Kirkpatrick physics conceptual world view 7th txtbk

Licensed to: iChapters User www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net 21 S S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 S 27 S S Al 13 S Radium 226 Francium 223 88 Ra S Fr 87 Barium 137.34 Cesium 132.91 S S 104 Rf X 74 S Th Thorium 232.04 Ac S Actinium 227 90 X Tc 43 X S 75 S X Nd 60 S Bohrium 272 Bh 107 Rhenium 186.21 Re S S X X Pm 61 Hassium 270 Hs 108 Osmium 190.23 Os 76 Ruthenium 101.07 Ru 44 Iron 55.85 Fe S Protactinium 231.04 Pa 91 S Uranium 238.03 U 92 X Neptunium 237 Np 93 Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium 140.91 144.24 145 Pr 59 Seaborgium 271 106 58 S Tungsten 183.84 W Sg Dubnium 268 S Mn Manganese 54.94 M olybdenum Technetium 95.96 98 Mo 42 105 X Ce S Cr Chromium 52.00 Db Cerium 140.12 89 S Tant alum 180.95 La S 73 Ta Lanthanum 138.91 57 Lawrencium Rutherfordium 262 267 Lr 103 Hafnium 178.49 S Lut inium 174.97 72 Hf Lu S 71 S Ba 56 S Cs 55 Nb S Niobium 92.91 41 Zr S Zir conium 91.22 40 Y S Yttrium 88.91 39 Sr S V Vanadium 50.94 Strontium 87.62 38 Ti Titanium 47.87 Rb S Sc Scandium 44.96 Rubidium 85.47 37 Ca Calcium 40.08 20 K S Potassium 39.10 19 Co S S Ni S S Ds 110 X Platinum 195.08 Pt 78 Palladium 106.42 Pd 46 Nickel 58.69 S S S S Rg 111 X Gold 196.97 Au 79 Silver 107.87 Ag 47 Copper 63.55 Cu 29 S X Plutonium 244 Pu 94 Samarium 150.36 Sm 62 S X Americium 243 Am 95 Europium 151.96 Eu 63 S X Curium 247 Cm 96 Gadolinium 157.25 Gd 64 Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium 276 281 280 Mt 109 X Iridium 192.22 Ir 77 Rhodium 102.91 Rh 45 Cobalt 58.93 28 S L S X Berkelium 247 Bk 97 Terbium 158.93 Tb 65 — 112 Mer cury 200.59 Hg 80 Cadmium 112.41 Cd 48 Zinc 65.38 Zn S S S X Californium 251 Cf 98 Dysprosium 162.50 Dy 66 — 113 Thallium 204.38 Tl 81 Indium 114.82 In 49 Gallium 72 Ga 31 S S B Boron 81 S S Actinide series Lanthanide series 30 Aluminum 98 22 Mass number Noble gases Nonmetals Transition Metals Metals Mg S Solid Liquid Gas Not found in nature Magnesium 24.31 12 X G L S Na S U Symbol Uranium 238.03 92 Atomic number State: Sodium 22.99 11 Be Berylium 9.01 Li S S Lithium 6.94 C S S S S S X Einsteinium 252 Es 99 Holmium 164.93 Ho 67 — 114 Lead 207 Pb 82 Tin 118.71 Sn 50 Germanium 72.64 Ge 32 Silicon 28 09 Si 14 Carbon 12 01 S N S S S S S X Fermium 257 Fm 100 Erbium 167.26 Er 68 — 115 Bismuth 208.98 Bi 83 Antimony 121.76 Sb 51 Arsenic 74 92 As 33 Phosphor us 30 97 P 15 Nitrogen 14 01 G O S S S S S F G L S S S No 102 X Ytterbium 173.05 Yb 70 Astatine 210 At 85 Iodine 126.90 I 53 Bromine 79 90 Br 35 Chlorine 35 45 Cl 17 Fluorine 19 00 G M endelevium Nobilium 259 258 Md 101 X Thulium 168.93 Tm 69 — 116 Polonium 209 Po 84 Tellurium 127 60 Te 52 Selenium 78 96 Se 34 Sulfur 32.07 S 16 Oxygen 16 00 G G G G — 118 R adon 222 Rn 86 Xenon 131.29 Xe 54 G G Krypton 83 80 Kr 36 Argon 39.95 Ar 18 Neon 20 18 Ne 10 Helium 00 He G Atomic masses are 2005 IUPAC values up to two decimal placs H G Hydrogen 1.01 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS Pedagogical Use of Color The colors that you see in the illustrations of this text are used to improve clarity and understanding Many figures with three-dimensional perspectives are airbrushed in various colors to make them look as realistic as possible Color has been used in various parts of the book to identify specific physical quantities The following schemes have been adopted Chapters 1–10: Motion Chapters 17–19: Light and Optical Devices Speed and Velocity Object Acceleration Light rays Force Mirror Rotation Image Linear momentum Lens Angular momentum Chapters 20 –27: Electricity and Magnetism Positive charge Negative charge Electric force and field Magnetic force and field Neutron Passage of Time/Clock Icon Art Some art shows the development of a phenomenon over time as a series of “snapshots.” A clock icon indicates the passage of time in this art A The clock icons indicate that the series of events in this figure progress over a series of uniform time priods www.elsolucionario.net Physics A Conceptual World View Seventh Edition LARRY D KIRKPATRICK Montana State University GREGORY E FRANCIS Montana State University Australia • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • Spain United Kingdom • United States www.elsolucionario.net Physics: A Conceptual World View, Seventh Edition Larry D Kirkpatrick, Gregory E Francis Publisher: Mary Finch Senior Development Editor: Peter McGahey Associate Development Editor: Brandi Kirksey Editorial Assistant: Joshua Duncan © 2010, 2007 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher Senior Media Editor: Rebecca Berardy Schwartz For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 Marketing Manager: Nicole Mollica Marketing Coordinator: Kevin Carroll For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at cengage.com/permissions Further permissions questions can be emailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com Marketing Communications Manager: Belinda Krohmer Project Manager, Editorial Production: Trudy Brown Creative Director: Rob Hugel Library of Congress Control Number: 2008943180 Art Director: John Walker ISBN-13: 978-0-495-39152-4 Print Buyer: Linda Hsu ISBN-10: 0-495-39152-2 Permissions Editor, Text: Tim Sisler Production Service: Lachina Publishing Services Text Designer: Brian Salisbury Photo Researcher: Dena Digilio Betz Copy Editor: Lachina Publishing Services Brooks/Cole 10 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA Illustrator: Greg Gambino, 2064design Cover Designer: Brian Salisbury Cover Image: © Masterfile Compositor: Lachina Publishing Services Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan Locate your local office at: international.cengage.com/region Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd For your course and learning solutions, visit academic.cengage.com Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.ichapters.com Printed in Canada 13 12 11 10 09 www.elsolucionario.net This book is dedicated to Greg’s grandchildren: Cassandra Mary Brielle Hyrum Aubrey Tyson They make their grandfather laugh and they keep their grandmother young www.elsolucionario.net This page intentionally left blank www.elsolucionario.net Preface v Brief Contents Preface xiii A World View Describing Motion 15 Explaining Motion 34 Motions in Space 59 Gravity Light 19 A Model for Light 400 78 97 Refraction of Light 375 20 21 22 Electricity Energy 115 Rotation 140 420 422 Electric Current 447 Electromagnetism 467 The Big Picture The Story of the Quantum Momentum 99 493 23 The Early Atom 495 24 The Modern Atom 520 The Big Picture Universality of Motion 162 Classical Relativity 164 10 Einstein’s Relativity 187 The Big Picture The Search for Atoms 216 Structure of Matter 218 The Big Picture The Subatomic World 25 26 27 28 545 The Nucleus 547 Nuclear Energy 573 Elementary Particles 597 Frontiers 617 States of Matter 240 Appendix A: Nobel Laureates in Physics 631 Thermal Energy 261 Appendix B: Answers to Most Odd-Numbered Questions Available Energy and Exercises 634 282 Glossary The Big Picture Waves—Something Else That Moves 301 15 16 352 The Big Picture An Electrical and Magnetic World The Big Picture The Discovery of Invariants 11 12 13 14 17 18 Vibrations and Waves Sound and Music The Big Picture The Mystery of Light Index 647 653 303 329 350 v www.elsolucionario.net This page intentionally left blank www.elsolucionario.net 650 Glossary latent heat The amount of heat required to melt (or vaporize) a unit mass of a substance The same amount of heat is released when a unit mass of the same substance freezes (or condenses); measured in calories per gram or kilojoules per kilogram lepton A family of elementary particles that includes the electron, muon, tau, and their associated neutrinos light ray A line that represents the path of light in a given direction line of stability The locations of the stable nuclei on a graph of the number of neutrons versus the number of protons linear momentum A vector quantity equal to the product of an object’s mass and its velocity, p ϭ mv liquid Matter with a definite volume that takes the shape of its container liquid crystal A liquid that exhibits a rough geometrical ordering of its atoms longitudinal wave A wave in which the vibrations of the medium are parallel to the direction the wave is moving macroscopic Describes the bulk properties of a substance such as mass, size, pressure, and temperature magnetic field The space surrounding a magnetic object, where each location is assigned a value determined by the torque on a compass placed at that location The direction of the field is in the direction of the north pole of the compass magnetic monopole A hypothetical, isolated magnetic pole magnetic pole One end of a magnet; analogous to an electric charge magnitude The size of a vector quantity For example, speed is the magnitude of a velocity mass See center of mass, critical mass, gravitational mass, and inertial mass matter-wave amplitude The wave solution to Schrödinger’s equation for atomic and subatomic particles The square of the matterwave amplitude gives the probability of finding the particle at a particular location mechanical energy The sum of the kinetic energy and various potential energies, which may include the gravitational and the elastic potential energies meson A type of hadron with whole-number units of spin This family includes the pion, kaon, and eta meter The SI unit of length equal to 39.37 inches, or 1.094 yards microscopic Describes properties not visible to the naked eye such as atomic speeds or the masses and sizes of atoms milli- A prefix meaning “one-thousandth.” A millimeter is 1000 meter mirage An optical effect that produces an image that looks as if it has been reflected from the surface of a body of water moderator A material used to slow the neutrons in a nuclear reactor mole The amount of a substance that has a mass in grams numerically equal to the mass of its molecules in atomic mass units molecule A combination of two or more atoms momentum Usually refers to linear momentum See angular momentum, conservation of angular momentum, conservation of linear momentum, and linear momentum motion, Newton’s first law of The velocity of an object remains constant unless an unbalanced force acts on the object motion, Newton’s second law of Fnet ϭ m a The net force on an object is equal to its mass times its acceleration The net force and the acceleration are vectors that always point in the same direction motion, Newton’s third law of If an object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts an equal force on the first object muon A type of lepton; often called a heavy electron myopia Nearsightedness Images of distant objects are formed in front of the retina neutrino A neutral lepton; one exists for each of the charged leptons (electron, muon, and tau) neutron The neutral nucleon; a member of the baryon and hadron families of elementary particles newton The SI unit of force A net force of newton accelerates a mass of kilogram at a rate of (meter per second) per second node One of the positions in a standing-wave or interference pattern where there is no movement; that is, the amplitude is zero noninertial reference system Any reference system in which the law of inertia (Newton’s first law of motion) is not valid An accelerating reference system is noninertial normal A line perpendicular to a surface or curve nucleon Either a proton or a neutron nucleus The central part of an atom that contains the protons and neutrons ohm The SI unit of electrical resistance A current of ampere flows through a resistance of ohm under volt of potential difference Ohm’s law The resistance of an object is equal to the voltage across it divided by the current through it, R ϭ V/I optic axis A line passing through the center of a curved mirror and the center of the sphere from which the mirror is made; a line passing through a lens and both focal points order of magnitude The value of a quantity rounded off to the nearest power of 10 ordered system A system with an arrangement belonging to a group with the smallest number (possibly one) of equivalent arrangements oscillation A vibration about an equilibrium position or shape