The mastering engineers handbook bobby owsinski

www.SolutionManual.info THE Mastering Engineer’s HANDBOOK Second Edition: The Audio Mastering Handbook by Bobby Owsinski © 2008 Bobby Owsinski All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system without written permission from the author, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review The Thomson Course Technology PTR logo and related trade dress are trademarks of Thomson Course Technology, a division of Thomson Learning Inc., and may not be used without written permission All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners Important: Thomson Course Technology PTR cannot provide software support Please contact the appropriate software manufacturer’s technical support line or Web site for assistance Thomson Course Technology PTR and the author have attempted throughout this book to distinguish proprietary trademarks from descriptive terms by following the capitalization style used by the manufacturer Information contained in this book has been obtained by Thomson Course Technology PTR from sources believed to be reliable However, because of the possibility of human or mechanical error by our sources, Thomson Course Technology PTR, or others, the Publisher does not guarantee the accuracy, adequacy, or completeness of any information and is not responsible for any errors or omissions or the results obtained from use of such information Readers should be particularly aware of the fact that the Internet is an ever-changing entity Some facts may have changed since this book went to press Publisher and General Manager, Thomson Course Technology PTR: Stacy L Hiquet Associate Director of Marketing: Sarah O’Donnell Manager of Editorial Services: Heather Talbot Marketing Manager: Mark Hughes Executive Editor: Mark Garvey Project Editor/Copy Editor: Cathleen D Small Technical Reviewer: Barry Wood www.SolutionManual.info PTR Editorial Services Educational facilities, companies, and organizations interested in multiple copies or licensing of this book should contact the Publisher for quantity discount information Training manuals, CD-ROMs, and portions of this book are also available individually or can be tailored for specific needs ISBN-10: 1-59863-449-6 ISBN-13: 978-1-59863-449-5 eISBN-10: 1-59863-656-1 Coordinator: Erin Johnson Interior Layout Tech: Bill Hartman Cover Designer: Mike Tanamachi Indexer: Kevin Broccoli Proofreader: Chris Small Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2007938238 Printed in the United States of America 08 09 10 11 12 TW 10 Thomson Course Technology PTR, a division of Thomson Learning Inc 25 Thomson Place ■ Boston, MA 02210 ■ http://www.courseptr.com Acknowledgments A special thanks to all the great mastering engineers who agreed to give a little insight into how they what they It’s great that you guys can be so open in such a competitive business Also, special thanks to Mike Lawson, who turned me into a book author; Cathleen Small, for being the best editor I’ve ever had; Edward Colver, for taking the great cover pictures; John Zois from CDBits, for his great CD-pressing plant pictures; Clete Baker from Studio B, for his excellent vinyl photographs; and all the manufacturers that contributed graphics of their gear About the Author A longtime veteran of the music industry, Bobby Owsinski has produced and composed for records, DVDs, motion pictures, and television shows One of the first to delve into surround-sound music mixing, Bobby has worked on more than 200 surround projects and DVD productions for such diverse acts as Elvis, Jimi Hendrix, The Who, Willie Nelson, Neil Young, The Ramones, and Chicago, among many, many others Currently a principal in the music production