work function, 873t Plumbing frozen pipes, bursting of, 334–335 vents, 299 water traps, 299 Pluto escape speed, 214t planetary data, 217t Point source, sound waves from, 466, 467–468 Poise (unit), 305 Poiseuille, J L., 305 Poiseuille’s law, 305–306, 305f Polar coordinates, 14, 14f conversion to/from Cartesian coordinates, 14–15 Polarization of electrical charge, 500 of light waves, 808–814, 815 applications, 813–814, 814f intensity of polarized beam, 810– 811, 810f, 815 optically-active substances, 812–813, 813f by reflection, 811–812, 811f by scattering, 812, 812f by selective absorption, 809–811, 809f, 810f of molecules, in dielectric, 561, 561f Polarizer, 809, 809f Polarizing angle, 811–812, 811f, 815 Polaroid, 809 Poles, of magnet, 626–627 Pollution, air, removing, 544–545, 544f Polonium (Po), 918, 918f Polystyrene dielectric constant, 558t dielectric strength, 558t index of refraction, 738t Population inversion, 907 Position See also Displacement angular, 191 in simple harmonic motion, as function of time, 436–437, 437f, 451 Position vs time graphs, 28, 29f Positive electric charge, 498, 498f Positive lenses See Converging (positive) thin lenses Positron(s) (e+), 918, 924, 941, 944–945 Positron-emission tomography (PET), 945 Post-and-beam construction, 275, 275f Potassium (K), ground-state configuration, 904t Potassium ion channels, 614–615 Potential difference See Electric potential Potential energy (PE) See also Elastic potential energy; Electric potential energy; Gravitational potential energy and conservation of mechanical energy, 130–133 definition of, 127 of fluid See Bernoulli’s equation as property of system, 127 and work, 127–128 Potential energy function, 127, 135 Pound (lb), 87 Power, 143–147, 151 average (ᏼ ) definition of, 143 delivered in RLC series circuit, 707–708, 724 commercial units of (kilowatt-hour), 581–583 definition of, 143 delivered to resistor/device, 581–584, 588 Index Power (Continued ) emf source total output, 595 human output of, 146–147, 147t instantaneous (ᏼ), definition of, 143 of lens, in diopters, 826, 841 SI units of, 143, 581 units of, 143 Power factor, 707–708, 724 Power of ten, notation for, 3, 3t Power plants fusion reactors, 937f, 941–943, 946 nuclear (fission reactors), 860, 913f, 939–940, 940f, 956 Prefi xes, metric units, 3t Presbyopia, 826 Pressure (P), 277–278, 277f, 311 absolute, 283 atmospheric, 277, 279 blood pressure measurement, 283– 284, 284f of fluid Bernoulli’s equation, 293–294, 293f, 294f, 312 applications, 294–299 and buoyant force, 285, 285f depth and, 279–283, 279f, 311 Pascal’s principle, 281–282, 311 Poiseuille’s law, 305–306, 305f of gas ideal gas law, 336, 340 molecular model of, 340–342 gauge, 283 measurement of, 283, 283f units of, 277 and volume stress, 272 Pressure waves, 445 Principal axis, of spherical mirror, 762– 763, 762f Principle quantum number (n), 872, 886, 894–895, 899–900, 900t, 902, 908 Prisms, 742–745, 742f, 743f, 752 prism spectrometer, 743–744, 743f redirection of light with, 749, 749f Probability, wave function (⌿) and, 883– 884, 887, 902 Problem-solving strategies, 16–17 See also Coordinate systems, selection of accelerated motion, 36–37 angular momentum, 254 Bernoulli’s equation, 311 buoyancy, 311 calorimetry with phase change, 362 capacitor combinations, 553 centripetal acceleration, 203–204 collisions one-dimensional, 174 two dimensional, 177 conservation of mechanical energy, 131 dimensional analysis, 5–7, 18 direct-current circuits capacitors, 553 Kirchhoff’s rules, 604 resistors, 601–602 Doppler effect, 470 electric field, 508–509 Problem-solving strategies (Continued ) electric force, 508–509 electric potential, 540 energy and rotational motion, 247 equilibrium, 236 estimation and, 11, 18 friction problems, 109 general strategy, 16–17 Kirchhoff’s rules, 604 Newton’s second law, 95 projectile motion, 65 relative velocity, 71 resistors, 601–602 RLC circuits, 705 rotational motion and energy, 247 sign errors, avoiding, 96 system approach to, 105–106 thin-film interference, 798 Projectile motion, 62–70, 62f, 63f See also Free fall with horizontal acceleration, 69–70 important features, summarized, 64 independence of horizontal and vertical motions, 62 maximum displacement, 67 maximum height, 44–45 powered ascent, free fall, 45–46 problem-solving strategy for, 65 Projection angle, 62, 63 Proper length, 856, 865 Proper time, 854, 865 Proteins, structure of, determining, 877 Proton(s) in atomic structure, 4, 4f, 498 as baryons, 945, 946t charge, 498, 499, 501, 501t, 914, 914t mass, 501t, 914, 914t number of, in gram of matter, 498 quark composition, 951t size of, 3t, Proton-proton cycle, 941 Ptolemy, Claudius, 24, 215 Pulsars, 251f Pupil, 824, 825f Purkinje fibers, 585, 585f PV diagrams, 387–388, 387f for adiabatic processes, 393–395, 394f calculating work from, 387–388 in generic processes, 397–398, 397f for heat engine, 399, 399f of isobaric process, 387, 387f, 391 for isothermal processes, 396–397, 396f Pyrex® glass coefficient of linear expansion, 329, 329t dielectric