pair production The conversion of energy into matter in which a particle and its antiparticle are produced This usually refers to the production of an electron and a positron (antielectron) parallel Two circuit elements are wired in parallel when the current can flow through one or the other but not both Elements that are wired parallel to each other are directly connected to each other at both terminals parent nucleus A nucleus that decays into a daughter nucleus particle accelerator A device for accelerating charged particles to high velocities penumbra The transition region between the darkest shadow and full brightness Only part of the light from the source reaches this region period The shortest length of time it takes a periodic motion to repeat It is equal to the inverse of the frequency, T ϭ 1/f periodic wave A wave in which all the pulses have the same size and shape The wave pattern repeats itself over a distance of wavelength and over a time of period phosphorescence The property of a material whereby it continues to emit visible light after it has been illuminated by ultraviolet light photoelectric effect The ejection of electrons from metallic surfaces by illuminating light photon A particle of light The energy of a photon is given by the relationship E ϭ hf, where f is the frequency of the light and h is Planck’s constant It is the exchange particle for the electromagnetic interaction pion The least massive meson The pion has three charge states: +1, 0, and Ϫ1 plasma The fourth state of matter in which one or more electrons have been stripped from the atoms forming an ion gas polarized A property of a transverse wave when its vibrations are all in a single plane positron The antiparticle of the electron pound The unit of force in the U.S customary system; the weight of 0.454 kilogram on Earth power The rate at which energy is converted from one form to another, P ϭ (E/⌬t; measured in joules per second, or watts In electric circuits the power is equal to the current times the voltage, P ϭ IV powers-of-ten notation A method of writing numbers in which a number between and 10 is multiplied or divided by 10 raised to a power www.elsolucionario.net Glossary 651 pressure The force per unit area of surface; measured in newtons per square meter, or pascals projectile motion A type of motion that occurs near Earth’s surface when the only force acting on the object is that of gravity proportional A relationship in which two quantities have a constant ratio If one quantity increases by a certain factor, the other increases by the same factor proton The positively charged nucleon; a member of the baryon and hadron families of elementary particles quantum (pl., quanta) The smallest unit of a discrete property For instance, the quantum of charge is the charge on the proton quantum mechanics The rules for the behavior of particles at the atomic and subatomic levels quantum number A number giving the value of a quantized quantity For instance, a quantum number specifies the angular momentum of an electron in an atom quark A constituent of hadrons Quarks come in six flavors of three colors each Three quarks make up the baryons, whereas a quark and an antiquark make up the mesons rad The acronym for radiation absorbed dose A rad of radiation deposits 0.01 joule per kilogram of material radiation The transport of energy via electromagnetic waves; particles emitted in radioactive decay real image An image formed by the convergence of light reference system A collection of objects not moving relative to each other that can be used to describe the motion of other objects See inertial reference system and noninertial reference system reflecting telescope A type of telescope using a mirror as the objective reflection, law of The angle of reflection (measured relative to the normal to the surface) is equal to the angle of incidence The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane refracting telescope A type of telescope using a lens as the objective refraction The bending of light that occurs at the interface between two transparent media It occurs when the speed of light changes refrigerator A heat engine running backward relativity, Galilean principle of The laws of motion are the same in all inertial reference systems relativity, general theory of An extension of the special theory of relativity to include the concept of gravity relativity, special theory of A comprehensive theory of space and time that replaces Newtonian mechanics when velocities get very large rem The acronym for roentgen equivalent in mammals, a measure of the biological effects caused by radiation resistance The impedance to the flow of electric current; measured in volts per ampere, or ohms The resistance is equal to the voltage across the object divided by the current through it, R ϭ V/I resonance A large increase in the amplitude of a vibration when a force is applied at a natural frequency of the medium or object rest-mass energy The energy associated with the mass of a particle; given by Eo ϭ mc 2, where c is the speed of light retroreflectors Three flat mirrors at right angles to each other that reflect light back to its source rotational acceleration The change in rotational speed divided by the time it takes to make the change rotational inertia The property of an object that measures its resistance to a change in its rotational speed rotational kinetic energy Kinetic energy associated with the rotation of a body, Ỉ rotational speed The angle of rotation or revolution divided by the time taken, rotational velocity A vector quantity that includes the rotational speed and the direction of the axis of rotation series An arrangement of resistances (or batteries) on a single pathway so that the current flows through each element shell A collection of electrons in an atom that have approximately the same energy shock wave The characteristic cone-shaped wave front that is produced whenever an object travels faster than the speed of the waves in the surrounding medium short circuit A path in an electric circuit that has very little resistance solid Matter with a definite size and shape sonar Sound waves in water spacetime A combination of time and three-dimensional space that forms a four-dimensional geometry expressing the connections between space and time special relativity, first postulate of The laws of physics are the same for all inertial reference systems special relativity, second postulate of The speed of light in a vacuum is a constant regardless of the speed of the source or the speed of the observer specific heat The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by degree; measured in calories per gram-degree Celsius or joules per kilogram-kelvin spherical aberration A property of lenses and mirrors caused by grinding the surface to a spherical rather than a parabolic shape spring constant The amount of force required to stretch a spring by unit of length; measured in newtons per meter stable equilibrium An equilibrium position or orientation to which an object returns after being slightly displaced standing wave The interference pattern produced by two waves of equal amplitude and frequency traveling in opposite directions The pattern is characterized by alternating nodal and antinodal regions static friction The frictional force between two surfaces at rest relative to each other This force is equal and opposite to the net applied force if the force is not large enough to make the object accelerate stimulated emission The emission of a photon from an atom because of the presence of an incident photon The emitted photon has the same energy, direction, and phase as the incident photon strange particle A particle with a nonzero value of strangeness In the quark model, it is made up of one or more quarks carrying the quantum property of strangeness strangeness The flavor of the third quark strong force The force responsible for holding the nucleons together to form nuclei subcritical Describes a chain reaction that dies out because an average of less than one neutron from each fission reaction causes another fission reaction supercritical Describes a chain reaction that grows rapidly because an average of more than one neutron from each fission reaction causes another fission reaction An extreme example of this is the explosion of a nuclear bomb superposition The combining of two or more waves at a location in space Système International d’Unités The French name for the metric system, or International System (SI), of units temperature, absolute The temperature scale with its zero point at absolute zero and degrees equal to those on the Celsius scale Also called the Kelvin temperature scale temperature, Celsius The temperature scale with the values of 0°C and 100°C for the temperatures of freezing and boiling water, respectively Its degree is that of the Fahrenheit degree temperature, Fahrenheit The temperature scale with values of 32°F and 212°F for the temperatures of freezing and boiling water, respectively www.elsolucionario.net 652 Glossary temperature, Kelvin The temperature scale with its zero point at absolute zero and a degree equal to that on the Celsius scale Also called the absolute temperature scale terminal speed The speed obtained in free fall when the upward force of air resistance is equal to the downward force of gravity tesla The SI unit of magnetic field thermal energy Internal energy thermal equilibrium A condition in which there is no net flow of thermal energy between two objects This occurs when the two objects obtain the same temperature thermal expansion The increase in size of a material when heated thermodynamics The area of physics that deals with the connections between heat and other forms of energy thermodynamics, first law of The increase in internal energy of a system is equal to the heat added plus the work done on the system thermodynamics, second law of There are three equivalent forms: (1) It is impossible to build a heat engine to perform mechanical work that does not exhaust heat to the surroundings (2) It is impossible to build a refrigerator that can transfer heat from a lower temperature region to a higher temperature region without expending mechanical work (3) The entropy of an isolated system tends to increase thermodynamics, third law of Absolute zero may be approached experimentally but can never be reached thermodynamics, zeroth law of If objects A and B are each in thermodynamic equilibrium with object C, then A and B are in thermodynamic equilibrium with each other All three objects are at the same temperature top The flavor of the sixth quark torque The rotational analog of force It is equal to the radius multiplied by the force perpendicular to the radius, t ϭ rF A net torque produces a change in an object’s angular momentum total internal reflection A phenomenon that occurs when the angle of incidence of light traveling from a material with a higher index of refraction into one with a lower index of refraction exceeds the critical angle translational motion Motion along a path transverse wave A wave in which the vibrations of the medium are perpendicular to the direction the wave is moving trough A valley of a wave disturbance umbra The darkest part of a shadow where no light from the source reaches uncertainty principle The product of the uncertainty in the position of a particle along a certain direction and the uncertainty in the momentum along this same direction must be greater than Planck’s constant, or ⌬py ⌬y > h A similar relationship applies to the uncertainties in energy and time unstable equilibrium An equilibrium position or orientation that an object leaves after being slightly displaced vector A quantity with a magnitude and a direction Examples are displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, and force velocity A vector quantity that includes the speed and the direction of the object; the displacement divided by the time taken, S v vibration An oscillation about an equilibrium position or shape virtual image The image formed when light only appears to come from the location of the image viscosity A measure of the internal friction within a fluid volt The SI unit of