house Surround Associates and content creator 2B Media, Bobby has also penned several hundred articles for many popular music and audio trade publications and has authored three books that are now staples in audio-recording programs in colleges around the world A frequent moderator, panelist, and program director of a variety of music and professional audio industry conferences, Bobby has served as the longtime producer of the annual Surround Music Awards and is currently an executive producer for the Guitar Universe and Desert Island Music television programs He is also a partner in the popular Asia Los Feliz restaurant in Los Angeles, and serves on the board of directors of the Media Entertainment Technology Alliance www.SolutionManual.info Contents Introduction xi Part I: The Mechanics of Mastering CHAPTER What Exactly Is Mastering? Some History From Vinyl to the CD and Beyond Why Master Anyway? Why It Sounds So Good When the Pros Do It Experience Is the Key CHAPTER Some Digital Audio Basics Sample Rate and Word Length Standard Audio File Formats 10 Data Compression 12 CHAPTER Tools for Mastering 13 Common Elements 13 The Signal Path 14 The Digital Detangler 16 The Monitor System 16 The Acoustic Environment 17 Monitors 18 On the Bottom 20 Subwoofers 20 Amplifiers 21 Converters 22 Equalizers 23 Compressors and Limiters 24 Tape Machines 26 Digital Tape Machines 27 Consoles 28 The Digital Audio Workstation 29 Other Devices 30 v The Mastering Engineer's Handbook, Second Edition: The Audio Mastering Handbook CHAPTER The Mechanics of Mastering 33 Level 33 Competitive Level 33 Hypercompression: Don’t Go There! 34 How to Get Hot Levels 38 Limiting 38 Compression 39 To Normalize or Not to Normalize 41 Frequency Balance 42 Frequency Feathering 42 Processing on Load-In 43 Editing 43 Fades 44 Fade-Ins 44 Fade-Outs 44 Spreads 46 Edit Decision Lists (EDLs) 46 Effects 47 CHAPTER Preparation for Mastering 49 Interview with Gannon Kashiwa 52 CHAPTER Mastering for CD 55 www.SolutionManual.info Dither 55 ISRC 56 PQ Subcodes 57 Replication Master Formats 60 The Obsolete Formats 60 The Current Standard Formats 61 Error Checking 63 FTP Transmission 63 Parts Production 64 Multiple Masters 64 Client Refs 65 Master Verification 65 CD Replicators 66 How CDs (and DVDs) Work 66 Scanning the Disc 68 How CDs Are Made 70 Step 70 Step 71 Step 71 Step 71 Step 71 Step 72 Of Additional Interest 73 vi Contents CHAPTER Mastering for Vinyl 75 A Brief History of Vinyl 75 The Physics of Vinyl 76 The Vinyl Signal Chain 84 The Master Lacquer 84 The Cutting Stylus and Cutter Head 85 The Lathe 85 The Mastering Console 86 How Records Are Pressed 88 Step 88 Step 89 Step 89 Step 89 CHAPTER Mastering for Internet Distribution 91 The Source File 91 The Encoder 92 Bit Rate 93 Bit Rate Settings 93 Constant versus Average versus Variable Bit Rate 94 Other Settings 94 CHAPTER Mastering in Surround 97 First a Bit of History 97 Types of Surround Sound 98 The LFE Channel 100 Bass Management 100 Other Types of Surround 101 The Differences between Surround and Stereo 102 Differences between Surround Mixes for Picture and for Music 103 Different Perspectives: Audience versus Onstage 103 The Center Channel 104 No Center Channel 104 Isolated Elements in the Center Channel 104 The Center as Part of the Whole 104 The LFE (Subwoofer) Channel 104 Surround Master Media Prep 105 Slate the Master 105 Print a Test Tone 107 Print Time Code 107 Surround-to-Stereo Compatibility 107 Document the Details 107 vii The Mastering Engineer's Handbook, Second Edition: The Audio Mastering Handbook CHAPTER 10 Surround Tools 109 Monitoring 109 Bass Management 110 Test Equipment 110 The Monitor Controller 111 Converters 111 Outboard Gear 112 Software Tools 112 Waves 360° Surround 113 Stereo-to-5.1 Conversion 113 96/24 and Beyond 114 Surround Encoders/Decoders (Codecs) 114 Data Rate 115 Dialnorm 115 Data Compression 116 Lossy and Lossless Codecs 116 Lossy Codecs 116 Lossless Codecs 118 Surround Software Encoders 119 Minnetonka SurCode 119 Neyrinck SoundCode 119 DTS Master Audio Suite 119 Dolby Media Producer 119 A New Way of Working 120 What the Heck Is Authoring? 