constant, 558t dielectric strength, 558t Pythagorean theorem, 14 Q Q values, 928–929, 932 QCD (quantum chromodynamics), 952, 953, 957 Quality (timbre) of sound, 486–487, 486f Quantum chromodynamics (QCD), 952, 953, 957 I.17 Quantum numbers orbital (ᐉ), 899–900, 900t, 902, 908 orbital magnetic (m ᐉ), 899–900, 900t, 902, 909 and Pauli exclusion principle, 902– 903, 903t, 909 principle (n), 872, 886, 894–895, 899– 900, 900t, 902, 908 spin magnetic (ms), 900–902, 909 strangeness (S), 946t, 949 Quantum physics atom model in, 899–905, 908–909 Compton shift, 879–880, 879f, 886 Einstein and, 850f history of, 872 matter, dual nature of, 880–883, 887 and photoelectric effect, 872–875, 872f, 873f, 886 spectrum emitted by x-ray tube, 875– 876, 875f, 876f, 887 uncertainty principle, 884–886, 885f, 887 wave function (⌿), 883–884, 887, 902 Quantum state, 872 energies of, 895, 908 Quantum tunneling, 941 Quarks, 4–5, 4f, 943, 950–952, 951t, 956–957 Quartz crystals, 269f dielectric constant, 558t dielectric strength, 558t index of refraction, 738t, 742f resistivity, 577t R Rad (radiation absorbed dose), 929–930 Radian(s), 190–191 conversion to/from degrees, 191 to/from rpms, 192 Radiation See Electromagnetic radiation; Radioactivity; Thermal radiation Radiation thermometers, 373, 374f Radio broadcast antennas, 714 tuning circuit of, 708 Radioactive tracers, 930–931 Radioactivity, 918–927, 932 alpha (a) decay, 918, 921–922, 932 artificial, 926 beta (b) decay, 918, 922–924, 923f, 932 decay constant, 918 decay rate (activity), 918–919, 919f, 932 discovery of, 918, 918f dose limits, 930 gamma (g) decay, 918, 924, 932 half-life (T1/2), 919, 921, 932 medical uses of, 930–931, 931f, 945 natural, 926, 926f, 926t natural background, 930 radiation damage, 929–930, 930t spontaneous decay (transmutation), 921 units of, 919 uses of, 924–926 I.18 Index Radio telescopes, 838 Radio waves, 721, 721f, 722f Radium (Ra) discovery of, 918, 918f radioactive decay of, 920, 921, 921f, 922 Radius of curvature (R), of spherical mirror, 762 Radon (Rn) detectors, 925 discovery of, 925 as noble gas, 904 Rail guns, 671 Rainbows, 732f, 745–746, 745f, 746f Rarefaction, in sound waves, 459, 459f, 460f Ray(s), of spherical wave, 466, 466f Ray diagrams for mirrors, 764–766, 765f for thin lenses, 775–776, 776f Rayleigh’s criterion, 835–836 RBE (relative biological effectiveness) factor, 929, 930t RC circuits alternating-current impedance, 705t phase angle, 705t applications, 608 direct-current, 607–611, 607f, 616 Reaction forces Newton’s third law and, 92–93, 94 and rocket propulsion, 178–181, 178f, 179f Real images, 759, 762, 765t, 782 Recoil, 167–168 Rectangular coordinate system See Cartesian coordinate system Red-eye, in photographs, 735 Red shift, 723 Reference circle, 436, 436f Reference frames See also Relativity absolute, 849 for displacement, 25 inertial, 847–848, 848f moving, 70 for relative velocity, 70 stationary, 70 Reflecting telescopes, 832–834, 833f Reflection of light, 733, 734–736, 734f, 747, 747f, 751 angle of reflection, 735, 735f, 742, 751 phase change due to, 795–797, 795f, 796f, 815 polarization by, 811–812, 811f total internal reflection, 748–751, 748f, 749f, 752 of waves, 449–450, 450f, 451 Reflectors, ideal, 373 Refracting telescopes, 832–833, 833f Refraction, of light, 733, 736–742, 737f, 738f, 751 angle of refraction, 736, 737f, 751 atmospheric, 772–773, 772f dispersion, 742–746, 742f, 743f, 745f, 746f, 752 Refraction, of light (Continued ) images formed by flat surface, 770, 770f, 771–772 spherical surface, 768–771, 769f, 770t, 782 index of refraction, 737, 738t, 742, 742f, 751 Snell’s law, 737–742, 747–748, 747f, 751–752 Refractive myopia, 826 Refrigerators, 402–404, 403f, 417 Relative velocity, 70–73, 74 problem-solving strategies, 71 Relativity Galilean, 847–848, 848f general, 850f, 863–865 special kinetic energy, relativistic expression for, 859, 861, 865 length contraction in, 856–858, 857f, 865 momentum, relativistic expression for, 858–859, 865 and total energy, 860–861, 866 postulates of, 850–851, 850f, 865 relativity of time in, 851–852, 857f, 865 rest energy, 859, 865 conversion of atomic mass units to/from, 861 of electron, 861 time dilation in, 852–855, 852f, 854f, 865 total energy, 859–860, 861, 866 and relativistic momentum, 860– 861, 866 twin paradox, 855–856, 856f Rem (roentgen equivalent in man), 930 Reproduction constant (K ), 939–940, 956 Resistance (R) conductor properties and, 577–579, 577t, 588 definition of, 575–576, 576f, 588 equivalent for parallel resistors, 598–601, 602–603 616 for series resistors, 595–597, 602– 603, 616 load, 595 ohmic and nonohmic materials, 576, 577f Ohm’s law, 576, 588 problem-solving strategies, 601–602 temperature variation of, 579–580, 588 Resistance thermometers, 580 Resistivity (r), 577, 577t, 588 Resistor(s), 576f in AC circuits, 696–699, 697f, 698f, 723 impedance, 705t phase angle, 705t RC circuits, 705t RL circuits, 705t RLC series circuits, 702–706, 702f, 703f, 724 circuit symbol for, 549, 549f, 576 in DC circuits in parallel, 