electric potential, joule per coulomb One volt produces a current of ampere through a resistance of ohm watt The SI unit of power, joule per second wave The movement of energy from one place to another without any accompanying matter wavelength The shortest repetition length for a periodic wave For example, it is the distance from crest to crest or from trough to trough weak force The force responsible for beta decay This force occurs through the exchange of the W and Z0 particles All leptons and hadrons interact via this force weight The force of gravitational attraction of Earth for an object W ϭ mg work The product of the force along the direction of motion and the distance moved, W ϭ Fd Measured in energy units, joules X ray A high-energy photon, usually produced by cathode rays or emitted by electrons falling to lower energy states in atoms; the range of frequencies in the electronic spectrum lying between the ultraviolet and the gamma rays www.elsolucionario.net index 653 Index e = equation g = definition in glossary t = table of reflection, 356, 376 –379, 401– 402 of refraction, 376 –379, 402 resolving, 407 angular momentum See momentum, Abbott, Edwin, 207 angular aberration, 388g angular chromatic, 388, 393 separation, 407 spherical, 388, 394 size, 390 absolute zero, 266g, 277 annihilation, 600 – 601 absorption, 538 particle, 622 acceleration, 34, 132, 172 –173, 209 anode, 499 absolute nature, 163 antiatom, 600 average, 22g–22e–24, 43e, 61– 62e–73 antibaryon, 609 Brownian motion, 226 antideuterium, 600 buoyancy, 250 antielectron, 600, 608 centripetal, 64g– 65e– 66, 82, 88, 476 antihydrogen, 600 of charges, 473, 485, 487, 503, 509, antimatter, 598 –599, 613, 628 523 –524, 532, 565, 577, 618 antineutrino, 601 and classical relativity, 188 antineutron, 600, 628 constant, 27–28, 41, 59, 63, 142 antinodal line, 321–322, 340 due to electric field, 433 antinodal region, 319 –322, 403 and equivalence principle, 205 antinode, 318g–323, 337–339 free-body diagram, 45 antinucleon, 599 and general relativity, 204 antinucleus, 600 due to gravitational vs electric antiparticle, 556, 569, 559g– 600, 605, field, 433 613 – 614, 622 due to gravity, 27, 45, 54, 81, 84 – 85, antiphoton, 600 87, 92 –93, 165–170, 307 antiproton, 597, 600, 628 in inertial reference systems, 167, 199 antiquark, 597, 610 – 613, 628 linear, 142 Archimedes, 250 –252 due to magnetic field, 476 principle, 250g, 252 and net force, 41–54, 80, 120 Aristotle, 24 –25, 35–36, 47– 48, 79, neutron, 577 216 –217 in noninertial reference systems, 168 eclipse, 354 pendulum, 307 four elements, 35, 220, 597–598, 613 relative, 165, 169, 188 place in universe, 175 rotational, 141g–148 artifact, age determination, 547 vector, 141 astigmatism, 390 –391 and special relativity, 188 astronomical unit (AU), translational, 144 –145 atom, 216 –219g–235, 495–515, 520 –541, units, 22 548, 553 –555, 561, 569, 574, 585, vector, 23, 62 613, 623, 628 and velocity, 46 at absolute zero, 266 zero, 38 –39, 49, 170 anti-, 600 accelerator, 599, 605, 625 Bohr, 515, 529 circular, 575–576 crystal, 255 linear, 575 and current, 453 particle, 575g, 593 daughter, 559 acoustics, 332 divisibility, 598 action at a distance, 91, 434, 545, 602 dominant force, 433 activity, 557g–558 Earth and Moon composition, 434 air conditioner, 276, 288 –289, 458 evidence for existence, 218 –219, 500 air resistance See resistance, air formation, 623 alchemist, 554 –555 freezing water, 251, 253 alchemy, 220 ionization, 561g–562, 569 Allen, Bryan, 133 isotopes, 553g–554, 560, 566, 568, alpha 570, 579, 582, 584, 589 decay, 555, 590, 593 and lasers, 538 –539 emission, 586 and light, 413, 495, 499, 507, 509 –510, emitter, 560 515–516 mass, 561 liquid, 245 particle, 501g–502, 551g, 554 –555, and magnetic field, 471, 474, 521 561–569, 574, 590 mass, 224, 552 range, 561t molecule formation, 222 –223, ray, 504, 551 627– 628 Alpha Centauri, 20 net electric charge, 425, 501, 512 ammeter, 476, 478 number in material, 224 amorphous, 245 parent, 559 ampere (unit), 452g, 472g periodicity, 508, 515 Ampère, André, 471 photon interaction, 509, 561 amplify, 332 plasma, 241, 246 –247 amplitude, 305g–323, 332, 340 –341, 411, properties, 433, 514 487, 527–529 quantum-mechanical, 529 angle radioactive, 554, 557, 569 critical, 379g, 393, 395 seeing, 524 of incidence, 356, 376 –379, 393, 395, size, 11, 502, 515, 524 401– 402 analogy, 503 solid, 242, 244, 253 and spectral lines, 510 –512 stable, 503, 514, 521, 532 structure, 241, 495–503, 506, 509 universe composition, 421 unstable, 509 –510 uranium–235, 582 –586 atomic behavior, 219 bomb, 244, 589 energy (see energy, atomic) fingerprint, 495, 497 level, 521, 528 mass, 224g, 512, 515, 552 –553 mass unit, 224g–225, 234, 552 –553 model (see model, atomic) motion, 266, 293 number, 515g ordering, 242 oscillator, 505–508 scale, 536 size, 224 spacing, 224 spectra, 496 – 499, 510 –511, 553 speeds, 227–231 structure, 219, 495– 496, 513 weight, 496 world view, 200, 536 attack (music), 333 attraction, 423 – 428, 431, 468, 472, 487, 602 induced, 426 – 427 aurora australis, 476 aurora borealis, 247, 476 Avogadro, Amedeo, 223, 225 number, 225g axis Earth’s magnetic, 474 optic, 361g–364, 370, 384g–388, 395 polarization, 411, 413 rotation, 141–146, 152, 164, 173 –175, 179 rotational, 474 spin, 153 –154 balance, 71, 98 Balmer, Johann, 606 Bardeen, John, 473 barometer, 249 baryon, 607g– 614 charmed, 611 number, 609 – 611, 621 conservation, 609, 621 battery, 295, 448 – 462, 473, 481– 482 alkaline, 462 and bulb, 450 – 452 dry cell, 449 lithium, 462 NiCad, 458 parallel, 449 – 450 series, 449 storage, 449 symbol, 459 voltaic, 265 beat, 340g–341, 346 Becquerel, Henri, 493, 504, 548 –549, 550, 561 Bernoulli, Daniel, 252 principle, 251, 253g beta decay, 555, 568 –569, 577, 582, 589, 592, 608, 613 puzzle, 600 – 601 emitter, 564 inverse decay, 555, 569 minus decay, 556, 582 particle, 551g, 561, 563, 568 –569, 574, 583 plus decay, 556, 593 ray, 551 Betelgeuse, 273 Big Bang, 621– 623 binocular, 392 black hole, 8, 208, 619 Bode, J E., law, 5t – Bohr, Margrethe, 513 Bohr, Niels, 203, 504, 509 –512, 515, 521, 536 –537, 584 biography, 513 See model, atomic boiling point, 229, 270t, 567 Bolt, Usain, 20 bomb atomic, 244, 589 fission, 589 hydrogen, 589 nuclear, 574, 586 plutonium, 584 Bondi, Sir Hermann, 4, 494 Born, Max, 581 bottom quark, 611g– 611t Boyle’s law, 232 –233 Brahe, Tycho, 80 British thermal unit (btu), 263g Brown, Robert, 217, 226 bubble chamber, 568, 598 bulk properties, 219 caloric, 262 calorie (unit), 263g Calorie (unit), 264 calorimeter, 265 camera, 395 obscura, 356 pinhole, 355–356, 387 simple, 388 carbon–14 dating, 559 Carnot, Sadi, 285 cathode, 499 ray, 499g–500, 514 –515, 549 Cavendish, Henry, 84 – 85, 92 Celsius, Anders, 230 center of mass, 71g–72, 88 – 89, 146g–155 centi, 8g centigrade (unit), 229 centimeter, ceramic, 473 Chadwick, James, 551–552 chain reaction, 583g–586, 593 critical, 586g subcritical, 586g supercritical, 586g, 592 change of state, 269g–270, 277 charge, 423g– 440, 487– 488, 512, 561, 564, 567, 575, 592 accelerating, 532 alpha particle, 501, 551, 561 and cathode rays, 499 –500 color, 612 conservation, 425g– 426, 440, 448 – 455, 457, 460 – 461 554, 568, 608, 610 and current, 448, 450, 452 – 453, 456 effects on proton and neutron levels, 580 and electric field, 433 – 440, 469, 482 and electric force, 431, 433 and electromagnetic waves, 485, 501, 503, 618 electron, 425, 432, 515, 620 electroscope, 428 – 430, 448, 468 elementary, 431, 501, 551 fractional, 610 and gamma ray, 556 653 www.elsolucionario.net 654 Index charge, continued induced, 428, 449 by induction, 430 intermediate vector boson, 605 kinds, 424 – 425 and magnetic field, 470, 475– 476, 591 vs mass, 432 – 434 measuring, 500 muon, 605 neutron, 552 nucleus, 241 photon, 556 pion, 605 positron, 556, 599 proton, 425, 432, 577, 581 quarks, 610 – 611t radiation frequency, 509 smallest unit, 501 test, 435– 436 to mass ratio, 500 –501, 515, 586, 599 two kinds, 424 – 425, 432 – 433 unit, 431– 432 charged, 423g– 440, 499 –502, 505, 514, 551, 554, 561, 564, 567, 599, 605 charm quark, 611g– 611t chemical reaction, 263, 549, 553, 574, 583, 593 chemistry, 220 –221 Churchill, Winston, 513 circuit, 431, 448, 451– 461, 487 breaker, 459 complete, 441, 451g elements, 459 household, 450, 452, 458 – 460 integrated, 562 parallel, 456, 458 series, 455 short, 457g smoke detector, 560 clock, 192 –209, 305–308 atomic, 308, 620 light, 196 –197 pendulum, 308 radioactive, 198, 558 –560, 569 –570, 590 synchronized, 192 –196 water, 308 coherence, 538 –539, 541 collision, 99, 101, 104 –108, 118 –119, 134, 331, 576 –577, 592 atomic, 118, 264, 501 elastic, 118g–119, 134, 401, 587 inelastic, 118g, 134 particle, 226 –227, 270, 569, 576 –577, 609 subatomic, 118 color, 219, 367, 381, 393, 403 – 404, 408, 414, 495 adding, 367–370 complementary, 367g–368 and dispersion, 381–383, 403, 413 frequency of light, 503, 506, 508, 516 gas absorption or emission, 496 – 497 from hot object, 504 and interference, 403 – 406, 408 – 409, 413 mixing, 367–368, 370 perception, 367, 369 photoelectric effect, 506 –508, 516 polarization effect, 412 primary, 369 printing, 369 psychedelic, 531 quark, 620 rainbow, 381–383, 393 of sky, 369 –370 subtracting, 369 –370 television, 369 –369 of water, 370 common sense, 4, 35, 50, 174, 220, 405, 536 commutator, 480 compass, 469 – 474 complementarity principle, 536g, 540 component electronic, 562 compound, 221g–223 compression, 304, 306, 315, 330, 338 compressor, 289 conceptual leap, 78 Concorde, 20, 344 –345 condensation, 345 condenser, 289 conduction, 270g–271t–273, 277 conductivity, thermal, 271t conductor, 449 – 452, 461– 462, 473 electrical, 271, 423g– 424, 440 thermal, 271 conservation, See law, conservation conserved, 97, 103g constant cosmological, 617 Coulomb’s, 431 gas, 232, 234 gravitational, 83 – 84, 92 Planck’s, 505–507, 516, 523, 535, 541, 604, 606, 621 spring, 306g unit, 306 thermal, 283 contact, thermal, 267, 283 convection, 270, 272g–274, 277 converge, 362 –364, 370 cooling, evaporative, 233 Cooper, Leon, 473 Copernicus, Nicholas, 79, 175–176 planetary motion, 25 cosmic ray, 476, 559, 564, 605, 625– 626 cosmology, 621, 628 coulomb (unit), 431g– 432, 452g, 472 Coulomb, Charles, 431 constant, 431 law, 431e– 432, 435 Count Rumford, 262 –264 Cowan, Clyde, 601– 602 crest, 313g–321, 342 –343, 408 – 409, 522 crystal, 241–242g–244, 255 crystalline structure, 241–245, 253 curie (unit), 557g Curie, Eve, 550 Curie, Marie Sklodowska, 549, 557, 563, 581, 587 biography, 550 Curie, Pierre, 549 –550 current, 422, 447, 450g, 452e– 460, 470 – 482, 488, 496, 515 alternating, 450, 461, 479 atomic, 471 bulbs in series, 455 convection, 272 direct, 450, 461, 479 – 480 direction, 452 and Earth’s magnetic field, 474 – 475 electromagnet, 472 induced, 515 due to lightning, 441 loops, 470 – 471, 477– 480, 488 and magnetic field, 470, 476 – 478, 481– 483 model, 457 and power, 459 – 460e and resistance, 453e– 454 standard, 455 super, 473 unit, 452, 472 and voltage model, 457 in water model, 452 curve ball, 254 cycle, 304g–306 Dalton, John, 222, 265 Darwin, Charles, 559 da Vinci, Leonardo, 388 Davis, Ray, 625– 626 Davisson, C J., 523 de Broglie, Louis, 521–523, 525, 529, 540 decay, 582, 600, 606 – 610 electron capture, 555g–556, 569, 593 gamma, 556t law, 558 proton, 621 radioactive, 198, 554 –556t–568, 574 –575, 593 rate, 558 –569 See alpha, decay; beta, decay deceleration, 23 decibel (unit), 335 level for common sounds, 335t degrees (unit), 141 Democritus, 216 density, 241g–242e–242t–243, 247–253, 272 –274, 277 air, 242 atmosphere, 379 body fat, 251 common materials, 242t critical matter, 624 – 625 dark energy, 625 Earth, 242, 315 floating, 252 human body, 251 ice, 242, 251 mass, spring, 313 muscle, 251 neutron star, 243 silica aerogel, 243 space, 243 Universe, 624 – 625 unit, 241 white dwarf, 243 Descartes, René, 537 detector gravitational wave, 618 – 620 radiation, 565–569 scintillation, 565, 567 smoke, 560 determinism, 537 deuterium, 554, 588, 591 deuteron, 577–578, 589 diffraction, 224, 321g–323, 405– 407, 508, 523, 574 –575 effect, 508, 523, 574 electron, 524 grating, 495– 496, 511 limit, 407 pattern, 322 –323, 405– 407, 523 diopter, 389 Dirac, P A M., 599 disorder, 289 dispersion, 