120 Enter (and Exit) DLT 122 www.SolutionManual.info CHAPTER 11 Mastering for Film and Television 123 Mastering Music for Film 123 Mastering for Television 124 Part II: Audio Delivery Formats 127 CHAPTER 12 Internet Delivery Formats 129 Data Compression 129 Lossy Codecs 130 Lossless Codecs 132 Streaming Audio 133 viii The Mastering Engineer's Handbook, Second Edition: The Audio Mastering Handbook MLP Meridian Lossless Packing A data-compression technique designed specifically for high-quality (96-kHz/24-bit) sonic data MLP differs from other data-compression techniques in that no data is thrown away, thereby claiming the “lossless” moniker MLP is also a standard for the 96-kHz/24bit portion of the new DVD-Audio disc and will be licensed by Dolby Labs MO Magneto Optical A writable method of digital storage utilizing an optical disc Each disc stores from 250 MB to 4.3 GB and may be double-sided Its widespread use has been limited due to its slow disc access time modulate The process of adding a control voltage to a signal source in order to change its character For example, modulating a short slap delay with a 0.5-Hz sine wave will produce chorusing (See chorus.) mother In either vinyl or CD manufacturing, the intermediate step from which a stamper is made mute An on/off switch To mute something means to turn it off noise shaping Dither that moves much of the injected noise to an audio band beyond what we can hear www.SolutionManual.info normalization A selection on a DAW that looks for the highest peak of an audio file and adjusts all the levels of the file upward to match that level overs Digital overs occur when the level is so high that it tries to go beyond dB full scale on a typical digital level meter found in just about all equipment A red overload indicator usually will turn on, accompanied by the crunchy, distorted sound of waveform clipping parametric equalizer A tone control in which the gain, frequency, and bandwidth are all variable parts The different masters sent to the pressing plant A mastering house may make different parts/masters for CD, cassette, and vinyl or send additional parts to pressing plants around the world phantom image In a stereo system, if the signal is of equal strength in the left and right channels, the resultant sound appears to come from in between them This is a phantom image phase shift The process during which some frequencies (usually those below 100 Hz) are slowed down ever so slightly as they pass through a device This is usually exaggerated by excessive use of equalization and is highly undesirable 260 Glossary pitch On a record, the velocity of the cutter head Measured by the number of lines (grooves) per inch plate (reverb) A method to create artificial reverberation using a large steel plate with a speaker and several transducers connected to it PMCD Pre-Mastered CD An obsolete format similar to a CD-R, except that it has PQ codes written on the lead out of the disc to expedite replication PQ codes Subcodes included along with the main data channel as a means of placing control data, such as start IDs and tables of contents, on a CD predelay A variable length of time before the onset of reverberation Predelay is often used to separate the source from the reverberation so the source can be heard more clearly Pultec An equalizer sold