598–603, 598f, 616 Resistor(s) (Continued ) power delivered to, 581–584, 588 problem-solving strategies, 601–602 RC circuits, 607–611, 607f, 616 RL circuits, 683–687, 683f, 684f, 688 in series, 595–597, 596f, 616 definition of, 576 Resolution, 835–840, 841 of circular aperture, 836, 836f of diffraction grating, 838–840, 841 of single-slit aperture, 835–836, 835f, 836f Resolved image, 835 Resolving power, of diffraction grating, 839, 841 Resonance, 479–480, 479f, 480f, 483– 484, 490 in RLC series circuits, 708–710, 708f, 724 Resonance frequency, in RLC series circuits, 708–709, 708f, 724 Resonant frequency, of oscillator, 479 Resonators, in blackbody radiation, 872, 873 Rest energy, 859, 865 conversion of atomic mass units to/ from, 861 of electron, 861 Restoring force of pendulum, 439 of spring, 135, 426 Resultant displacement, 56 Resultant vector, defined, 55, 74 Retina, 824, 825, 825f Retroreflection, 735 Reversible process, defined, 404 Reynolds number, 306–307 Right-hand rule for angular velocity, 202, 202f for electromagnetic wave propagation, 715 for magnetic field (right-hand rule #2), 642, 642f, 667 for magnetic force (right-hand rule #1), 631–632, 631f, 634, 652 for magnetic moment, 637 for torque, 231, 231f RL circuits alternating-current, 705t direct-current, 683–687, 683f, 684f, 688 phase angle, 705t RLC series circuits, 702–706, 702f, 703f, 705t, 724 applications, 708–709 average power delivered in, 707–708, 724 problem-solving strategies, 705t resonance in, 708–710, 708f, 724 Rms current, 697–699, 723 Rms speed, of gases, 343, 344t, 346 RNA, structure of, determining, 877 Roadway flashers, 608 Rockets exhaust speed, 299 multistage, 179 propulsion of, 178–181, 178f, 179f thrust, 179–180 Index Rods, of eye, 824–825, 825f Roentgen (R), 929 Röntgen, Wilhelm, 875 Root mean square (rms) current, 697– 699, 723 Root-mean-square (rms) speed, of gases, 343, 344t, 346 Rotational equilibrium, conditions for, 232–233 Rotational kinematic equations, 194– 195, 194t Rotational kinetic energy (KEr), 246–249, 254 Rotational motion See also Torque under constant angular acceleration, 194–195, 218 energy types in, 247, 254 with nonconservative forces, 247, 248–249, 254 Rounding, and uncertainty, Rubber dielectric constant, 558t dielectric strength, 558t as insulator, 499, 499f resistivity, 577t speed of sound in, 462t thermal conductivity, 367t Runway markings, 629 Russell, John Scott, 444 Rutherford, Ernest, 891–892, 913f, 914, 925, 927 R-value, 368–370, 369t Rydberg constant (R H), 892–893, 896 Rydberg equation, 893 S Sailboats, sailing into wind, 298 SA (sinoatrial) node, 585, 585f Satellites, insulation of, 375 Saturn escape speed, 214t planetary data, 217t Scalars definition of, 25–26, 47, 54, 55f division of vector by, 55–56 multiplication of vector by, 55–56 Scandium (Sc), ground-state configuration, 904t Scattering, polarization of light waves by, 812, 812f Schrödinger, Erwin, 883, 884f, 899 Schrödinger wave equation, 883 Schwarzschild radius, 864–865 Schwinger, Julian S., 944f Scientific notation, 8–9 Sclera, 825f Scott, David, 42 Seat belts mechanism of, 85–86, 86f and momentum reduction, 166 Second (unit), 2–3, 2f Secondary maxima, 802 Second harmonic (first overtone), 475f, 476–479, 476f, 480–481, 481f, 482–483 Second law of motion (Newton), 83, 86–88, 108 accelerating objects and, 97–101, 109 applications, 94–101 and centripetal acceleration, 203, 204–206 equilibrium objects and, 95–97, 95f, 109 frictional forces and, 103–107 momentum and, 162 problem-solving strategies, 95 rotational analog, 241, 245–246, 249–250 Second law of thermodynamics, 385, 404–405, 417 and entropy, 408–409, 412, 417 and heat engine efficiency, 404 Second-order maximum, 806 Second overtone (third harmonic), 475f, 476–479, 476f, 480–481, 481f, 482–483 Sedimentation, 310–311 Sedimentation rate, 310–311 Seiches, 482 Selective absorption, polarization of light waves by, 809–811, 809f, 810f Selectively permeable membranes, 308 Selenium (Se), ground-state configuration, 904t Self-inductance, 680–683, 680f, 681f, 687 Self-sustained chain reaction, 939–940 Semiconductors properties, 499 temperature coefficient of resistivity, 579 Sensory neurons, 613–614, 614f Shape elasticity in solids, 271, 271f Shear modulus (S), 271, 271t, 311 Shear strain, 271, 271f Shear stress, 271, 271f, 273–274 Shells atomic, 900, 900t Pauli exclusion principle, 902–903, 903t, 909 thin, nonconducting, 521–523 Shock absorbers, 442, 442f Shock waves, 472–473, 472f, 473f SIDS See Sudden infant death syndrome Sigma (⌺), 946t, 951t Sign errors, avoiding, 96 Significant figures, 7–9, 18 Silicon (Si) ground-state configuration, 904t resistivity, 577t as semiconductor, 499 specific heat, 355t temperature coefficient of resistivity, 577t Silicone oil in capacitors, 558 dielectric constant, 558t dielectric strength, 558t Silver (Ag) latent heat of fusion, 360t latent heat of vaporization, 360t resistivity, 577t specific heat, 355t I.19 Silver (Ag) (Continued ) temperature coefficient of resistivity, 577t thermal conductivity, 