381g–382, 388, 393, 403g, 406, 413 displacement, 21g, 39 – 41, 314g angular, 141g–142, 145 linear, 141 magnitude, 21 distance, 16 –17, 21–22, 120 –121, 134, 262 Earth to Moon, 360 Earth to Sun, lightning, 331 rotational, 141 stopping, 121t diverge, 362 –364 Doppler, Christian, 342 effect, 342g–343, 346 down quark, 610 – 611t drag, 254 duality, wave-particle, 521, 525–526, 534, 536 –537, 540, 629 Dubouchet, Karine, 48 dynamo, 265 ear, 330 –332, 335, 342 –345 schematic, 332 Earth, 11, 24, 44 acceleration, 174 acceleration near surface, 45, 86 – 87, 170, 433 age of, 559 www.elsolucionario.net air pressure at surface, 247 angular momentum, 152 –153 atmosphere, 180, 247–248, 272 –274, 375, 380 –381, 383, 407, 420, 605 auroras, 247, 476 core, 315, 627 curvature, 70 density, 242 eclipses, 354 formation, 623, 628 geocentric, 25, 79, 174g–175 gravity, 27, 29, 45, 50, 172 heliocentric, 25, 80, 175g interior, 315 kinetic energy, 118, 122 magnetic axis, 474 magnetic field, 474 – 476 magnetic poles, 247 mass, 51, 84 – 85 momentum change, 104 motion, 16, 60, 153, 176 motion relative to the surface, 162 nearly inertial system, 174 –181 noninertial effects, 176 –179 orbit, 6, 122, 174 –176, 592 orbital radius, 5– orbital speed, 20, 174, 189 precession, 155 radiation received, 273 radius, 82, 85 reference system, 165, 167 rotation, 16, 88, 164, 174 –179, 474 rotational axis, 154, 164, 474 rotation direction, 177–178 seasons, 269 shadows, 353 –355, 383, 406 structure, 315 tides, 88 –90 torque on, 154 weighing, 84 work on, 122 earthquake, 315 eclipse, 354 efficiency, 287g–287e–288, 296 Carnot, ideal, 287 heating water, 295t thermal, 265 Einstein, Albert, 163 belief in God, 35 bending of light, 205 biography, 203 and Bohr, 513 Brownian motion, 217, 226 and Curie, 550 and de Broglie, 523 energy/mass equivalence, 625 equivalence principle, 205 and Feynman, 603 length contraction, 199 –200 mass-energy equivalence, 625 mass-energy equation, 203, 561, 578 –580, 587, 598 and Maxwell, 203, 484 and Meitner, 587 and modern physics, 538 nature of light, 413 and Newton, 203 and Noether, 109 photoelectric effect, 508, 516 photon, 509, 516 and Planck, 507 quantum ideas, 521 and quantum mechanics, 538 quote, 538, 627 relativity, 187–208, 521 general, 617– 618, 620, 624 special, 187–192 scientific process, – simultaneity, 190 –192 spacetime, 201, 203, 207, 629 time dilation, 196 Eisenhower, Dwight, 513 index elasticity, 217, 315 electric charge (see charge) circuit (see circuit) conductor, 271, 423g– 424, 440, 449 – 452, 461– 462, 473 current (see current) deflection, 553 effect, 420 energy (see energy, electric) field (see field, electric) force (see force, electric) generator, 131, 287–288, 295, 449 – 450, 479 – 481, 575 grounding, 423g– 424 insulator, 271, 432g, 427, 440, 448 motor, 288, 480 potential, 439g– 439e– 440, 452, 461 units, 439 – 440 potential difference, 448 – 449, 454, 458, 460, 473, 510, 523, 575 power, 459g– 460e– 461, 479 resistance, 453g– 453t– 453e– 462 spark, 422, 424, 440 voltage (see voltage) work, 439 – 440 electricity, 420 – 440, 447– 462, 467– 468, 476 – 484, 503, 506, 610 from battery, 451 cost, 461– 462 danger, 452 flow, 219, 426, 448, 451– 453, 456 generating, 288, 295, 361, 479 – 481, 488, 573, 586, 588 and gravity, 432 – 434, 439 – 440 household, 449 – 450, 462 lightning, 441 and magnetism, 467– 468, 470 – 471, 476 – 477, 481– 484, 621 static, 448 usage, 448, 461 electrode, 449 electrolysis, 221 electrolyte, 449 electromagnet, 471– 472g, 482 electromagnetism, 467, 545 electron, 4, 423, 426, 440, 501g–512, 576, 619, 625 accelerating, 433, 503 anti-, 600, 608 and atomic periodicity, 513 –515 behavior, 494 and Bohr model, 509 –510 bubble chamber interaction, 568, 598 capture, 555g–556, 569, 593 charge, 425, 432, 438, 515 cloud, 530, 558 and conduction, 270 –271 determining chemical properties of atom, 241, 549, 553 –555 diffraction, 524 discovery, 500 duality, 526, 536 and electric force, 433 – 434, 453 and electromagnetic waves, 487 and exclusion principle, 580 existence in nucleus, 546, 552 free, 452, 561 and gravitational force, 433 interference, 523, 525–527, 537 and laser emission, 538 –539 and leptons, 608 – 609, 611 and light, 447 lightning, 441 and magnetic fields, 471 mass, 433 – 434, 515, 523, 552 –553t, 604 nature particle, 521, 525–527, 536 –537 wave, 521–527, 536 –537 orbit, 521, 530 photoelectric effect, 506 –507, 565 in plasma, 241, 247, 253 and positron, 598 – 601, 623 radiating, 509 and radiation, 562 –563, 566 range, 561t shell, 512g, 514 –515, 521, 532 –533, 549, 555, 580 and spectral emission, 510 –511, 521 spin, 532, 610 state, 530 –533, 539, 565 and superconductivity, 473 wave, 523 wavelength, 521–522e–524, 575 and X rays, 486 electron volt (unit), 510g electroscope, 428 – 430, 448, 487 electrostatic, 475, 493 element, 220g–222, 234, 241 absorption and emission spectra, 497– 498, 501, 512, 521 Aristotle’s four, 35, 597–598 chemical, 35, 241, 496, 514, 532, 549, 598, 606, 613 formation, 628 isotope, 553g–554, 564 Lavoisier’s, 221t naturally occurring, 468, 582 noble, 514 periodicity, 496, 503, 508, 512, 515, 532 –533, 540 radioactive, 549 –550, 554 –559, 600 rare-earth, 473 relative mass, 223 –224 first 30, 533t emission spontaneous, 538 –539 stimulated, 538g, 541 energy, 98, 265, 268, 270, 278, 293, 295, 301, 493, 532, 569, 574 –578, 604 from alpha/beta particles, 561 antiparticle, 599 atomic, 510, 513, 581 atomic kinetic, 265, 277 available, 282 binding, 578g, 583, 589 average per nucleon, 578–579, 589, 593 total, 579 chain reaction, 586 chemical, 129, 132, 449, 574, 583 conservation, 109, 115–135, 150, 167–168, 233, 269, 217, 304, 409, 459, 461, 566, 578, 600 – 601, 609 circuits, 457 fails, 262, 604 – 606, 608 first law of thermodynamics, 265– 266g, 277, 283 –296 hoax?, 131 inertial reference system, 167–168, 209 kinetic, 118 –119, 134 mass-energy, 589 mechanical, 124 –127, 134, 262, 276 photon, 509 –510 special relativity, 203 –204 thermal, 266, 269 convection, 272 –273 conversions, 295 crisis, 293 –295 dark, 624 – 625, 630 from deuterium, 591 discrete, 505–506, 509, 516 elastic potential, 128 –129, 439g– 440, 502 electric, 115, 129 –134, 295, 449, 459 – 462, 473, 574 electric potential, 269, 457, 461 electromagnetic potential, 129 electromagnetic wave, 618 electron, 508 vs alpha particle, 563 orbit, 515 equivalence to mass, 578 –579, 606 – 608, 625 excitation, 582 fission, 583, 586 frictional potential, 130 gravitational potential, 123g–123e– 135, 150, 168, 253, 264, 269, 291, 439, 457, 578, 592 gravitational wave, 618, 620 heat, 118, 122 internal, 264 –266g–269, 277, 282 –296 invariant, 98 kinetic, 117g–117e–135, 219, 262 – 263, 271, 439, 506, 582, 587, 589, 604, 608 – 609 alpha particle, 502 average, 462 molecular, 241, 246, 264, 270, 591 atomic, 265 from beta decay, 601 change in, 120e–122 from electric field, 440, 566, 575 electron, 507, 510, 516, 601 fluid, 253 gas, 229, 231–235 inertial reference system, 168, 188 linear, 150 particle, 219, 226, 270, 575 particle in a box, 528 –529 photoelectric effect, 506 –508 quantized, 508 relativistic, 203e–204, 209 rotational, 150g–150e, 265, 267 units, 150 translational, 150, 265, 267 units, 118 level, 510, 515–516, 523, 528 –529, 531, 553, 555–556, 581 diagram, 510, 538 discrete, 580 hydrogen, 523 neutron, 581 nucleus, 556 proton, 581 quantized, 538, 541 loss, 288 macroscopic, 294 from mass, 580 mechanical, 124g–124e–135, 283 –296, 305, 510 total, 124 –126 microscopic, 265 molecular bonds, 266 nuclear, 247, 545, 573, 577, 579, 587–588, 593 nuclear potential, 129 –130, 580 particle, 576 –577 perpetual motion, 285–286, 296, 629 photon, 508e, 510, 516, 560 –561 potential, 134, 262 –264, 286 power, 132 –133 purchasing, 462 quality, 295 quanta, 505e–506, 516, 602 quantized, 529, 535 quantum nature, 494 radiation, 560, 565 rest-mass, 203g–203e–204, 608 saving, 293 –295 sound, 119, 335 source, 282 –289, 295 state, 531, 539, 574, 581 lowest, 528 –529, 539 stimulated photon, 538 Sun’s, 591–592 and temperature, 231, 233, 263, 265, 269 –270 thermal, 130 –134, 261, 264g, 269 –272, 276 –277, 305, 361, 460, 473 total, 290, 608 to reverse Earth’s magnetic, 475 uncertainty principle, 535 units, 118, 264 www.elsolucionario.net 655 usage, 131 vector, 118, 150 vibrational, 265, 267 wave, 303, 312, 323, 330, 525 enrichment uranium, 586 entropy, 291g–296 equation kinematic, 142 rotational, 142e mass-energy, 203, 578 Maxwell’s, 188, 190, 484 – 485, 521, 540 Schrödinger, 528 –529, 532 wave, 525 equilibrium position, 304g–322 stable, 148g thermal, 264g–267, 273 –274 unstable, 148g equivalent states, 290 –291 ether, 189g, 485 evaporation, 233, 274 evaporator, 289 events, simultaneous, 190 –191 evolution, theory of, 559 excited state, 529, 531, 541 exclusion principle, 205g, 532g–533, 540, 580, 612 – 613 expansion, thermal, 275–276g–276e–277 coefficient, 276 exponent, 10 –13 exponential growth, 130 –131 eye, 291, 382 –384, 388 –390, 520 glasses, 384, 389, 391 piece, 390, 392 schematic, 389 surgery, 540 Fahrenheit, Gabriel, 229 Faraday, Michael, 265, 426, 476 – 479, 484 Faraday’s law, 478 farsightedness, 391 Fermi, Enrico, 581–582 biography, 584 Fermi, Laura, 584 Feynman diagram, 602 – 603 Feynman, Richard, 116, 525, 602 – 603, 627 biography, 603 quote, 116 –117 fiber optic, 378 –379 field, 91g electric, 245, 433 – 434g– 435e– 440 and current, 452 – 453 between parallel plates, 438 – 439 effect on a charged particle, 500 –501, 556, 566, 575 and electromagnetic waves, 483 – 485 lines, 436g– 440 and magnetic, 482 – 483, 514, 549, 551, 568 around negative charge, 435 around positive charge, 435– 437 units, 435 electron, 524 gravitational, 91g–93, 172, 205–209, 439 magnetic, 434, 469g– 488, 499 –502, 521 atomic, 471 determining direction, 141–142, 470 of Earth, 471, 474 – 476 reversal, 475 source, 474 – 475 effect on a charged particle, 475, 551, 568, 575, 591, 598 –599 and electric, 482 – 483, 514, 549, 551, 568, induced, 478 line, 477– 480, 488 near bar magnet, 469 near solenoid, 470 – 471 656 Index field, continued near wire, 470 theoretical limit, 474 unit, 472 radiation, 603 vector, 435 filament, 453 – 455, 460 fission, 582g–589, 593 reaction, 593 Fizeau, Hippolyte, 365 flavor of neutrinos, 626 – 627 of quarks, 610g– 611t flawed reasoning absorption spectrum, 511 acceleration, 28 alpha decay, 555 average speed, 22 Avogadro’s number, 225 bulbs in series, 455 center of mass, 147 centrifugal forces, 174 circular motion, 63 color addition, 369 conservation of mass, 580 conservation of mechanical energy, 127–128 current model, 457 Doppler effect, 343 electrical attraction, 427 electrical force, 432 electromagnetic wave, 485 electron interference, 527 equivalence principle, 206 forces in orbit, 70 fusion reactor, 592 gravitational force, 85 gravity on the moon, 86 gravitational potential energy, 124 heat capacity, 268 heat index, 275 image location, 358 images from a lens, 387 inertial reference systems, 168 intermediate vector bosons, 606 Lenz’s law, 478 momentum conservation, 104 net force, 46 Newton’s 3rd law, 50 orbits, 70 pressure, 249 probability, 292 quark color, 613 radioactivity, 549 rainbow, 382 second law of thermodynamics, 287 simultaneity, 192 sinking and floating, 252 speed of sound, 331 temperature scales, 231 thin films, 409 torque, 146 transverse wave, 318 uncertainty principle, 536 vector nature of momentum, 108 wave speed, 313 float, 249 –252 Fludd, Robert, 286 fluid, 246 –253, 262 –263, 268, 272, 312 electric, 433 and transverse waves, fluorescence, 531, 548 focal length eye, 389 lens, 384g, 386, 388, 390 –392 mirror, 361g–363 focal point lens, 384g, 386, 390, 395 mirror, 361g–364, 370 361g–363 “other,” 384 principal, 384 –385 foot (unit), force, 38g–54, 80 – 81, 100 –103, 116, 143 –152, 188, 202 –203, 207, 262, 629 and air resistance, 254 attractive, 233, 246, 427, 434, 604 balance, 248 binding, 241, 266 bonding, 244 buoyant, 249 –251g–252, 255 centrifugal, 60, 63, 70, 173g–174, 178 centripetal, 60g, 63 – 66, 70, 73, 173, 475– 476 color, 612, 614, 620 constant, 41 Coriolis, 178g–180 drag, 250 elastic, 304 electric, 129, 169, 241, 253, 420, 427– 435e, 440, 503, 509, 548, 574, 580, 592, 606 on compass, 470 electromagnetic, 79, 129 –134, 574, 604 – 605, 614, 620 – 622 electrostatic, 521 