during the ’50s and ’60s by Western Electric that is highly prized today for its smooth sound pumping When the level of a mix increases, and then decreases noticeably Pumping is caused by the improper setting of the attack and release times on a compressor punchy A description for a quality of sound that infers good reproduction of dynamics with a strong impact The term sometimes means emphasis in the 200-Hz and 5-kHz areas Q Bandwidth of a filter or equalizer range On a gate or expander, a control that adjusts the amount of attenuation that will occur to the signal when the the signal drops below the threshold ratio A parameter control on a compressor/limiter that determines how much compression or limiting will occur when the signal exceeds the threshold recall A system that memorizes the position of all pots and switches on a console The engineer must still physically reset the pots and switches back to their previous positions as indicated on a video monitor Red Book The pre-recorded CD audio standard that you find in music stores today Because of this standard, any CD will play in any audio compact disc player Specified are the sample rate (44.1 kHz), bit depth (16), type of error detection and correction, and how the data is stored on the disc, among other things 261 The Mastering Engineer's Handbook, Second Edition: The Audio Mastering Handbook ref Short for reference record, a ref is a single-sided vinyl check disc, sometimes called an acetate Due to the extreme softness of the vinyl, a ref has a limited number of plays (five or six) before it wears out (See acetate.) reference level This is the audio level, either electronic and acoustic, at which a sound system is aligned release The last part of a sound On a compressor/limiter, a control that affects how that device will respond to the release of a sound return Inputs on a recording console especially dedicated for effects devices, such as reverbs and delays The return inputs are usually not as sophisticated as normal channel inputs on a console reverb A type of signal processor that reproduces the spatial sound of an environment (for example, the sound of a closet or locker room or inside an oil tanker) RIAA curve An equalization curve instituted by the Recording Industry Association of America (the RIAA) in 1953 that narrowed the grooves, thereby allowing more of them to be cut on a record, which increased the playing time and decreased the noise This was accomplished by boosting the high frequencies by about 17 dB at 15 kHz and cutting the lows by 17 dB at 50 Hz when the record was cut The opposite curve is then applied during playback www.SolutionManual.info sample rate The rate at which the analog waveform is measured The more samples per second of the analog waveform that are taken, the better the digital representation of the waveform that occurs, resulting in greater bandwidth for the signal sampling An analog audio waveform is measured by an analog-to-digital converter (called an A-to-D, ADC, or A/D converter) in amplitude at discrete points in time and converted from electronic data to digital data scalability A feature of DVD-A that allows the producer to select from various sample rates (44.1, 48, 88.2, 96, 176.4, and 192 kHz) and word lengths (16, 20, 24) It is also possible for the producer to assign different sample rates and word lengths to different channel families, such as 96/24 to the front speakers and 48/16 to the surrounds SDDS Sony Dynamic Digital Sound Sony’s digital delivery system for the cinema This 7.1 system features five speakers across the front, stereo speakers on the sides, plus a subwoofer 262 Glossary sibilance A rise in the frequency response in a vocal where there’s an excessive amount