367t work function, 873t Simple harmonic motion acceleration as function of position, 427–428, 450 as function of time, 437, 437f, 451 compared to pendular motion, 440, 440f compared to uniform circular motion, 432–436, 433f definition of, 426 position as function of time, 436–437, 437f, 451 as sinusoidal, 437, 437f velocity as function of position, 431–432, 450 as function of time, 437, 437f, 450 Simple magnifiers, 829–830, 829f, 841 Simultaneity, special relativity and, 851– 852, 852f, 865 Sine (sin), 14 Single-slit aperture, resolution of, 835– 836, 835f, 836f Single-slit diffraction, 803–805, 803f, 815 Singularities, 865 Sinoatrial (SA) node, 585, 585f, 586 Sinusoidal motion simple harmonic motion as, 437, 437f waves as, 444–445, 444f, 445f SI (Système International) units, 1, acceleration, 5t, 31–32, 61, 87t activity (decay rate), 919 angular acceleration, 193 angular displacement, 191 angular speed, 191–192 area, 5t average acceleration, 31, 61 average speed, 26 average velocity, 27, 61 capacitance, 546 centripetal acceleration, 200 change in electric potential energy, 532 conversion to/from U.S customary units, 9–10, 87, 143 density, 276 displacement, 25, 61 electric charge, 499, 645 electric current, 645 average, 570 instantaneous, 571 electric field, 506, 536 electric flux, 517 electric potential, 536 electric potential difference, 536, 562 emf, 594 force, 87, 87t frequency, 434 gravitational potential energy, 128, 211 heat, 353 impulse, 162 inductance, 681, 687 instantaneous acceleration, 32, 61 I.20 Index SI (Système International) units (Continued ) instantaneous velocity, 29–30, 61 intensity, 464 kinetic energy, 124 latent heat, 359 length, 1, 3, 914–915 linear momentum, 161 magnetic field, 630, 652 magnetic flux, 664–665 mass, 1, 3, 85 moment of inertia, 241 power, 143, 581 pressure, 277 resistance, 576, 588 resistivity, 577, 588 specific heat, 355 speed, 26 stress, 270 surface tension, 300 temperature, 326 time, 1, torque, 229 velocity, 5t, 27, 61 viscosity, 305 volume, 5t weight, 90 work, 120 Slope, in position vs time graphs, 28, 29f Smoke detectors, 925, 925f Snell, Willebrørd, 738 Snell’s law of refraction, 737–742, 747– 748, 747f, 751–752 Snowshoes, 277, 277f Soap, 301 See also Detergent Soddy, Frederick, 925 Sodium (Na) ground-state configuration, 904t work function, 873t Sodium chloride (NaCl) index of refraction, 738t structure of, 877f x-ray diffraction by, 875, 875f, 876–877, 877f Sodium dioxide (SO2), molar specific heat, 391t Sodium ion channels, 614–615 Soft magnetic materials, 627, 651 Solar cells, nonreflective coatings, 799 Solar system See also Planets; specific planets dust in, size of, 717 geocentric model of, 24, 215 heliocentric model of, 24–25, 215 Solenoid (electromagnetic) inductance of, 682–683, 687 magnetic field of, 648–650, 648f, 650f, 652 Solids amorphous, 269, 269f characteristics of, 268–269, 269f crystalline, 269, 269f diffraction of x-rays by, 875, 875f, 876–878, 876f, 877f, 886 deformation of, 270–276, 311 density of, 276, 276t Solids (Continued ) elasticity of length, 270–271 shape, 271, 271f volume, 271–272 speed of sound in, 462, 462t thermal expansion of, 328–332, 345 Solitons, 444 Somatic radiation damage, 929 Sonic boom, 473, 473f Sound system, speakers in, 634–635, 634f Sound waves audible, 460, 489 beats, 484–486, 484f, 490 categories of, 460 characteristics of, 460–461, 489 Doppler effect, 468–473, 468f, 469f, 489 infrasonic, 460, 489 intensity (I; watts per meter), 464, 465, 466, 489 intensity level (decibels), 464–466, 465t, 489 interference, 473–475, 473f, 484–486, 484f, 489–490 as longitudinal wave, 444, 445, 460 OSHA noise regulations, 466 pitch vs frequency, 487 production of, 459–460, 460f quality (timbre) of sound, 486–487, 486f shock waves, 472–473, 472f, 473f speed of, 461–463, 462t, 489 threshold of hearing, 464, 488, 488f threshold of pain, 464, 465 ultrasonic, 460, 489 ultrasound devices, 459f, 460–461, 460f, 461f South pole of Earth, 628, 628f of magnet, 626 Space catapult, 671 Spacetime, curvature of, 864 Space travel air resistance and, 108 artificial gravity, 203 European Space Agency, launch location, 197 and Newton’s first law, 85 satellites, insulation of, 375 special relativity and, 857 telecommunications satellites, 217–218 weightlessness, health effects of, 203 Speakers, in sound system, 634–635, 634f Special relativity kinetic energy, relativistic expression for, 859, 861, 865 length contraction in, 856–858, 857f, 865 momentum, relativistic expression for, 858–859, 865 and total energy, 860–861, 866 postulates of, 850–851, 850f, 865 relativity of time in, 851–852, 857f, 865 rest energy, 859, 865 conversion of atomic mass units to/ from, 861 of electron, 861 Special relativity (Continued ) time dilation in, 852–855, 852f, 854f, 865 total energy, 859–860, 861, 866 and relativistic momentum, 860– 861, 866 twin paradox, 855–856, 856f Specific gravity, 276–277 Specific heat (c), 355–357 definition of, 355, 377 measurement of, 357–359, 377 of selected substances, 355t Spectral