electroweak, 622 exchange, 602, 604 external, 106, 246 fictitious, 169 –181 four basic, 79 free-body diagram, 51–53, 63 – 64, 250 friction, 41, 45– 49, 53, 63 – 66, 73, 118 –134, 173, 283, 295 gravitational, 38, 46, 52, 54, 79, 82 – 83e–92, 102, 122 –124, 146 –154, 204 –205, 241–243, 249 –254, 263, 307 on atomic level, 241, 249, 503, 577, 580 and center of mass, 88 and development of Universe, 621, 623, 628 near Earth, 86 – 87 and electric force, 432 – 434, 509, 545, 574, 618 as energy source, 574 exchange particle, 605, 614 and grand unified theory, 620 – 621 on Moon, 44, 83, 86 and noninertial reference systems, 168 –173, 178, 204 and orbits, 70, 592 on other planets, 86 projectile motion, 60 –73 as restoring, 307, 312 and source of Sun’s energy, 559 and tides, 88 – 89 between two objects, 83 – 84 of inertia, 70 inertial, 169g–173, 178 –179, 199, 204 –205 intermolecular, 233, 244 –245, 253 internal, 89 on light, 402 magnetic, 129, 169, 420, 472, 475e– 476, 480, 487– 488, 499 net, 38 – 42e–54, 60 – 64, 73, 80, 100 – 103, 140, 144 –145, 170, 250, 253 change momentum, 120, 122, 126 constant, 167 direction, 41– 42 and mass, 42 zero, 39, 52, 144, 170, 174, 247 n-n, 577 normal, 45– 46, 52, 63 – 64, 148 –149, 170 n-p, 577 nuclear, 134, 241, 545, 574, 576 –577, 592, 606, 622 periodic, 309 p-p, 577 and pressure, 226, 243, 247–248, 625 repulsive, 434 restoring, 304, 307, 312 –313, 339 and rotations, 142 –147 separation during Big Bang, 621– 623, 628 spring, 304 strong, 79, 574, 577g, 580, 592, 605, 613 – 614, 620, 622 tension, 148 –151 third law, 50 –53, 174 unbalanced, 38 –39, 53, 249 unified, 623 unit, 43, 54 vector, 39, 61, 92, 122 weak, 79, 577g, 580, 592, 605– 606, 614, 620, 622 weakest, 420 and weight, and work, 120 –122 fossil fuel, 573 Foucault, J B L., 176 Foucault, Jean, 402 – 403 fourth dimension, 163, 201 Franck, James, 581 Franklin, Benjamin, 425– 426 biography, 426 Frayn, Michael, 513 free-body diagram, 45– 46, 51–53, 63 – 64, 149, 250 extended, 148 –150 free fall, 26 –27, 47, 73, 124, 165, 167 freezing point, 229 frequency, 305g–305e–323, 330, 338 –342, 346, 405, 408, 487, 506, 534 audio, 486 beat, 340g–341, 346 carrier, 486 – 488 Doppler, 342 –343 electromagnetic wave, 485– 488, 507 emitted, 508 fundamental, 319g, 333 –334, 337–340, 345 harmonic, 319g, 337, 339 hearing, 332 –333 animal, 333t human, 332 –333, 335 range, 33t, 344 from hot object, 505, 515 infrasonic, 333 light, 496 in a medium, 402, 408 natural, 309 –310, 323 orbital, 503 oscillation, 316 particle, 537 and photon energy, 507–508e–509 radiated by charge, 509 resonant, 319 –320, 333 sound, 343 standing wave, 319 –320, 338, 345–346 ultrasonic, 333 units, 305 friction, 36, 38, 48 – 49g, 61, 89, 130, 133, 154, 189, 217, 246, 276, 287, 294, 304 –305, 401 force (see force, friction) kinetic, 49g, 53 –54, 66 loss, 285–286 static, 49g, 53 –54, 66 Frisch, Otto, 587 fuse, 459 fusion, 589g, 591–593, 628 Gabor, Dennis, 414 galaxy, 1, 153, 208, 343 Andromeda, 90 Milky Way, 11, 25, 90, 179, 208, 619, 624 Galileo, 24 –28, 36 –37, 67, 80, 421 and absolutes, 163 and acceleration due to gravity, 26 –27 and Aristotle, 24 –25, 47– 48 biography, 25 www.elsolucionario.net and clocks, 308 and Copernicus, 25 energy conservation, 124 –125 and Huygens, 98 inertia, 37–38, 217 and Kepler, 80 measuring the speed of light, 365 motion, 24 –28, 36 –37, 48 and Newton, 37, 48 and pendula, 307 principle of relativity, reference systems, 176 relative motion, 167 scientific style, 26 spirit of, 225 telescope, 25, 390 thermometer, 229 thought experiment, 26, 36 Galloping Gertie, 310 Galvani, Luigi, 448 gamma ray, 486, 488, 551, 556, 568 –569, 578, 582, 598 absorption, 561–562 half-distance, 562t gas, 218 –235, 240 –241, 246g–247, 253, 255, 266, 269, 275, 277, 496 constant, 232, 234 convection in, 272 –273 ideal, 225g–227, 230 –234, 246, 285 assumptions, 225 law, 218, 232g–232e–235 macroscopic properties, 218 –219 noble, 533 real, 225, 230 –231, 267 spectral lines, 496 – 498, 501, 512 gauss (unit), 472g Geiger counter, 566 –567 Gell-Mann, Murray, 610, 618 generator, 131, 287–288, 295, 449 – 450, 479 – 481, 575 geographic pole, 474 geosynchronous, 87– 88 geothermal, 295 Germer, L H., 523 Gilbert, William, 423, 425, 469 Glashow, Sheldon, 621 global positioning system, 206 gluon, 612g– 614 God, 35, 80, 513, 538 Goeppert-Mayer, Maria biography, 581 Goitschel, Philippe, 48 Goldberg, Rube, Gossamer Albatross, 133 grand jeté, 72 gravitation, 203, 426 constant, 83 – 84, 92 field (see field, gravitational) force (see force, gravitational) universal law of, 83g–92, 162, 204 –205, 432 graviton, 604 – 605g gravity, 38, 72, 78 –92, 165, 176, 408, 420, 424, 428 – 429, 545, 617, 629 acceleration (see acceleration, due to gravity) artificial, 173 black hole, 2, 208, 619 center of mass, 146 –154 concept, 78 –79 effect on atmosphere, 247 and Einstein, 203 –205 and electricity, 424, 432 – 434, 439 – 440 on Moon, 83, 86 pendulum period, 307 on planets, 86 projectile motion, 65– 69, 254 and relativity, 204 –207 wave (see wave, gravitational) and weight, 45, 50 zero, 172 index greenhouse effect, 274 grounding, 423g– 424 ground state, 510 –511, 556, 565, 580 Guerrouj, Hicham El, 20 gyroscope, 153 –154 hadron, 607g– 612 property, 607t Hahn, Otto, 587 half-distance, 562 half-life, 557g–558, 560, 607– 609 Halley, Edmund, 38 halo, 383 harmonic, 319g–320, 333, 336 –337, 344 –345 Harrison, John, 308 heat, 118, 122, 262 –263g–274, 473, 578 capacity, 267g–268 from chemical reaction, 574, 583 engine, 283g–296 Carnot’s ideal, 296 efficiency, 287g–287e Hero’s, 283 internal combustion, 284 real, 287 schematic, 284 –285 steam, 283 –288 and fission, 583, 588 and fusion, 591 index, 275t and Joule, 264 –265 latent, 269 –270t, 277 pump, 289g–290 specific, 266 –267g–267t–272, 278 units, 267 from Sun, 479, 592 and temperature, 591 unit, 263 and work, 277 Heisenberg, Werner, 513, 534 –535, 587 Helms, Susan, 172 Hero of Alexandria, 283 hertz (unit), 305 Hertz, Heinrich, 484, 493 – 494 Hilbert, David, 109 Hitler, Adolf, 109, 507, 581 hologram, 414 – 415 holography, 414 – 415, 520, 540 –541 Hooke, Robert, 38, 390 horsepower (unit), 132 Hulse, Russell, 619 – 620 Huygens, Christian, 38, 98, 308, 350, 421 hyperopia, 391 image camera, 355–356 curved mirror, 360 –365 diffracted, 407 erect, 363 –365, 385–386, 390 eye, 383, 388 –390 flat mirror, 357–358 holographic, 415 inverted, 362, 386 –388, 392, 395 lens, 383 –388 magnetic resonance, 547 magnified, 360, 362 –364, 385–386, 390 mirror, 357–365 multiple, 358 –360 negative, 368 positive, 368 real, 362g–364, 370, 388 –392, 395 refracted, 378, 380 telescope, 392 –393 virtual, 352, 363g–365, 370, 378, 386, 395 impulse, 100g–110e–102, 108, 227, 310 and kinetic energy, 120 and momentum, 202 and resonance, 309 unit, 101 vector, 101–102 induction, charging by, 430 Industrial Revolution, 283, 285 inertia, 37g, 42, 60, 73, 89, 100, 217 confinement, 591 force (see force, inertial) and Galileo, 37 and Kepler, 80 law of, 37g, 61 rotational, 144 –145g–155, 167 and simple harmonic motion, 304, 306 –307, 319 translational, 150 inflation, 624 instrument, 346 percussion, 333, 339, 344 stringed, 333, 336 –339, 344 wind, 333, 338 –339, 344 insulator electric, 271, 432g, 427, 440, 448 thermal, 271g–272, 277 interaction color, 621 electromagnetic, 602, 609 – 610, 621 electroweak, 621 gravitational, 602, 607 strong, 602, 609 – 610, 620 – 621 weak, 602, 608, 610, 621 interference, 320g, 323, 403 – 408, 413, 526 air gap, 410 of bullets, 525–526t constructive, 408 destructive, 408 effect, 508, 526 of light, 508, 525 pattern, 320 –321, 404 – 405, 410, 523, 526 –527 for electrons, 523, 527 for light, 320 –323, 525 two-slit, 404, 525, 537 thin film, 406 – 410 two-slit, 404 – 405, 525–526t– 527, 537 of water waves, 525–527 intermediate vector boson, 605g– 606, 614 invariant, 97–98, 116, 118, 123, 127, 204 inversely proportional, 42g, 83 inverse-square, 82g, 431g– 432 ion, 241, 253, 440, 500g, 515, 560 ionization, 561g–562, 569 isotope, 553g–554, 560, 566, 568, 570, 579, 582, 584, 589 distinguishing, 554, 564 of hydrogen, 553 –554 radioactive, 557, 559 –560, 564, 569 Jefferson, Thomas, Jensen, J Hans Daniel, 581 Johnson, Crockett, 485 Joliot-Curie, Irene, 550 Jordan, Michael, 67– 68 joule (unit), 118g Joule, James, 264, 283, 286 biography, 265 Joyner, Florence Griffith, 20 kaon, 607 Kepler, Johannes, 89 –94 biography, 80 third law, 80 kilo, 8g kilogram (unit), 9g, 43g kilometer (unit), 6, 8g kilowatt-hour (unit), 134, 459, 461– 462 King Hiero, 251 Kirchoff, Gustav, 456 junction rule, 456g loop rule, 457g– 458 Kittinger, Joseph, 48 Koshiba, Masatoshi, 625– 626 lambda, 607 laser, 414 – 415, 496, 520, 538g–541 acronym, 538 schematic, 539 uses, 539 –540 Lavoisier, Antoine, 98, 221 periodic table, 221t law conservation, 100, 131, 188, 568, 600 – 601, 608 – 610, 613 – 614 decay, 558 of definite proportions, 222g–223 fundamental, of physics, 425 of inertia, 167–168, 181 inverse-square, 82g, 431g– 432 of motion, 92, 162, 188 nature, 6, 80, 98, 203, 294 physical, 6, 188, 201, 621, 627– 628 scientific, See also specific law Leibniz, Gottfried, 38 length, arc, 141 contraction, 199 –201 focal lens, 384g, 386, 388, 390 –392 mirror, 361g–363 pendulum, 307–309 Planck, 621 relative, 188 lens binocular, 392 camera, 388 coating, 409 contact, 391 converging, 383 –395 diverging, 383 –391 eye, 383, 388 –389, 391 fisheye, 383 focal length, 384g, 386, 388, 390 –392 focal point, 384g, 386, 390, 395 magnifying, 385, 390 microscope, 392 objective, 390, 392 optic axis, 384g–388, 395, special rays, 385 spherical, 388 telescope, 390, 392 –393 thin, 384 –385 Lenz’s law, 477– 478 lepton, 607g– 611, 614, 620, 622 number, 609 conservation, 609 properties, 608t tau, 607– 609, 611 Leucippus, 216 lifetime, 606, 610 – 611 light, 350 –370, 375–392, 400 – 416, 495–516, 578, 583, 591, 618 analogy for understanding quark color, 612 atomic spectra, 496 – 498, 507, 510 –512 behavior, 189 bending, 205 black, 531 and black holes, 208 from cathode tube, 514 coherent, 538 –539, 541 color, 367–369 combinations, 367–369 diffraction (see diffraction) Doppler effect, 343 electromagnetic wave, 618 as energy source, 574, 578, 580, 591–592 extended source, 354 fluorescent, 367 from hot objects, 504 –505 interference (see interference, of light) lasers (see laser) linear momentum (see momentum, linear) www.elsolucionario.net 657 medium, 189 model, 400 – 416 nature particle, 401– 403, 508, 521, 526 –527, 537 wave, 401– 403, 407, 521, 524, 526 –527, 538 particle, 350, 508 and photoelectric effect, 506 –508 photon interaction with matter, 560 –561 pipe, 379 point source, 353 –354, 387 plane polarized, 410 polarized, 245, 410g– 413 polarization, 410 – 413 quantized, 508, 516 quantum, 505–506, 508 ray, 353g, 357, 359, 408 – 409 diagram, 357, 363 –365, 384 –386, 395, 401– 402 incident, 361, 370 reflected, 361, 363, 370, 408 reflection (see reflection) refraction (see refraction) and relativity, 188 –208 sight, 391 source, 353 –355 speed (see speed, of light) straight line path, 353, 357, 359, 365, 370 of Sun, 592 transmitted, 369, 410 ultraviolet, 486, 514, 531 visible, 274, 405, 486, 503, 524, 531, 548, 551, 565 range, 405, 486 wave, 350, 403, 508 properties, 524 theory, 507 white, 367–370, 381, 388, 404, 408, 415, 497– 498, 511, 515, 613 light bulb, 450 – 458 in parallel, 456 – 458 in series, 455– 456, 458 standard, 455– 456, 458 lightning, 420, 422 light-year, line of stability, 580g, 583, 593 liquid, 4, 233, 240 –241, 244g–247, 253, 255, 269, 277 crystal, 245 wave propagation, 315 lodestone, 468 Lord Kelvin (See Thomson, William) MacCready, Paul, 133 MACHOS, 624 – 625 macroscopic properties, 217–219g, 224, 229, 232, 265, 277, 290 magnet, 420 – 421, 428, 468 – 478, 487, 499, 551–552, 576 –577 bar, 428, 477– 478 electro–, 471– 472g, 474, 482 – 483 horseshoe, 472 permanent, 468, 473 – 474 superconducting, 473, 576 magnetic, 420 bottle, 591 deflection, 551, 553 electro–, 484, 545 field (see field, magnetic) force (see force, magnetic) induction, 481 monopole, 468g– 469 pole, 247, 428, 468g– 469, 474, 478, 487 resonance imaging, 547 variation, 474 magnetism, 467– 488, 621 of Earth, 474, 488 658 Index magnetize, 468, 471, 481 magnification, 360, 364, 390, 392 magnifier, 390 magnify, 385 magnifying glass, 