of upper midrange frequencies, resulting in the “S” sounds being overemphasized slate A comment added to a tape or track to identify it In the early days of tape, a 50-Hz slate tone was added before each take of a song to easily identify its beginning as the tape was rewinding source tape An original master tape that is not a copy or a clone Spatializer A process developed by Spatializer Laboratories that uses psychoacoustic algorithms to give the listener the impression that he is immersed in sound SPL Sound Pressure Level SRC Sample Rate Conversion stamper In either vinyl or CD manufacturing, a negative copy bolted into the presser to actually stamp out records or CDs stems Mixes that have their major elements broken out separately for individual adjustment at a later time sub Short for subwoofer subwoofer A low-frequency speaker with a frequency response from about 25 Hz to 120 Hz synchronization When two devices—usually storage devices such as tape machines, DAWs, or sequencers—are locked together with respect to time test tones A set of tones used to calibrate a playback system In the days of tape, they were added to a tape to help calibrate the playback machine threshold The point at which an effect takes place On a compressor/limiter, for instance, the threshold control adjusts the point at which compression will take place THX A set of specifications, primarily for movie theaters, that specifies the acoustics and playback equipment so a movie will sound reasonably the same from theater to theater THX was created by audio scientist and educator Tomlinson Holman for Lucasfilm THX stands for Tomlinson Holman Experiment 263 The Mastering Engineer's Handbook, Second Edition: The Audio Mastering Handbook TV mix A mix without the vocals so the artist can sing live to the back tracks during a television appearance unity gain When the output level of a process or processor exactly matches its input level UDF Universal Disc Format The file system used by DVD that eliminates much of the confusion that CD-ROM had due to the many different file formats used All DVD formats use UDF and, as a result, have some level of compatibility with not only all DVD players, but also with computers using DOS, OS/2, Windows, Mac, and UNIX operating systems U-matic An industrial video machine utilizing a cassette storing 3/4" tape The Umatic is the primary storage device for the 1630 digital processor variable pitch On a record, varying the number of grooves per inch depending upon the program material varispeed A parameter on tape recorders that varies the speed of the playback vinylite The vinyl used to make records actually comes in a granulated form called vinylite Before being pressed, it is heated into the form of modeling clay and colored with pigment www.SolutionManual.info WAV A WAV file is an audio data file developed by the IBM and Microsoft corporations and is the PC equivalent of an AIFF file It is identified by the wav file extension word length The number of bits in a word Word length is in groups of eight The longer the word length, the better the dynamic range 264 Index 1/2" two-track tape machines, 26 2-src SRCs (Z-Systems), 31 5.1 format, 98–99, 113, 253 96-kHz/24-bit audio, 114 360° surround (Waves Audio, Ltd.), 113 500w compressors (Oxford Dynamics), 24–25 1630 two-track digital tape machines, 253 2077 analog hardware equalizers (Avalon Designs), 14, 23 A A&M records Collins, Dave, 179–188 Grundman, Bernie, 189–197, 228 AAC (Advanced Audio Coding), 130 A/B switching, 111 ABR (Average Bit Rate) mode, 94 AC-3 (Dolby Digital), 117, 256 acetates, 65, 84, 253 acoustic designers, 17 acoustic environment, 17 Active Streaming Format (ASF), 133 A/D converters See analog-to-digital (A/D) converters