lines, 743–744 Specular reflection, 734–735, 734f Speed See also Angular speed average, 26–27, 47 escape speed, 213–215, 214t instantaneous, definition of, 30, 47 of light, as constant, 850–851 and ether wind theory, 849–850, 849f, 850f and inertial reference frames, 848 Michelson-Morley experiment, 849– 850, 850f, 851 of projectile, 63 of sound waves, 461–463, 462t, 489 tangential, 201 terminal, 108, 310 vs velocity, 26–28 wave speed, 445–446, 447–448, 451 Spherical aberrations, in lens and mirrors, 762, 762f, 781–782, 781f, 783 Spherical mirrors See also Concave mirrors; Convex mirrors definition of, 762 spherical aberration in, 762, 762f Spherical surface, images formed by refraction at, 768–771, 769f, 770t, 782 Spherical waves, 466–468, 466f, 489 Sphygmomanometer, 283–284, 284f Spin, of electron, 900–902, 900f Spin magnetic quantum number (ms), 900–902, 909 Split-ring commutators, 638, 638f, 678, 678f Spontaneous decay (transmutation), 921 Spontaneous emission, 907, 907f, 909 Spring(s) elastic potential energy, 135–140, 135f, 150, 428–432, 450 and conservation of mechanical energy, 137–140 equation for, 429 work-energy theorem and, 136–138, 150 force, as conservative force, 135 Hooke’s law, 135, 425–428, 426f, 450 work done by, 136–138, 148–150 work-energy theorem and, 136–138, 150 Spring constant (k), 135–136, 425, 426–427 Standard model, 953, 953f Standing waves in air columns, 480–484, 481f, 490 on strings, 475–479, 475f, 476f, 490 Index Stars color of, 871 formation of, 213 surface temperature of, 871 States of matter, 268–269, 268f, 311 See also Gas(es); Liquid(s); Solids State variables, S 408 Static friction ( f s), 101–104, 102f, 106– 107, 109 coefficient of (ms), 102, 103t, 109 Stationary reference frames, 70 Statistical mechanics, and entropy, 411, 417 Steam, specific heat of, 355t Steam engines, 399, 407–408 Steam (boiling) point, 324, 325–326, 326f Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 372 Stefan’s law, 372, 374–375 Step-down transformers, 710, 724 Step-up transformers, 710, 724 Sterilization, with radiation, 930 Stimulated absorption, 906–907, 907f, 909f Stimulated emission, 907, 908f, 909 Stirrup (ear bone), 487f, 488 Stokes, George, 309–310, 309f Stokes’s Law, 309 Stopping potential, in photoelectric effect, 873, 873f Storage mite (Lepidoglyphus destructor), 870f Strain, 270, 311 shear, 271, 271f tensile, 270–271, 271f, 311 volume, 272 Strangeness (S), conservation of, 946t, 949 Strange quark (s), 4, 950–951, 951t Streamline flow, 290, 290f Stress, 270, 311 models of, in architecture, 813, 813f shear, 271, 271f, 273–274 tensile, 270–271, 271f, 272–273, 311 thermal expansion and, 329–330 volume (bulk), 272, 274–275, 277 Stringed instruments See also Standing waves quality (timbre) of sound, 486–487, 486f sound production in, 447, 477–478, 482 tuning of, 485–486 Strong force Big Bang and, 954, 954f characteristics of, 943, 944t, 945, 956 as color force, 952 as fundamental force, 84 in Standard Model, 953, 953f Strontium titanate dielectric constant, 558t dielectric strength, 558t Structural resonance, 480, 480f Stud finders, 559, 559f Sublimation, 360 Submarine periscopes, 749 Subshells, atomic, 900–901, 900t Subtraction significant figures in, 8, 18 of vectors, 55, 56f Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), apnea monitor for, 669–670, 670f Sulfur (S) ground-state configuration, 904t latent heat of fusion, 360t latent heat of vaporization, 360t resistivity, 577t Sulfur dioxide (SO2), as greenhouse gas, 376 Sun atmosphere, identification of gases in, 893 electromagnetic radiation from, 372 energy production in, 860 formation of, 213 fusion in, 941 gravitational force, 90–91 and human eye, wavelength sensitivity of, 722 mass of, 217, 217t planetary data, 217t polarization of light from, 812 Sunglasses polarized, 812 UV protection in, 720f Superconductors, 584–585, 584f, 584t, 595f Supercritical condition, of nuclear reactor, 940 Supernovas, 250, 251f Superposition principle, 448–449, 449f, 451, 475 for electric field, 507, 509–510 for electric force, 503–504 for electric potential, 538, 540–541 Surface, of liquid, 302–303, 302f, 303f Surface-area-to-volume ratio, of cells, 308 Surface tension, 299–302, 300f, 300t Surfactants, 301 Symbols for circuit elements See Electric circuits, symbols Symmetry breaking, 953 System(s) definition of, 127 energy conservation within, 141, 151 System approach, 105–106 Systolic pressure, 284 T Tacking, of sailboat, 298 Tacoma Narrows bridge, 480, 480f Tangent (tan), 14 Tangential acceleration, instantaneous angular acceleration and, 196, 218 Tangential speed, 201 instantaneous angular speed and, 196, 218 Tape recorders, 675–676, 676f Tau (t), 946–947, 946t Tau neutrino (nt), 946, 946t I.21 Teflon dielectric constant, 558t dielectric strength, 558t Telecommunications satellites, 217–218 Telescopes, 832–835, 841 angular magnification of, 833, 841 Hale telescope, 834f, 838 Hubble Space Telescope, 723, 834 Keck telescopes, 823f, 834 lenses of, 782 radio, 838 reflecting, 832–834, 833f