385, 390, 392 magnitude, 21g Mars Climate Orbiter, mass, 42g–54, 83 –93, 100 –110, 117, 121, 126, 134, 170, 218 –224, 243, 250, 253, 278, 306, 586 –588 alpha particle, 502 and angular momentum, 152, 509 atom, 241 atomic, 224g, 512, 515, 552 –553 unit, 224g–225, 234, 552 –553 cause of gravitational waves, 618 – 619 center of, 71g–72, 88 – 89, 146g–155 and classical relativity, 188 conservation, 98, 167, 554, 580, 589 critical, 625 and density, 241–242, 277 Earth, 84 – 85 electron, 433 – 434, 501–502, 523, 552 –553t, 604 and energy, 117, 121, 203 –204, 554, 568, 589, 608 equivalence to energy, 606 – 607 gamma ray, 598 gravitational, 205g, 209 graviton, 605 hadrons, 607t and heat, 262, 267–269 inertial, 145, 204g–205, 209 invariant, 204 isotopes, 553 and law of definite proportions, 222 –223 and law of universal gravitation, 83 leptons, 607– 608t and linear momentum, 100, 102 –104, 535 Moon, 81 negative?, 432 – 433 neutrino, 601– 602, 607– 608t, 626 – 627 neutron, 11, 552 –553t neutron star, 619 nucleus, 552, 578 –579 in outer space, 172 and pair production, 599 positron, 433 – 434, 556, 599 proton, 552 –553t ratio to charge, 500 –501, 515, 586, 599 relative, 223 rest, 599, 601, 607– 608, 613 intermediate vector, 606 stars, 208 Sun, 85, 592 unit, 9, 43 Universe, 623, 625 and waves, 330 vs weight, 9, 44 white dwarf, 243 mass on a spring, 305–309, 319, 322 period, 306e matter, 219, 222, 241, 560 –562, 569, 598, 600, 613, 621, 623 – 624, 628 dark, 624 – 625 states, 240 –255 structure, 218, 264, 546 wave, 304, 527g–528 amplitude, 527g and waves, 304, 312 Maxwell, James Clerk, 484 – 493, 545, 621 biography, 484 and Einstein, 203 electromagnetic waves, 484 electromagnetism, 188 equations, 188, 190, 484 – 485, 521, 540 laws, 507, 528 theory, 188 Mayer, Joseph E., 581 McKinney, Steve, 48 mechanics, Newtonian, 521, 537 quantum (see quantum, mechanics) mechanistic view, 537 Meitner, Lise, 513 biography, 587 melting, 241, 244, 246 point, 245, 253, 270t temperature, 241 Mendeleev, Dmitri, 495, 512, 606 meson, 607g– 607t– 614, 628 neutral, 611 number, 609 conservation, 609 pi, 605 spin, 607 metastable state, 539, 541 meter (unit), – 8g Michelson, Albert A., 189 microscope, 219, 226, 383, 395, 565 compound, 390, 392 electron, 219, 524 optical, 219, 524 scanning tunneling, 524 microscopic, 217, 242 model, 233 properties, 217–219g, 229, 231 microwave, 486 milli, 9g Millikan, Robert, 500 –501 mirror, 352, 357–359, 379, 385, 407, 410, 414, 539 concave, 361–364, 392 –393 convex, 361–365 curved, 360, 384 cylindrical, 361–362 flat, 357, 360, 362, 370, 379 focal length, 361g–363 focal point, 361g–364, 370 fun-house, 360 –361 multiple, 358 –360 optic axis, 361g–364, 370 spherical, 361–364, 370, 388 mixture, 222 –223 model, 35, 219 –220 Aristotelian, 222 atomic, 3, 219, 222 –225, 241, 508 –516, 531 Bohr’s, 521, 529, 532, 540 first postulate, 509 second postulate, 509 third postulate, 509 Dalton, 222 –223 Einstein’s, 508 most recent, 532 plum-pudding, 501 quantum mechanical, 532 –533, 545 Rutherford’s, 501, 503, 508 –509, 515–516 solar system, – 4, 503, 515 Thomson’s, 501–502 Big Bang, 621, 623 – 624 continuum, 222 Copernican, 175 current, 457 developing, 219 –220, 401 electric fluid, 425 geocentric, 174g heliocentric, 25, 175g ideal gas, 225, 227, 233 for light, 400 – 402, 508 particle, 401– 403, 413 wave, 401– 416 mathematical, 3, 219 –220 microscopic, 233 physical, Ptolemaic, 175 quantum-mechanical, 532 –533, 545 quark, 610 – 614 scale, 219 solar system, 241 standard, 621 structure of matter, 220 voltage, 457– 458 water, 219, 452 – 453 moderator, 587g–590 modulation amplitude, 486 – 487 frequency, 486 – 487 mole (unit), 224g molecule, 218, 222g–225, 234 –235, 262, 294, 433 air in a room, 291, 293 and change of state, 269 –270 diatomic, 267 and energy, 241 264, 266, 267 evaporative cooling, 233 formation, 219 –224, 574, 628 in gas, 246 in liquid, 244, 246 number in a mole, 224 –225 polar, 427 in solid, 245 and sound wave, 330 –331, 335, 338 momentum, 188, 219, 254, 538, 593 angular, 98, 152g–152e–156, 509 conservation, 152 –155, 360, 554, 568, 608 direction quantum number, 532 of Earth, 152, 154 quantized, 509e, 516, 533 quantum number, 532, 540 vector, 153 and classical relativity, 188 conservation, 104 –110, 167, 202, 600 – 601, 604 electron, 540, 552 linear, 98 –100g–100e–109, 116 –119, 140, 152, 155, 601 change in, 100e–103, 108 conservation, 99, 102 –103g, 118 –119, 152, 554, 568, 608 relativistic, 202, 209 unit, 100 vector, 153 not conserved, 604 particle, 227, 233, 528, 574 quantized, 529, 535–536 rotational, 140 and uncertainty principle, 535e–536 and waves, 303, 574 Moon acceleration, 81, 83 atmosphere, 26 cause of tides, 88 –90 determining month, 308 distance from Earth, 20, 81– 82, 360 eclipses, 354 elliptical appearance, 380 gravity on, 44, 86, 307 harvest, 370 mass, 81, 83 motion, 60, 78, 164 orbit, 11, 79, 81, 88 orbital path, 174 –175 orbital period, 87, 365–366 phases, 354 Morley, E.W., 189 Moseley, Henry G., 504, 515 motion, 15–29, 34 –37, 48, 59 absolute, 167 apparent, 164 Aristotle, 24, 629 atomic, 266, 293 Brownian, 226 celestial, 79 – 80, 83, 88 charges, 456 circular, 60, 64 – 66, 70, 79 classical, 202 constant, 36 Earth, 16, 176, 181 falling objects, 24 –27 www.elsolucionario.net football, 16, 141 Galileo, 25–26, 36 –37 illustrating, 17 laws of, 37–38, 44, 81, 90, 162, 167, 188 relativistic, 202 macroscopic, 293 natural, 20, 35–37, 142, 217 one-dimensional, 16 –29, 37–53, 60, 65 orbital, 88 particle, 226, 303 periodic, 209, 304, 307, 485, 488 perpetual, 285–286, 296, 629 planetary, 84 projectile, 65g, 67–73, 141, 152, 167, 254 relative, 165–167, 190 –191, 193, 196, 200, 205, 254, 477 rotational, 71, 140 –141, 155 simple harmonic, 522 solar system, 174 –175 straight-line, 60, 62 three-dimensional, 60, 73 translational, 71g, 73, 140 –141, 155 two-dimensional, 60 vibrational, 267, 304 wave, 303, 312 motor, 288, 480 muon, 198, 605g, 608 – 611, 614 music, 329 –330, 344 Mussolini, 584 myopia, 391 Narang, 67– 69 natural place, 35, 79 hierarchy, 35 nature dual, of light and electrons, 536 law of, 6, 80, 98, 203, 294 rule of, 168, 356 nearsightedness, 391 nebula, 617 neutrino, 545–546, 601g– 602, 606, 608 – 614, 625 electron, 608, 626 – 627 flavor, 626 – 627 mass, 601– 602, 607– 608t, 626 – 627 mu, 608 muon, 626 – 627 solar, 625 stability, 608 tau, 608, 611, 626 – 627 neutron, 12 –13, 425, 552g–556, 568 –569, 577–593, 597– 613, 619, 622 – 625 anti-, 600, 628 baryon, 611 and beta decay, 555–556, 601 capture, 589 charge, 552 deuteron formation, 577 discovery, 552 and electron capture, 555 formation during Big Bang, 622 – 623 and fusion, 589 and isotopes, 553 –554 mass, 11, 552 –553t nuclear force (see force, nuclear) and quarks, 611 stability, 580 –581 neutron star, 243, 619 newton (unit), 43g Newton, Sir Isaac, 37, 70 –71, 203, 420 – 421, 545 action at a distance, 602, 614 and alchemy, 220 and Bernoulli’s effect, 254 biography, 38 dispersion experiments, 381 and Einstein, 203 electromagnetic wave, 485 index electron orbits, 521 and Feynman, 603 first law, 37g– 41, 53, 69 – 61, 124, 148, 155, 167, 181, 249, 252 for rotation, 142 –148 and force, 629 and Franklin, 426 and friction, 48 and Galileo, 37, 48 and gravity, 78 – 88, 629 law of universal gravitation, 83g–92, 162, 602 and Halley, 38 and Hooke, 38 and Huygens, 38, 98 and invariants, 98 and Kepler, 80 laws, 87, 90 –91, 98, 106, 162, 165, 168 –169, 188, 202, 537, 540 atomic version, 538 and Leibniz, 38 light, 350 –351, 381, 401– 402 and Maxwell, 484 mechanics, 521, 537 particle nature of light, 401– 403 and Planck, 507 and play, 603 and pressure, 248 and Queen Anne, 38 quote, 5, 50, 618 second law, 39, 42e– 42g–54, 61– 64, 81, 92, 98, 120, 126, 155, 170 –172, 204, 209, 250 momentum form, 100e relativistic form, 202e for rotation, 145e–146 telescope, 38 and temperature, 229 thermometer, 229 thin-film interference, 410 third law, 49 –50g–54, 83, 102 –103, 146 170, 254, 431– 432, 472 and von Guericke, 248 Nightingale, Florence, 550 nodal line, 321–322, 339 –340, 404 nodal region, 320 –321 node, 318g–323, 338 –339 Noether, Amalie Emmy, 109 biography, 109 normal force (see force, normal) to surface, 356g–357, 363, 370, 376 –377, 393, 402, 408 northern lights, 247 nuclear decay, 558 energy (see energy, nuclear) glue, 576 potential well, 578, 583 reaction, 548, 574, 579, 582 –592, 627 reactor, 204, 585–593, 601– 602 boiling water, 588 breeding, 589 –590 fission, 588 –592 fusion, 589 –593 naturally occurring, 590 pressurized water, 588 schematic, 588 nucleon, 552g–556, 569, 574 –583, 592, 600, 605, 613 conservation, 554 number, 554 –555, 568 nucleus, 241, 502g–503, 512, 515, 522, 545–548g–558, 568, 574 –593, 628 daughter, 554g–556, 569, 580 decay, 580 magic numbers, 581 parent, 554g–556, 580 radioactive, 558 size, 502, 548 stable, 577–582, 593 structure, 574 –576, 581 and surrounding electrons, 521–522, 530 unstable, 574, 580 photon, 508g–508e–511, 516, 521–546, 551, 556, 560 –565, 598 – 607, 614, 622 – 623 absorption, 538 –539 anti-, 600 octave, 333 coherent, 538 –539, 541 Oersted, Hans Christian, 470 color, 508 ohm (unit), 453g and complementarity principle, 536 Ohm’s law, 454g duality, 526, 536 omega, 607 emission, 521, 538 –539 Onnes, Heike Kamerlingh, 473 energy (see energy, optic axis, 361g–364, 370, 384g–388, 395 photon) optical fiber, 378 –379 exchange particle, 602 – 604 order, 389 –290 fluorescence and phosphorescence, order of magnitude, 11g 531 Orion, 273 frequency, 508 oscillation, 304g, 307, 310, 322 gamma ray, 486, 488, 551, 556, 568 –569, 578, 582, 598 pair production, 598g, 613 interference, 526 paradox, twin, 199 laser, 538 –539 parallax, 176 particle, 508 parallel, 449g and uncertainty principle, 534 –536 particle, 330, 528, 536, 545–546, 551, X ray, 515 621– 622 Piaget, Jean, 97 anti-, 556, 569, 559g– 600, 605, pion, 605g– 612 613 – 614, 622 neutral, 611 atomic, 227–228, 241, 528, 532, positive, 611, 613 534, 538 pitch, 330, 332, 334, 342 accelerator, 575g–576 Planck, Max, 493, 505–509, 515–516, 521 alpha (see alpha particle) biography, 507 beta (see beta particle) constant, 505–507, 516, 523, 535, 541, in a box, 528 –529, 532 604, 606, 621 charged, 246 –247, 475– 488, 551, 554, length, 621 561, 564, 567–568 plasma, 241, 246g–247, 253 classical, 548 point of view, 165 creation, 622 Newtonian, 528 detector, 560, 568 –569 Polaris, 154 elementary, 546, 597– 610, 614, polarization, 410 – 413 620 – 621, 625, 628 axes of, 411, 413 exchange, 605, 608 – 609, 613, 620 plane of, 412 – 413 free, 620 polarized, 410g– 411 fundamental, 545 horizontal, 411 lambda, 610 plane, 410 – 411 momentum, 528 –529, 535–538 vertical, 411 nature of light, 350 Pontecorvo, Bruno, 626 – 627 nuclear, 552 population inversion, 539 omega minus, 612 position, 16 –17, 21–22, 132, 538 point, 621 angular, 141, 155 strange, 603, 606g, 609 – 610 instantaneous, 165 subatomic, 198, 204, 241, 433 of a particle in a box, 529 subnuclear, 620 particle, 528, 537 wave nature, 521–524, 526 –527, 537 quantum, 535–536 Yukawa’s, 605 relative, 188 pascal (unit), 226 and uncertainty principle, Pauli, Wolfgang, 532, 601, 603, 613 534 –535e–538 pendulum, 307–309, 316, 319, 322 positron, 556g, 569, 598 –599g– 601, Foucault, 176 –177, 181 608, 623 period, 307–308e potential difference, 448 – 449, 454, 458, penumbra, 406 460, 473, 510, 523, 575 Penzias, Arno, 623 – 624 pound (unit), 6, 9, 43 period, 304g–307, 317, 322 power, 132g–132e–134, 420 and frequency, 305e–306 animal, 283 mass on a spring, 306e electric, 459g– 460e– 461, 479 orbital, 82, 87, 365–366 human, 133 pendulum, 307–308e machine, 283 wave, 317, 320 nuclear, 203, 247, 288, 583 periodic table, 501–502, 514 –515, 521, solar, 591 532 –533, 555–556, 569, 606 Sun’s, 592 Lavoisier’s, 221t unit, 132, 459 modern, 496, 512 powers-of-ten notation, 10g–13 perpetual motion, 285–286, 296, 629 precession, 154 –155 phase, 414, 538 –539 pressure, 226g–226e–234, 269, 330, 335, 493, 549, 568 difference, 403 Archimedes’ principle, 250 in, 320g–321, 403, 406, 409 atmospheric, 247–249 out of, 321, 409 and Avogadro’s number, 223 –225 phosphorescence, 531 Bernoulli’s effect, 251–253 photoelectric effect, 203, 506g–508, and bubble chamber, 567 516, 565 change of state, 269 photograph, strobe, 17–18, 23, 27–28, 