Advanced Audio Coding (AAC), 130 AIFF (Audio Interchange File Format), 11, 253 ALAC (Apple Lossless Audio Codec), 132 ALE (Apple Lossless Encoder) codec, 132 algorithmic fades, 44 ambience, 253 Ampex ATR-102 tape machines, 26 MR 70 electronics, 27, 203–204 Sel-Sync recording, amplifiers, 21–22 analog audio waveform, analog hardware equalizers, 23 analog signal paths, 14–16 analog tape machines, 26–27 analog-to-digital (A/D) converters 96-kHz/24-bit audio, 114 Calbi, Greg, 27 commercial mastering facilities, defined, 253 overview, 9, 22 surround sound, 111 Apogee converters, 15, 22, 216 Apple AIFF, 11 Apple iPods, 130 Apple iTunes, 93, 131–132 Apple Lossless Audio Codec (ALAC), 132 Apple Lossless Encoder (ALE) codec, 132 Apple Macintosh computers, 11 ASF (Active Streaming Format), 133 assets, 253 ATR-102 tape machines (Ampex), 26 attack settings, 39–40, 253 attenuation, 253 audience (classical) perspective, 103 audio analog equalizers, 23 signal paths, 14–16 tape machines, 26–27 waveform, bandwidth, digital data compression, 12 sampling rates, standard file formats, 10–12 word length, 10 specs Blu-ray, 153–154 DTS, 142 DVD-A, 143 DVD-V, 139–140 HD-DVD, 150 SA-CD, 146 streaming, 133 volume, 33–34 Audio Ease Altiverb plug-in, 47 Audio Interchange File Format (AIFF), 11, 253 audio slates, 105–106, 263 Augsburger, George, 254 authoring, 120–121 automation, 254 Avalon Designs 2077 analog hardware equalizers, 14, 23 Average Bit Rate (ABR) mode, 94 B B&W Loudspeakers Collins, Dave, 184 Meadows, Glenn, 217 monitors, 18–19 backup masters, 65 Baker, Clete, 77 bandwidth (Q), 254, 261 bass manager (bass redirection) circuits, 100–101, 110, 254 BD format See Blu-ray (BD) format Benchmark Media converters, 22 Bernie Grundman Mastering, 189 Better Quality Sound, 171 265 The Mastering Engineer's Handbook, Second Edition: The Audio Mastering Handbook biscuits, 89 bit rates ABR, 94 CBR, 94 defined, 254 DVD-V, 139 settings, 93–94 VBR, 94 bit resolution, 108 bit splitting (multiplexing), 254 bit stream, 68–69 Block Error Rate (BLER), 63, 65, 254 Blue Book, 136 Blumlein, Alan, 76 Blu-ray (BD) format audio specs, 153–154 features, 154–155 overview, 149, 153 video specs, 154 Books, 135–136 Boom channel (LFE channel) 5.1 format, 98–100 audience perspective, 103–104 defined, 259 documenting, 107 mastering, 120 brick-wall limiters, 38, 254 broadcast extension chunk, 11 Broadcast Wave Format (BWF), 11 Bryston amplifiers, 21 Burgundy (Scarlet or Crimson) Book, 136, 146 buses, 254 “butt cuts,” 44 BVU-800 3/4" U-matic video machines (Sony), 27, 43, 60, 264 BWF (Broadcast Wave Format), 11 CDs (compact discs) Books, 135–136 burners, 26 client refs, 65 dither, 55–56 editing, 43 error checking, 63 formats CD Extra, 136 CD Plus, 136 CD+G, 135 CD-I, 136 CD-R, 62–63 CD-RW, 136 Karaoke CD, 136 Photo CD, 136 PMCD, 61–62, 260 SA-CD, 136–137, 145–147 Video CD, 136 FTP transmissions, 63 how they work, 66–68 ISRC, 56–57 making of, 70–73 masters, 64–65 overview, 5–6 parts production, 64 PQ subcodes, 57–59 replication master formats current standard, 61–63 obsolete, 60–61 replicators, 66 sample rate, 9–10 scanning, 68–70 Cello amplifiers, 21–22, 27, 213–214 center channel, 104 chamber (reverb), 47, 254, 262 channel assignments, 105–106 Cheppa, David, 75, 85–86, 171–177 Chesky Records, 199 Chevin Research, 21 chorus, 254 CinemaScope, 97 classical (audience) perspective, 103 client refs, 65 clipping, 255 clones, 255 codecs (encoder/decoders) Blu-ray, 154 defined, 129, 255 HD-DVD, 151 lossless, 118–119, 132–133 lossy, 116–118, 130–132 MP3, 92–93 surround sound, 114–115 www.SolutionManual.info C Calbi, Greg compression, 41 converters, 23 experience, hypercompression, 37 interview with, 161–169 signal paths, 15 tape machines, 