refracting, 832–833, 833f resolution of, 838 (See also Resolution) space dust and, 838 Television interference, 793 picture tube, 648, 648f Temperature (T) See also entries under Thermal absolute, 325–326, 326f absolute zero, 325, 326 Celsius scale, 324, 345 conversion to/from Fahrenheit scale, 326–327 conversion to/from Kelvin scale, 325 definition of, 322–323 and electrical resistance, 579–580, 588 at equilibrium, calculation of, 358– 359, 362–364 Fahrenheit scale, 326, 326f, 345 conversion to/from Celsius scale, 326–327 conversion to/from Kelvin scale, 327 of fluid and surface tension, 300t, 301 and viscosity, 305t of gas in ideal gas law, 336, 340 molecular model of, 342–345 Kelvin scale, 325–326, 345 conversion to/from Celsius scale, 325 conversion to/from Fahrenheit scale, 327 measurement of, 324–328, 345, 580 and speed of sound, 462, 463t, 489 Temperature coefficient of resistivity (a), 577t, 579, 588 Tensile strain, 270–271, 271f, 311 Tensile strength, of selected materials, 273t Tensile stress, 270–271, 271f, 272–273, 311 Tension, 94, 94f Terminal speed, 108, 310 Terminal voltage, of battery, 595, 615–616 Tesla (T), 630, 652 conversion to/from gauss, 630 Tesla, Nikola, 705f Thermal conduction, 366–368, 366f, 377–378 conductivity of selected substances, 367t and home insulation, 368–370 Thermal conductivity (k), 367, 367t, 377–378 I.22 Index Thermal contact, 323, 345 Thermal efficiency of Carnot engine, 406 of heat engine, 399–400, 404, 406– 407, 417 of human body, 416, 416t maximum, 406–407 Thermal equilibrium, 323, 345, 358–359, 362–364 Thermal expansion bimetallic strips, 330, 331f coefficient of area expansion (g), 331–332, 345 coefficient of linear expansion (a), 329, 329t, 345 coefficient of volume expansion (b), 329t, 332, 334, 345 definition of, 328 of liquids, 329t, 333–335 of solids, 328–332, 345 of water, 333–335, 334f Thermal insulation (R-value), 368–370, 369t Thermal physics, 322 See also Temperature; Thermodynamics Thermal radiation, 372–375, 372f, 373f, 378 and quantum theory, 870–872, 871f, 872f, 886 Thermals, 355–356 Thermoclines, 371, 371f Thermodynamic processes See also Adiabatic processes; Generic thermodynamic processes; Isobaric processes; Isothermal processes; Isovolumetric processes types of, 390, 417 work in, 385–388, 416 Thermodynamics See also Heat first law of, 385, 388–390, 416–417 in adiabatic processes, 393–395, 417 in generic processes, 397–398 and human metabolism, 413–414 in isobaric processes, 391–393 in isothermal processes, 396–397, 396f in isovolumetric processes, 395–396 second law of, 385, 404–405, 417 and entropy, 408–409, 412, 417 and heat engine efficiency, 404 third law of, 406–407, 417 zeroth law of, 323, 323f, 345 Thermograms, 373, 373f Thermography, 373, 373f Thermometers, 324–328, 345 alcohol, 324 constant-volume gas, 324–326, 324f, 325f mercury, 324, 324f radiation, 373, 374f resistance, 580 Thermonuclear fusion reactions, 941 Thermos bottles, 375, 375f Thermostats, bimetallic strips in, 330, 331f Thin films, interference of light waves in, 796–800, 796f, 797f, 815 problem-solving strategies, 798 Thin lenses, 773–781, 782–783 aberrations in, 781–782, 781f, 782f, 783 angular magnification of, 829–830, 841 combinations of, 779–781, 780f converging (positive), 773, 773f, 774f, 775–778, 776f diverging (negative), 773, 773f, 774f, 775–776, 776f, 778–779 focal point, 773, 774f lateral magnification of, 774, 782 lens-maker’s equation, 775 ray diagrams for, 775–776, 776f shapes, common, 773, 773f sign conventions, 775, 775t thin-lens equation, 775, 783 Thin shells, nonconducting, 521–523 Third harmonic (second overtone), 475f, 476–479, 476f, 480–481, 481f, 482–483 Third law of motion (Newton), 83, 92– 94, 92f, 109 Third law of thermodynamics, 406–407, 417 Thomson, Joseph John, 891, 891f, 892f Thorium (Th), radioactive series, 926, 926t Threshold energy, of nuclear reaction, 929, 932 Threshold of hearing, 464, 488, 488f Threshold of pain, 464, 465 Threshold voltage, in x-ray emission, 876 Thrust, 179–180 Thunder, cause of, 462–463 Thymine, 878 Timbre (quality) of sound, 486–487, 486f Time direction of, entropy and, 412 in general relativity, 864, 865 gravity and, 864, 865 proper, 854, 865 in special relativity dilation of, 852–855, 852f, 854f, 865 relativity of time frames, 851–852, 852f, 865 units of, 2–3, 2f, 3t Time constant (t) RC circuits, 607, 616 RL circuits, 683–684, 688 Tin specific heat, 355t as superconductor, 584, 584t Titanium (Ti), ground-state configuration, 904t Tokomaks, 942, 942f Tomonaga, Shinichiro, 944f Toner, in xerography, 545f, 546 Tonometers, 169 Top quark (t), 4, 950–951, 951t S Torque (t ), 228–232, 254 and angular acceleration, 239–241, 254 and angular momentum, 249–254 on current loop in magnetic field, 636–638, 636f, 652 definition of general, 230 for perpendicular forces, 229 S Torque (t ) (Continued ) direction of positive and negative, 229 right-hand rule, 231, 231f equilibrium conditions, 232–233, 254 from gravity, 232–233, 234 on rotating object, 240–241 Torricelli, Evangelista, 283 