193, cone, 344 –345 307, 319, 344 dark energy, 625 photomultiplier, 565, 567 in fluid, 247–253 schematic, 567 www.elsolucionario.net 659 gravitational, 592 ideal gas law, 226e–227 macroscopic property, 218 –219, 243 sound, 330, 332, 335 of space, 243 and speed of sound, 331 in stars, 243 thermometer, 229 units, 226, 247 in water model, 452 primary coil, 479 principle Archimedes’, 250g, 252 complementarity, 536g, 540 equivalence, 205g exclusion, 205g, 532g–533, 540, 580, 612 – 613 of relativity, 188, 190, 204, 477, 608 Galilean, 167g, 181 superposition, 317 uncertainty, 534 –535g–535e–536, 538, 541, 552 604, 606 prism, 379, 381, 383, 496, 511 probability, 290 –292 cloud, 530, 532 distribution, 529 matter waves, 538 radioactivity, 558, 587 property, atomic, 549, 574 chemical, 241, 514, 549, 554, 574, 589 electric, 420, 423 electronic, 562 intrinsic, 267 macroscopic, 217–219g, 224, 229, 232, 265, 277, 290 magnetic, 420, 471, 552 microscopic, 217–219, 229 nuclear, 553 particle, 521, 537 periodic, 496, 503 physical, 574 wave, 521, 537 proportional, 42g, 83 inversely, 42g, 232, 440 proton, 4, 476, 546, 551g–569, 574 –593, 597– 613, 619, 625 acceleration, 433, 575–577 anti-, 597, 600, 628 atomic magnet, 552 baryon, 607t, 609 beta decay, 581, 601 binding energy, 579 building, 610 – 611, 622 – 623, 628 charge, 432, 425– 426, 432 – 433, 551, 577, 611 decay, 601, 608 – 610, 621 deuteron formation, 577–578 discovery, 551 electric force, 433 – 434, 574 and electron capture, 555 gravitational force, 433 – 434 and isotopes, 553 –554 mass, 433, 552 –553t, 579, 599, 607 neutron formation, 552, 622 – 623 nuclear force, 576 –577 and nuclear reactions, 583 properties, 607t and quarks, 610 – 611, 622, 628 range, 561t size, 11, 13 stability, 579 –581 Proxima Centauri, 199 –200 Ptolemy, 174 –175 pulsar, 619 pulse, 311–314, 316 transverse, 312 –313 quanta, 501g quantization, 494, 532 quantum, 505g angular momentum, 532 –533 660 Index quantum, continued electrodynamics, 532, 603 leap, 510 mechanics, 91, 507, 528g–529, 537– 538, 569, 577, 580 –581, 584, 599, 605, 621, 626 – 627 atom, 529, 532 –533 development, 266, 350 effects, 532, 587, 602 – 604 and Einstein, 538 equation, 528 and the future, 538 interaction, 493 laws, 538, 548 and line of stability, 580 model, 532 –533, 545 probability for occurrence, 558 and quantum electrodynamics, 532 and relativity, 532 view, 548 number, 509g, 532, 540, 612 angular momentum, 532, 540 direction, 532 color, 612 – 613 elements, 533t energy, 532, 540 ground state, 533t spin, 540, 607t– 608t, 610 – 611t– 612 strangeness, 610 theory, 203 quantum electrodynamics, 532 quark, 2, 11, 546, 597, 610g– 613, 620, 622, 628 anti-, 597, 610 – 613, 628 baryon number, 611 bottom, 611g charm, 611g color, 620 down, 610 – 611 flavors, 610g– 611t fractional charge, 610 – 611 properties, 610 – 611t spin, 611 strange, 610 – 611 top, 597, 611g anti-, 597 up, 610 – 611 upsilon, 611 Queen Anne, 38 operation, 487 telescope, 467 wave (see wave, radio) radioactive, 198, 554, 558, 560, 569 dating, 559 –560 decay, 554 –556t–568, 574 –575, 593 radioactivity, 501, 504, 548 –551, 557, 568, 574, 579, 587, 592 radius, 64 – 65, 141, 143, 152 allowed, quantized, 509e cyclotron, 476 Earth, 82, 85 orbital, 6, 509e turning, 66 rainbow, 350, 376, 381–383, 393, 629 secondary, 382 –383 range audible, 333t, 335 particles, 561t, 564 rarefaction, 330, 338 ray, 353g–365, 369, 377–380, 382 –387, 401– 402, 406 – 410 diagram, 357, 363 –365, 384 –386, 395, 401– 402 incident, 361, 370 light, 362 –363, 378 –379, 385, 395 reflected, 361, 363, 370, 408 redshifted, 343 reductionist view, 628 reflection, 352, 362 –363, 370, 392 –393, 408 – 410 angle of, 356, 376 –379, 401– 402 coating, 409 and color, 367–369 diffuse, 356g fixed end, 313 free end, 313 law of, 356g, 361, 370, 376, 401– 402, 413 multiple, 358, 360 and polarization, 411 rainbow formation, 382 –383 retro–, 360, 539 rule for, 376 superposition, 403 total internal, 379g wave, 314, 315 reflector, 393 Cassegrain, 393 corner, 360 rad (unit), 562g Newtonian, 393 radar, 343, 486, 618 refraction, 375–376g–395, 402g radians, 141 angle, 376 –379, 402 radiation, 261, 270, 273g–274, 277, atmospheric, 379, 393 548 –551, 557, 560 –569, 601, bent image, 378 622 – 623, 627 dispersion, 381 alpha, 504, 549g, 551 eye, 389 average annual dose, 564t halos and sundogs, 383 background, 563 –564 index of, 376g–379, 393, 395, beta, 504, 549g 402 – 403g, 408 – 409, 413 biological effects, 562 –564 law of, 402, 413 cancer treatment, 563 –564 magnification, 378 cosmic background, 623 – 624 rainbows, 381–383 detector, 565–569 total internal reflection, 379 electromagnetic, 273, 486, 503, refractor, 392 515–516, 561, 574, 576, 628 refrigerator, 288g–289, 293, 296 frequency, 503 schematic, 288 temperature, 503 Reines, Frederick, 601– 602 gamma, 551g relativistic adjustment factor, 197–198t– gravitational, 620 204, 209 infrared, 274 relativity, 504, 532, 584 medical sources, 564 centrifugal force, 60, 63, 70, microwave, 624 173g–174, 178 nonelectromagnetic, 625 classical, 164 –181, 188 nuclear, 563, 565 Coriolis force, 178g–180 from pulsar, 619 Earth’s rotation, 174 –180 sickness, 563 Einstein’s theory, 187, 521, 532 spectrum, heated objects, 493, 503 –505 Galilean principle, 167g, 181, 188, ultraviolet, 486 general, 91, 187, 203 –204g–209, 540, radio, 486 – 488, 618 617– 618, 620, 624 AM, 487 black hole, 208 FM, 487– 488 equivalence principle, 205g gravitational wave, 208 and light, 205–206 spacetime, 201g–202, 208 –209 inertial force, 169g–173, 178 –179, 199, 204 –205 special, 91, 187–188g–209, 521, 599 adjustment factor, 197–198t–204, 209 clock, 192 –197 energy, 203e–204 ether, 189g first postulate, 188g, 191, 196, 200, 209 length contraction, 199 –201 mass, 204 principle of, 190, 204, 477, 608 rest-mass energy (see energy, rest-mass) second postulate, 189g–190, 209 simultaneity, 190 –192 synchronization, 192 –196 time as fourth dimension, 201 time dilation, 196 –199 twin paradox, 199 rem (unit), 562g reproducibility, 35 repulsion, 424 – 432, 468, 472 – 473, 487, 574, 577, 602 – 603 resistance, 24 –25 air, 28, 34, 47–50, 54, 65, 70, 73, 108, 133, 254 bulbs in parallel, 456 bulbs in series, 456 electric, 453g– 453t– 453e– 462 to motion, 36 Ohm’s law, 454g unit, 453 various materials, 453t resistor, 453 symbol, 459 resolution diffraction, 407 microscope, 524 telescope, 407 resonance, 309g–310, 586 resonator, 332 retina, 351, 383, 388 –391, 560 retroreflector, 360, 539 revolutions, 141 right-hand rule, 141–142, 470 Roemer, Ole, 365 Roentgen, Wilhelm, 493, 514 –515, 548 –549 Roosevelt, Franklin, 203, 513 ROY G BIV, 381–382 rotation, 140 acceleration, 141g–148 axis, 141–146, 152 –154, 164, 173 –175, 179 Earth’s, 16, 88, 164, 174 –179, 474 inertia, 144 –145g–155, 167 kinetic enrgy (see energy kinetic, rotational) motion, 71, 140 –141, 155 Moon, 360 Newton’s first law, 142 –148 Newton’s second law, 145e–146 reference system, 173 speed, 141g, 150 –155, 366 torque (see torque) velocity, 141g–142, 153, 155 rule Maxwell’s, 528 Newton’s, 528 Rutherford, Ernest alpha particle experiments, 551–552, 554, 561, 565 atomic model, 501–504, 508 –509, 515–516, 574 biography, 504 and Bohr, 513 and fission, 583, 586 www.elsolucionario.net St John the Evangelist, 350 Salam, Abdus, 621 scattering, 356, 369 –370, 383, 523 –524, 534, 577 Schrieffer, J Robert, 473 Schrödinger, Erwin, 528 equation, 528 –529, 532 Schwinger, Julian, 603 scientific acceptance, basis, creative leap, merit, law, process, Seaborg, Glenn, 587 second (unit), secondary coil, 479 Sensenbrenner, James F., series, 449g shadow, 353 –355, 383, 406 shell, 512g, 514 –515, 521, 532 –533, 549, 555, 580 sigma, 607 silica aerogel, 243 simultaneity, 190 –192 relative, 192 sink, 249, 251, 277 Sklodowska, Bronya, 550 slug (unit), 43 smoke detector, 560 Snell’s law, 376 Soddy, Frederick, 504 solar system, 11, 153, 175 solenoid, 470 – 472, 481 solid, 240 –242g–246, 253, 275, 277 structure, 242 Solovine, Maurice, sonar, 331–332 sonic boom, 344 –346 sound, 189, 192, 197–198, 329 –346, 367, 448, 584 animal hearing, 333 barrier, 345 decibel levels, 335t Doppler effect, 342g–343, 346 as energy, 119, 459, 578 harmonics, 334 –340 hearing, 332 infra–, 333 intensity, 335 levels, 335t loudest, 335 music, 333 –342 perception, 332 –333 production, 332 –333 softest, 335 speed (speed, of sound) ultra–, 330, 333 wave (see wave, sound) source point, 407 space, 17, 187–201, 207, 209 absolute, 188 Euclidean, 207 shape, 624 warped, spacetime, 201g, 207 four-dimensional flat, 209 warped, 207 spark, 422, 424, 440 spectral line, 496 –515, 556, 606 absorption, 497, 499 of antiatoms, 600 comparison, 510, 512 emission, 496 – 499, 501, 510 explaining discrete orbits, 510, 521 understanding origin, 499, 501, 503, 508, 510 width, 536 spectrum, 381–382 absorption, 497g– 499, 511–512, 515–516, 540 index continuous, 497, 503 –504, 511, 515 electromagnetic, 486, 488, 497, 512, 515, 531 emission, 497g– 499, 503, 511, 515–516, 540 from hot object, 504, 515 radiation, 493 white light, 497, 511 X ray, 515 speed, 17–24, 49, 54, 61, 66 – 68, 70, 100, 104 –106, 117–134, 153, 178, 509 10 –m dash, 20 absolute nature, 163 and adjustment factor, 197–198t, 201–202, 204 of alpha particle, 502 animal, 20 Apollo, 20 of atomic particles, 218, 227–228, 231, 233 average, 16g–16e–22, 27–28, 233 electron in wire, 453 molecular, 331 Concorde, 20 constant, 23, 27, 36 –37, 39, 48, 59 – 63, 71–73, 79, 122, 165, 174 relative to the ground, 178 continental drift, 20 curve ball, 254 Earth orbit, 20, 174, 189 electron, 523 –524 fastest, 20 human, 20 instantaneous, 19g–21, 23, 28 and kinetic energy, 117, 126 of light, 20, 168, 181, 188 –209, 331, 402, 405, 484, 488, 524, 618 – 619, 629 constant, 190, 193, 196 dependence on frequency or wavelength, 505 in material, 206, 402 – 403e, 413 measuring, 365–366 and relativity, 109, 190, 193, 196, 199, 201–202 value, 190, 366, 370, 405, 618 linear, 150 machine, 20 orbital, 360 particle, 227–228, 402 of planets, 20 proton, 535 pulse, 313 records, 20, 48 relative, 165, 197, 209 rotational, 141g, 150 –155, 366 constant, 142 units, 141 slowest, 20 of sound, 197, 331, 344 space shuttle, 20 SR–71A Blackbird, 20 and stopping distance, 121t supersonic, 20, 345 terminal, 47g– 48, 54, 102 unit, 17 wave, 312 –317e–323, 330, 337–339, 402 electromagnetic, 484 – 485e, 488 spin, 532 –534, 607– 612 baryon, 607 conservation, 608 down, 532 –533 electron, 532 –533, 552 quantum number, 540 up, 532 –533 spontaneous emission, 538 –539 spring, 304 –313, 319 constant, 306g units, 306 stability, 148, 155 line of, 580g, 583, 593 nuclear, 574, 577–583 state angular momentum, 533 discrete, 532 electron, 530, 532, 552 energy, 528 –529, 531, 533, 535–536, 539, 574 equivalent, 290 excited, 529, 539 ground, 501, 528, 531, 533t, 536, 556 of matter, 241–242 fluid, 245 gaseous, 241, 246, 269 liquid, 269 plasma, 246 metastable, 539, 541 spin, 532 –534 unstable, 535 steam engine, 283 –288 Stradiviri, Antonio, 336 strangeness, 607, 610g– 611 conservation, 610 quantum number, 610 strange quark, 610 – 611 stress pattern, 400 stroboscope, 17 photograph, 17–18, 23, 27–28, 193, 307, 319, 344 structure atomic, 495, 498, 500, 513, 516, 562, 574 electronic, 553 molecular, 562 nuclear, 551, 558 subsonic, 345 sundog, 383 superconductivity, 473 supercrest, 320 Superman, 353 supernova, 618, 625 superposition, 314g, 317–320, 330, 333, 340 –341, 345–346, 403, 471 principle, 317 supersonic, 344 supertrough, 320 –321 switch, 452 symbol, 459 symbol, chemical, 554 system absolute reference, 189 accelerating, 168 –169, 204 disordered, 290g, 294 global positioning, 206 inertial reference, 167g–181, 188 –209 isolated, 103 –104, 116, 132, 134, 292, 425 metric, 229 moving, 197 nearly inertial, 174 –181 noninertial reference, 168g–176 of units (see units) optical, 391 ordered, 290g, 292 reference, 165g–181, 188, 192, 196 rest, 197 rotating reference, 173, 178, 181 wide area augmentation (WAAS), 206 Tacoma Narrows Bridge, 310 tau lepton, 607– 608t– 609, 611 neutrino, 608t, 611 Taylor, Joseph, 619 – 620 telescope, 383, 390, 395, 407, 410 Galileo, Hubble Space, 394, 407, 617 prime focus, 393 radio, 467 reflecting, 4, 393g refracting, 392g schematic, 392 temperature, 218 –234, 241, 244, 261–278, 285–296, 