27 Capitol Records, 236, 238, 243 cassette masters, 64 CBR (Constant Bit Rate mode), 94 CD Extra format, 136 CD Interactive (CD-I) format, 136 CD Plus format, 136 CD plus Graphics (CD+G) format, 135 CD-I (CD Interactive) format, 136 CD-R format, 62–63 CD-RWs (rewritable CDs), 136 266 Index Collins, Dave experience, 7–8 frequency feathering, 43 hypercompression, 37 interview with, 179–188 signal paths, 15 Columbia Records, 75 comb filters, 255 compact discs See CDs competitive level, 33–34, 255 compression data, 12, 114, 116–118, 129, 255 history, 4–5 hypercompression, 34–38, 49, 258 Internet distribution, 91–93 Kashiwa, Gannon, 53 levels, 39–41 lossless, 259 lossy, 259 compressors, 24–25, 38–40, 112, 114–115 consoles, 28–29 Constant Bit Rate mode (CBR), 94 consumer multichannel receivers, 109 converters A/D and D/A, 22–23 sample rate, 31 surround sound, 111 copy protection, 144 Crimson (Scarlet or Burgundy) Book, 136, 146 Crookwood consoles, 28–29 Cube-Tec AudioCube DAWs, 30 cut and paste techniques, 44 cutter heads, 85–86, 255 cutting, 255 cutting styluses, 85–86 Cycling ’74’s UpMix plug-in, 113 D d01 compressors (Junger), 24 D/A converters See digital-to-analog (D/A) converters DA-45HR DAT machines (Tascam), 27 DAE-3000 video editors (Sony), 43 DAT (Digital Audio Tape), 10, 27, 255 data compression See compression DAWs See digital audio workstations (DAWs) DDP (Disc Description Protocol) format, 61–62, 256 decay, 255 decoders, 114–115, 140 See also codecs (encoder/decoders) de-essers, 32 delay, 255 dialog normalization (Dialnorm), 115 Digidesign, 12, 52 digido.com, 199 digital audio See also CDs data compression, 12 sampling rates, standard file formats, 10–12 word length, 10 Digital Audio Tape (DAT), 10, 27, 255 digital audio workstations (DAWs) Cube-Tec, 30 defined, 29–30, 255 effects, 47 SADiE, 30 Sonic Studio, 30 digital detanglers, 16 digital domain, 255 Digital Domain (digido.com), 199 Digital Linear Tape (DLT), 122, 257 Digital Multilayer Discs (DMDs), 156 digital overs, 34 Digital Performer DAWs, 30 digital signal paths, 14–15 Digital Signal Processing (DSP), 30, 257 digital tape machines, 27–28 digital television (DTV), 257 Digital Theater Systems (DTS) defined, 257 lossy compression, 116 Master Audio Suite, 119 music discs, 141–142 digital transfer consoles, Digital Versatile Discs See DVDs digital words, 10 digital-to-analog (D/A) converters 96-kHz/24-bit audio, 114 commercial mastering facilities, DAT, 27 defined, 256 overview, 22 scanning discs, 68 surround sound, 111 dipoles, 109, 257 direct radiators, 256 Direct Stream Digital (DSD) process, 146 Direct Stream Transfer, 146 Disc Description Protocol (DDP) format, 61–62, 256 disc master players (DMPs), 71 disc-at-once mode, 62 Disney, 97 distressors, 255 dither, 55–56, 257 DLT (Digital Linear Tape), 122, 257 DMDs (Digital Multilayer Discs), 156 DMPs (disc master players), 71 DMR 4000 video machines (Sony), 27, 43, 60 Dolby Digital (AC-3), 117, 256 Dolby Digital Plus, 117 Dolby EX, 117 267 The Mastering Engineer's Handbook, Second Edition: The Audio Mastering Handbook Dolby Media Producer, 119–120 Dolby Pro Logic, 256 Dolby Stereo, 97–98 Dolby Surround, 256 Dolby TrueHD, 119 Dorrough Electronics, Inc., 31 downmixing, 256 D’Rivera, Paquito, 199 DSD (Direct Stream Digital) process, 146 DSP (Digital Signal Processing), 30, 257 DTA-2000 Error Checkers (Sony), 63 DTS See Digital Theater Systems (DTS) DTV (digital television), 257 Duntech Ludwig, Bob, 22, 213–214 monitors, 18–19 Olhsson, Bob, 234 Duolines, 72 DVD-As (DVD-Audio discs), 143–145 DVDs (Digital Versatile Discs) authoring, 121 DVD-A, 143–145 DVD-V, 138–140 file formats, 138 how they work, 66–68 overview, 137–138 DVD-Video discs (DVD-Vs), 139–140 DVD-Vs (DVD-Video