Total acceleration, 200–201 Total energy, 859–860, 861, 866 and relativistic momentum, 860–861, 866 Total internal reflection, 748–751, 748f, 749f, 752 Totally destructive interference, 473–474 Tracers, radioactive, 930–931 Transformers AC, 710–712, 710f, 724 ideal, 711, 724 Transition electron microscope, 882, 883f Translational equilibrium, conditions for, 232 Transmission axis, of polarizing material, 809 Transmutation (spontaneous decay), 921 Transverse waves, 444, 444f, 451, 715 Traveling waves, 443–444, 444f Triangle method of vector addition, 55, 55f, 56, 56f, 74 Trigonometry, 14–16, 18 Triple point of water, 326 Tritium, 4, 913, 942, 956 Trough, of wave, 444 Tungsten resistivity, 577t temperature coefficient of resistivity, 577t Tuning, of stringed instruments, 485–486 Tuning circuit of radio, 708 Tuning forks, 459–460, 459f, 460f, 485– 486, 486–487, 486f Turbulent flow, 290, 290f aircraft wings and, 297 Reynolds number, 306–307 Twin paradox, 855 U Uhlenbeck, George, 900 Ultimate strength, 271 Ultrasonic waves, 460, 489 Ultrasound devices, 459f, 460–461, 460f, 461f Ultraviolet (UV) light, 721–722, 721f Uncertainty, in measurement, 7–9, 18 Uncertainty principle, 884–886, 885f, 887 Underdamping, 442, 442f Unified field theory, 850f See also Grand unified theory Unified mass unit (u), 914 Uniform acceleration, 32 Uniform circular motion, compared to simple harmonic motion, 432–436, 433f Index Units See also SI (Système International) units as algebraic quantities, 9–10 conversion of, 9–11, 18 dimensional analysis, 5–7, 18 of radiation exposure, 929–930, 930t Universal gas constant, 336 Universal gravitation constant of, 90, 207, 208–209, 208f, 219 Newton’s law of, 90, 108, 207–215, 218–219 Universal gravitation constant (G), 90, 207, 208–209, 208f, 219 Universe distances, sample, 3t entropy of, 408–409, 411–413 heat death of, 413 microwave background radiation, 955, 955f, 957 origin of, 954, 954f Unpolarized light, 808–809, 809f Up quark (u), 4, 950–951, 951t Upwelling, 334 Uranium (U) fission of, 862, 937–939, 938f as nuclear fuel, 939–940 radioactive series, 926, 926t Uranus escape speed, 214t planetary data, 217t U.S customary units, 87, 87t acceleration, 5t, 87t area, 5t conversion to/from SI units, 9–10, 87, 143 force, 87, 87t heat, 353 length, mass, 3, 87t power, 143 pressure, 277 R-value, 368 time, velocity, 5t volume, 5t work, 120 UV See Ultraviolet (UV) light V Vanadium (V), ground-state configuration, 904t Van de Graaff generator, 514, 516–517, 516f, 531f Vaporization, latent heat of, 360–361, 360t, 362 Vascular flutter, 297, 297f Vector(s), 54–56, 74 addition of algebraically, 59–60 geometrically (triangle method), 55, 55f, 56, 56f, 74 angle with x-axis, 57, 62, 63, 74 components of, 57–60, 57f, 58f, 74 definition of, 25, 47, 54, 55f division, by scalar, 55–56 equal, defined, 55, 55f multiplication of, by scalar, 55–56 Vector(s) (Continued ) negative of, 55 normal, 517 notation for, 54 resultant, 55, 74 subtraction of, 55, 56f Vector quantity, definition of, 25, 47, 54, 55f Velocity, 26–31, 47 angle with x-axis, 57, 62, 63, 74 S angular (v ), direction of, 202, 202f average (v) in one dimension, 27–28, 30, 47 in constant acceleration, 35 from position vs time graphs, 28, 29f in two dimensions, 61, 74 as function of displacement, in constant acceleration, 36, 36t as function of time in constant acceleration, 35, 36t, 451 in simple harmonic motion, 437, 437f, 451 instantaneous (v) in one dimension, 28–31, 47 in two dimensions, 61, 74 position vs time graphs, 28, 29f relative, 70–73, 74 in simple harmonic motion as function of position, 431–432, 450 as function of time, 437, 437f, 451 units, 5t vs acceleration, 34, 38 vs speed, 26–28 Velocity vs time graph, 32, 32f Venting, of plumbing system, 299 Venturi tube, 294, 294f Venus escape speed, 214t greenhouse effect on, 376 planetary data, 217t Virtual image, 759–760, 765t, 782 Virtual photons, 944, 944f Viscosity, 290, 304–305, 304f, 305f, 305t Viscous flow, 304–305, 304f Viscous medium, motion through, 309– 310, 309f Visible light, 721, 721f Visible spectrum, 742–743, 743f Vitreous humor, 825f Voice coil, 634, 634f Volt (V), 536, 562 Volta, Alessandro, 570 Voltage See Electric potential Voltmeter, 574–575, 575f Volume (V ) elasticity of solids, 271–272 ideal gas law, 336, 340 thermal expansion and, 329t, 332 units, 5t Volume expansion coefficient (b), 329t, 332, 334, 345 Volume strain, 272 Volume (bulk) stress, 272, 274–275, 277 Von Laue, Max, 875 I.23 W Water air temperature moderation by, 355 boiling, convection currents in, 371 boiling point, 324, 325–326, 326f bulk modulus of, 271t density of, 276t vs temperature, 334, 334f dielectric constant, 558t dielectric strength, 558t droplets, shape of, 299–300 freezing point, 324, 325–326, 326f index of refraction, 738t latent heat of fusion, 360, 360t latent heat of vaporization, 360, 360t as leveling device, 282–283 molar specific heat, 391t ocean waves, 425f, 444 osmosis, 308–309, 309f pressure variation with depth, 279– 283, 279f, 311 specific