462, 488, 493, 549, 567–569, 591–593 absolute, 231g, 234 absolute zero, 266g, 277 and atomic speed, 228 body, 229 –230 boiling, 270 cosmic background radiation, 623 – 624 critical, 473 decomposition, 241 effect on continuous spectra, 505, 511 and engines and refrigerators, 285–289, 293, 296 equilibrium, 268 equivalent, 274 for fusion, 589 and ideal gas, 232e–233 macroscopic property, 218 –219 melting, 241, 244 and number of molecules in a volume, 223 –225 of radiating objects, 505, 510 –511, 515 and resistance in a wire, 453 – 455, 460, scale, 229 –231 absolute, 231g, 234 Celsius, 229g–231, 234, 288 Fahrenheit, 229g–231 Kelvin, 231g, 234, 266, 287–288 and speed of sound, 331 and thermal expansion, 275–276 of the Universe, 621– 623 vaporization, 241 tension, 45– 46, 148, 176, 338 –341 in string, 307, 312 –313 surface, 244, 246, 253 Tereshkova, Valentina, 87 tesla (unit), 472g theory BCS, 473 color, 621 electroweak, 621 of everything, 622 of evolution, 559 grand unified, 621– 622 Maxwell’s, 188 quantum, 203 superstring, 621 unified, 620 thermal, 272 contact, 267, 283 efficiency, 265 energy (see energy, thermal) thermodynamics, 264g–265, 484, 493, 507 first law, 265–266g, 277, 283 –296 laws, 265 second law, 265, 283 –285g–296 entropy form, 292 –294 heat engine form, 285 microscopic form, 291 refrigerator form, 289 third law, 266g zeroth law, 264g–265 thermograph, 261 thermometer, 229, 231, 233, 265 thermonuclear, 626 reaction, 626 thermostat, 276 –277 thin film, 406 – 410 Thomson, J.J., 500 –504, 513, 553 Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin), 231, 265 tides, 88 –90 time, 16 –22, 188 –209, 293 –294, 528 dilation, 196 –199, 209 direction, 294 doubling, 130 and impulse, 101 www.elsolucionario.net 661 machine, 196 reaction, 121t relativistic, 187–188 slowed down, and uncertainty principle, 535–537 Titius of Wittenberg, Tomonaga, Shinichiro, 603 top quark, 597, 611g– 611t torque, 142 –143g–143e–156, 428 equation, 143 on magnetic loop, 480 – 481 net, 145–145e, 152 –153 vector, 143 transformer, 459 – 460, 479 transmission, 408 transverse, 312 –313 tritium, 554 triton, 589 trough, 313g–316, 320 –321, 342 –343, 408 Truman, Harry, 587 ultrasound, 330 umbra, 353g–355, 406 uncertainty principle, 534 –535g–535e– 536, 538, 541, 552 604, 606 energy/time, 535e position/momentum, 535e universe, expanding, 617 units, 7t conversion, 7– customary system, –9 metric system, – 8t–13 SI, 7g–13 See also specific quantity up quark, 610 – 611t upsilon, 611 Urey, Harold, 581 Usachev, Yury, 172 vacuum, 35–36, 189, 376, 380, 500 electromagnetic waves, 273 and free fall, 25–26, 47 and light, 189 –190, 350, 403, 413 and particle delay, 608 propulsion, 108 pump, 499 refractive index, 377 and speed of light, 365–366, 403, 413 tube, 576 Van Allen radiation belts, 247 Van de Graaff generator, 575 vector, 21g, 61 acceleration, linear, 23 –24, 42, 62 – 63 rotational, 141 addition, 39 – 41 average velocity, 21 constant, 143 displacement, 21 electric field, 435– 438 energy, 118, 150 field, 92 force, 39, 42 – 43, 92, 122, 431, 435 gravitational field, 92 impulse, 101–102 magnitude, 39 – 40, 92 momentum angular, 153, 155 linear, 100, 102 –104, 107–108, 153 representations, 39 – 40 rotational direction, 141 subtraction, 62 sum, 45– 46, 167–168, 172 torque, 143 velocity linear, 21, 61– 64 rotational, 141 Vega, 154 velocity, 21g, 36, 39, 88, 90, 98, 118 –120, 128, 132, 167–170, 219 and acceleration, 22 –24, 28, 43, 46 average, 21g–21e 662 Index change in, 22, 24, 36, 41, 61– 63, 64, 169 charged particle, 475– 488 circular motion, 61, 64 and classical relativity, 188 constant, 38, 53, 61, 70 –71, 108, 166 –167, 170, 188, 191, 193 and Doppler effect, 343 Earth’s orbital, 179 inertial reference system, 167 initial, 61– 62, 65 instantaneous,21 linear, 141 and magnetic force, 475 and momentum,100 –110, 535 and Newton’s laws, 38, 41 noninertial reference system, 168 particle, 227, 575 relative, 166 –168, 181, 190 –191 constant, 166 –167, 170, 191 rotational, 141g–142, 153, 155 vector, 141 terminal, 48, 102 translational, 141, 152 vector, 21, 61– 64 vibration, 303 –304g–309, 313, 316, 322 –323, 332, 338, 410 – 411 periodic, 308, 311 resonant, 310 on string, 333, 336 –337 simple, 304 violin body, 336 view atomistic, 216 mechanistic, 537 reductionist, 628 viscosity, 246g, 255 volt (unit), 439g– 440 Volta, Alessandro, 448 – 449, 460 voltage, 247, 439 – 440, 452 – 462, 477– 480, 488, 565 model, 457– 458 unit, 339 volume, 217–235, 241–243, 251–255, 269 von Guericke, Otto, 248 von Neumann, John, 603 vortex, 310 Vulovic, Vesna, 102 water, heavy, 588, 626 model, 219, 452 – 453 limitations, 452 – 453 vapor, 269, 274 watt (unit), 132g, 459g watt-hour (unit), 134 Watt, James, 132, 283 –284 steam engine, 283 –284 wave, 301–304, 310g–315, 323, 340, 343, 421 amplitude, 508, 527 bow, 344 compression, 330, 338 de Broglie’s, 521––524 electromagnetic, 188, 273, 277, 343, 483 – 484g– 488, 493, 503 –504, 521, 539, 618 electron, 521 equation, 525 form, 333 front, 401 function, 527 fundamental standing, 319 –320, 337, 339, 528 gravitational, 208, 618 – 620 intensity, 527–528 light, 188 –189, 350, 401, 408, 485, 508, 525, 527 longitudinal, 312g, 315, 323, 330, 338, 344, 410 matter, 304, 527g–528 mechanical, 528 nature of light, 401– 403, 407, 521, 524, 526 –527, 538 one-dimensional, 312 p, 315 particle dilemma, 525 particle duality, 521, 525–526, 534, 536 –537, 540, 629 periodic, 316g–323 primary, 315 probability, 527–528, 538 radio, 188, 304, 317, 366, 486 – 488, 600 reflected, 317 s, 315 secondary, 315 shock, 344g–346 sound, 189, 301–302, 317, 330 –343, 484, 527, 629 speed, 302 standing, 310, 317g–323, 336 –338, 345, 528 –532 pattern, 333, 522, 540 television, 304 tidal, 311 transverse, 312g, 315, 318, 323, 338 –339, 410 – 411 traveling, 317–319, 522 types, 304 ultraviolet, 486 water, 301, 303, 317, 402, 405– 406, 484, 525, 527 wavelength, 316g–323, 338, 342 –343, 534, 593 alpha, 574 cosmic background radiation, 624 de Broglie, 522e–524, 540 diffraction, 322 discrete, 528 electromagnetic wave, 485– 488, 497 electron, 575 FM radio, 488 fundamental, 319 –320, 336, 339 harmonic, 336 –339 hydrogen spectra, 510 interference, 321, 404 laser, 539 light, 524 in material, 408e particle, 537, 574 quantized, 522, 528 –529 radiated by hot object, 511 resonant, 319 spectral lines, 521, 606 standing wave, 345–346, 522 symbol, 316 and uncertainty principle, 534, 537 Weber, Joseph, 618 – 619 weight, 42 – 44g–54, 124, 144 –148, 155, 251, 304 apparent, 170 –171, 177 in elevator, 170 –171, 177 fluid, 250 free fall, 24 –25 and mass, 9, 42 – 44g– 45e on other planets, 44, 86t relative, 86 variation with depth, 247–249 weightlessness, 44, 171–172 Weinberg, Steven, 621 Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), 206 Wilhelm, Kaiser, 587 Wilson, Robert, 623 – 624 WIMPs, 625 Windaus, Adolf, 581 wind chill, 274 –275t work, 120g–120e–124, 133 –134, 203, 253, 277, 290 atomic level, 510 and efficiency, 287e electric, 439 – 440, 452 and heat, 262 –266 heat engine, 283 –288 and internal energy, 263, 265–266, 293 and kinetic energy, 120e mechanical, 263 –264, 284 –296 refrigerator, 288 –289 unit, 120 Working It Out acceleration, 24 a general collision, 107 average speed, 19 beats, 341 buoyant force, 250 centripetal acceleration, 65 conservation of kinetic energy, 119 conservation of mechanical energy, 125–126 constant pressure, 232 cost of electric energy, 461 crawler speed, density, 243 diopters, 389 efficiency, 288 electric field, 435 electric power, 460 electron microscope, 524 energy of a quantum, 506 extended free-body diagrams, 151 FM wavelength, 488 full-length mirror, 359 gamma ray shield, 562 gravitational and electrical force, 434 gravity, 85 ideal gas law, 234 magnetic force, 476 momentum, 103 normal force, 46 www.elsolucionario.net nuclear binding energies, 579 Ohm’s law, 454 organ pipe, 340 period of a mass on a spring, 306 period of a pendulum, 308 putting it all together, 53 power, 133 –134 powers of ten, 12 projectile motion, 68 probability, 292 radioactive dating, 559 rear-ended, 106 relativistic lengths, 201 relativistic times, 198 rotational kinematics, 142 second law, 43 should you jump?, 27 specific heat, 268 speed of a wave, 317 thermal expansion, 276 thin film, 409 uncertainty, 535 weight, 45 world atomic, 433, 513, 525, 534 electric, 420, 423, 447 macroscopic, 420, 525, 574, 600 magnetic, 420 material, 12, 35, 162, 217, 241, 254, 618 natural, 537–538, 603 physical, 163, 545–546 real, – 4, 59 subatomic, 302, 545–546, 574, 604 submicroscopic, 629 world view, 1–12, 28, 38, 100, 162 –163, 174, 201, 220, 283, 448, 485, 496, 618, 628 – 629 Aristotelian, 24, 35, 220, 598 atomic, 200, 536 building, classical physics, 162 common sense, 4, 10, 16, 101, 174, 301–302, 604, 628 Eastern culture, 537 Einsteinian, 207 modern, 35, 221 Newtonian, 38, 52, 90, 169, 201, 207 personal, 38 physics, 2, 5, 10, 13, 26, 35, 37, 39, 48, 79, 91, 97, 100, 116, 132, 163, 165, 188, 192, 204, 216 –217, 301, 351, 403, 421, 425, 434, 476, 494, 500, 508, 538, 545, 598, 618, 629 quantum-mechanical, 540 scientific, 283 your, xi, 607 X ray, 224, 353, 486, 488, 504, 514g–515, 523, 548 –551, 556, 564, 618 Yeager, Chuck, 345 Young, Thomas, 403 – 405 Yukawa, Hideki, 605 Zweig, George, 610 Physical Constants Standard Abbreviations Atomic mass unit Avogadro’s number amu ϭ 1.66 ϫ 10Ϫ27 kg A ampere NA ϭ 6.02 ϫ 1023 particles/mol amu atomic mass unit r ϭ 5.29 ϫ 10 Ϫ11 m atm atmosphere Electron volt eV ϭ 1.60 ϫ 10Ϫ19 J Btu British thermal unit Elementary charge e ϭ 1.60 ϫ 10Ϫ19 C Bohr radius Coulomb’s constant Gravitational constant C # k ϭ 8.99 ϫ 109 N m2/C2 G ϭ 6.67 ϫ 10 Ϫ11 N # m /kg 2 coulomb °C degree Celsius cal calorie Mass of electron m e ϭ 9.11 ϫ 10Ϫ31 kg eV electron volt Mass of neutron m n ϭ 1.675 ϫ 10Ϫ27 kg °F degree Fahrenheit Mass of proton m p ϭ 1.673 ϫ 10Ϫ27 kg ft foot h ϭ 6.63 ϫ 10Ϫ34 J s g gram c ϭ 3.00 ϫ 108 m/s h hour Planck’s constant Speed of light # Physical Data Acceleration due to gravity Density of water hp horsepower Hz Hertz in inch J joule K kelvin kg kilogram g ϭ 9.80 m/s2 lb pound D w ϭ 1.00 ϫ 103 kg/m3 m meter R EM ϭ 3.84 ϫ 108 m Earth–Sun distance R ES ϭ 1.50 ϫ 1011 m mph Mass of Earth M E ϭ 5.98 ϫ 1024 kg N newton Mass of Moon MM ϭ 7.36 ϫ 1022 kg Pa pascal Mass of Sun MS ϭ 1.99 ϫ 1030 kg psi pound per square inch Radius of Earth R E ϭ 6.37 ϫ 106 m rev revolution Radius of Moon R M ϭ 1.74 ϫ 106 m s second Radius of Sun R S ϭ 6.96 ϫ 108 m T tesla vs ϭ 343 m/s V volt Patm ϭ 1.01 ϫ 105 Pa W watt ⍀ ohm Earth–Moon distance Speed of sound (20°C, atm) Standard atmospheric pressure www.elsolucionario.net minute mile per hour Conversion Factors Time Speed 1y ϭ 3.16 ϫ 10 s mph ϭ 1.609 km/h ϭ 0.447 m/s day ϭ 86,400 s km/h ϭ 0.6215 mph 1h ϭ 3600 s m/s ϭ 3.281 ft/s ϭ 2.237 mph Length Acceleration in ϭ 2.54 cm m/s2 ϭ 3.281 ft/s2 1m ϭ 39.37 in ϭ 3.281 ft ft/s2 ϭ 0.3048 m/s2 ft ϭ 0.3048 m km ϭ 0.621 mile 1J ϭ 0.738 ft lb ϭ 0.2389 cal mile ϭ 1.609 km cal ϭ 4.186 J eV ϭ 1.6 ϫ 10Ϫ19 J kWh ϭ 3.6 ϫ 106 J Energy Volume 1m ϭ 35.32 ft ft3 ϭ 0.02832 m3 liter ϭ 1000 cm ϭ 1.0576 quart quart ϭ 0.9455 liter 3 # 931.43 MeV from mass of amu Mass ton (metric) ϭ 1000 kg amu ϭ 1.66 ϫ 10Ϫ27 kg Power 1W ϭ hp ϭ # # 550 ft lb/s ϭ 0.746 kW atm ϭ 1.013 ϫ 105 Pa atm ϭ 14.7 psi ϭ 76.0 cm Hg 0.738 ft lb/s Pressure kg weighs 2.2 lb 454 g weighs lb Force 1N ϭ 0.2248 lb lb ϭ 4.448 N The Greek Alphabet Alpha a 〈 Nu n ⌵ Beta b 〉 Xi j ⌶ Gamma g ⌫ Omicron o ⌷ Delta d ⌬ Pi p ⌸ Epsilon e ⌭ Rho r ⌹ Zeta z ⌮ Sigma s ⌺ Eta h ⌯ Tau t ⌻ Theta u ⌰ Upsilon y ⌼ Iota i ⌱ Phi f ⌽ Kappa k ⌲ Chi x ⌾ Lambda l ⌳ Psi c ⌿ Mu m ⌴ Omega v ⍀ www.elsolucionario.net ... happen, this experience will change your world view forever On Building a World View The term world view has a fairly elastic meaning When we think about world views, the interpretations can stretch... www.elsolucionario.net 10 Chapter A World View lish connections between your commonsense world view and the physics world view Learning the metric system at the same time as beginning your study of physics is complicated... could change your view of the world around you The physics world view is a shared set of ideas that represents current explanations of how the material world operates It is a dynamic view with new