heat, 355t speed of sound in, 462t surface of, 302, 302f surface tension, 300t temperature vs density curve, 334, 334f thermal conductivity, 367t thermal expansion of, 333–335, 334f triple point of, 326 viscosity of, 305t Waterproofing, 303 Water striders, 301f Water traps, in plumbing system, 299 Watson, J D., 878 Watt (W), 143 Watt, James, 143 Wave(s), 443–450 See also Light and light waves; Sound waves amplitude of, 445–446, 445f, 451 crest of, 444 damped, 442, 442f definition of, 443 frequency of, 445, 451 interference in, 448–449, 449f, 451 longitudinal characteristics of, 444, 444f, 445, 445f, 451 speed in solid rod, 462 period of, 445–446, 447 plane, 467, 467f, 489 reflection of, 449–450, 450f, 451 resonance, 479–480, 479f, 480f, 483– 484, 490 shock waves, 472–473, 472f, 473f as sinusoidal motion, 444–445, 444f, 445f spherical, 466–468, 466f, 489 standing in air columns, 480–484, 481f, 490 on strings, 475–479, 475f, 476f, 490 transverse, 444, 444f, 451 traveling, 443–444, 444f trough of, 444 types of, 443–444, 444f wavelength of, 445–446, 445f, 451 wave speed, 445–446, 447–448, 451 I.24 Index Wave front of light wave, 734, 734f Huygens’ principle, 746–748, 746f, 747f, 752 of spherical wave, 466, 466f Wave function (⌿), 883–884, 887, 902 Wavelength (l) of light absorption spectra, 893 cutoff, in photoelectric effect, 874 determining from diffraction grating, 806 emission spectrums, 892–894, 893f measurement of, 793–794, 838–839, 840–841 in medium, 796, 815 of linear wave, 445–446, 445f, 451 of matter (de Broglie wavelength), 881–882, 887 of spherical wave, 466, 466f of x-rays characteristic x-rays, 905–906 Compton shift, 879–880, 879f, 886 emitted by x-ray tube, 875–876, 875f, 876f, 887 Wavelets, 746 Wave optics, 790 See also Diffraction; Interference; Polarization Wave speed, 445–446, 447–448, 451 W bosons, 944, 944t, 952–953 Weak force Big Bang and, 954, 954f characteristics of, 944, 944t, 946, 956 and electroweak theory, 952–953 as fundamental force, 84 in Standard Model, 953, 953f Weber (Wb), 664–665 Weber per square meter (Wb/m2), 630, 652 Weight apparent, acceleration and, 99–100 gravitational force and, 90–92, 109 human, metabolism and, 414–415 SI units of, 90 Weightlessness, health effects of, 203 Wetting, of surface, 302 Wetting agents, 303 Wheeler, John, 864 Wien’s displacement law, 871, 886 Wilkins, Maurice, 878 Wilson, Charles, 879f Wilson, Robert W., 955, 955f Wind instruments, sound production in, 480–483 Wood, thermal conductivity, 367t Work (W ), 119–123, 120f, 121f, 150 in adiabatic processes, 393–395 to charge capacitor, 555, 555f by constant force, 120 definition of, 120 and electric potential energy, 531–535, 532f and energy transfer, 141 frictional, 122–123 on gas at constant pressure, 385–388 in generic processes, 397–398 gravitational, 127–128, 128f, 150, 211–212 by heat engine, 399–400, 417 in isobaric processes, 385–388, 390– 393, 417 in isothermal processes, 396–397, 396f, 417 in isovolumetric processes, 395–396, 417 mechanical energy change and, 141, 151 and potential energy, 127–128 from PV diagram, 387–388 SI units of, 120 by spring, 136–138, 148–150 in thermodynamic processes, 385–388, 416 by varying force, 147–150, 148f Work-energy theorem, 124–127, 150 with gravitational and elastic potential energy components, 136–138, 150 with gravitational potential energy component, 127–128, 133–135, 150 for rotational motion with nonconservative forces, 247, 248–249, 254 Work function, 873, 873t, 886 X x-component of glancing collision, 176 of vector, 57 Xenon (Xe), as noble gas, 904 Xerography, 545–546, 545f Xi (⌶), 946t, 951t X-rays applications, 722 characteristic, 876f, 905–906, 905f, 909 Compton shift in, 879–880, 879f, 886 diffraction by crystals, 875, 875f, 876– 878, 876f, 877f, 887 discovery of, 875 in electromagnetic spectrum, 721f, 722, 722f spectrum emitted by x-ray tube, 875– 876, 875f, 876f, 887 tissue damage from, 929, 930t X-ray tubes, spectrum emitted by, 875– 876, 875f, 876f, 887 Y y-component of glancing collision, 176 of vector, 57 Young, Thomas, 733 Young’s double-slit experiment, 791–795, 815 Young’s modulus (Y), 270, 311, 371t Z Z bosons, 944, 944t, 952–953 Zeeman effect, 899, 899f Zero-point energy, 326 Zeroth law of thermodynamics, 323, 323f, 345 Zeroth-order maximum, 793, 806 Zinc (Zn) ground-state configuration, 904t as superconductor, 584, 584t work function, 873t Zircon, index of refraction, 738t Z machine, 937f Zonules, 825 ... to earlier editions of this textbook, Dr Serway is the coauthor of Principles of Physics, fourth edition; Physics for Scientists and Engineers, seventh edition; Essentials of College Physics; and... Brazil · Canada · Mexico · Singapore · Spain · United Kingdom · United States College Physics, Eighth Edition Serway/ Vuille Physics Editor: Chris Hall Development Editor: Ed Dodd Assistant Editor:.. .COLLEGE PHYSICS EIGHTH EDITION R AYMOND A SERWAY Emeritus, James Madison University CHRIS VUILLE Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University JERRY S FAUGHN Emeritus, Eastern