discs), 139–140 dynamic range, 10, 257 equalizers 96-kHz/24-bit audio, 114 defined, 257 outboard gear, 112 overview, 23–24 error checking, 63 European Broadcast Union, 11 EVDs (Enhanced Versatile Discs), 156 exciters, 257 exit-sign effect, 103 exponential curves, 44–45 F fades fade-ins (headfades), 44 fade-outs, 44–46 preparation for mastering, 50 fathers (metal masters), 71, 88–89 feathering, 42–43, 257 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) transfers, 63 film music, 123–124 filtering, 53 FLAC (Free Lossless Audio Codec), 133 flanging, 258 flat frequency response, 18 Fletcher-Munson curves, 258 formats 5.1, 98–99, 253 AIFF, 11, 253 ASF, 133 Blu-ray audio specs, 153–154 features, 154–155 overview, 149, 153 video specs, 154 BWF, 11 CD Extra, 136 CD Plus, 136 CD+G, 135 CD-I, 136 CD-R, 62–63 CD-RW, 136 DDP, 61–62, 256 digital audio, 10–12 DVD, 138 HD-DVD audio specs, 150 features, 151–152 overview, 149–150 video specs, 150–151 HDi Interactive, 151 Karaoke CD, 136 μ-law, 132 MP3, 5, 10, 65, 91–95, 130–132, 144 PCM-1630, 27–28, 60–61 Photo CD, 136 PMCD, 61–62, 260 www.SolutionManual.info E Eastman Kodak, 136 edit decision lists (EDLs), 46 editing EDLs, 46 fade-ins, 44 fade-outs, 44–46 overview, 43–44 spreads, 46 EDLs (edit decision lists), 46 effects, 47 elements, 257 elliptical EQs (low-frequency crossovers), 88, 257 EMM Labs Switchman MKII monitor controllers, 111 encoder/decoders (codecs) Blu-ray, 154 defined, 129, 255 HD-DVD, 151 lossless, 118–119, 132–133 lossy, 116–118, 130–132 MP3, 92–93 surround sound, 114–115 encryption, 144 Enhanced Versatile Discs (EVDs), 156 equalization, 4–5, 88 268 Index SA-CD, 136–137, 145–147 SDII (SD2), 12 Sun audio, 132 UDF, 138, 150, 264 Video CD, 136 wma, 131–132 Forward Versatile Discs (FVDs), 156 Free Lossless Audio Codec (FLAC), 133 frequency balancing, 42 frequency feathering, 42–43 FTP (File Transfer Protocol) transfers, 63 Future Disc, 243 FVDs (Forward Versatile Discs), 156 G Gateway Mastering, 209 George Massenburg Labs (GML) equalizers, 14, 23 glass mastering, 58–59, 64, 70–71, 258 GML 8200 equalizers (George Massenburg Labs), 14, 23 Grace Design m906 monitor controllers, 111 Green Book, 136 grooves, 77–84, 258 Grundman, Bernie experience, 7–8 frequency feathering, 42–43 hypercompression, 36–37 interview with, 189–197 mastering defined, monitor systems, 16 monitors, 20 tools, 13 H Hafler amplifiers, 21, 206, 234 HDCD (High Definition Compatible Digital), 258 HD-DVD (high definition DVD) format audio specs, 150 features, 151–152 overview, 149–150 video specs, 150–151 HDi Interactive Format, 151 headfades, 44 headroom, 258 headstack, 26, 86 High Definition Compatible Digital (HDCD), 258 high definition DVD format See HD-DVD format high-pass filters, 258 high-resolution discs Blu-ray, 152–155 HD-DVD, 149–152 high-speed CD-R recording, 62–63 Hollywood Edge, 110 Holman, Tomlinson, 110, 264 Holographic Versatile Discs (HVDs), 155 hot levels, 50, 92 HVDs (Holographic Versatile Discs), 155 hypercompression, 34–38, 49, 258 I IBM, 11 input/output (I/O), 258 Intensity Joint Stereo setting, 95 International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 56 International Standard Recording Code (ISRC), 56–57 Internet delivery formats data compression, 129 lossless codecs, 132–133 lossy codecs, 130–132 streaming audio, 133 distribution bit rates, 93–94 encoders, 92–93 settings, 94–95 source files, 91–92 interviews Calbi, Greg, 161–169 Cheppa, David, 171–177 Collins, Dave, 179–188 Grundman, Bernie, 189–197 Kashiwa, Gannon, 52–53 Katz, Bob, 199–208 Ludwig, Bob, 209–216 Meadows, Glenn, 217–226 Olhsson, Bob, 227–234 Sax, Doug, 235–241 Schreyer, Eddy, 243–251 I/O (input/output), 258 iPods, 130 ISO (International Organization for Standardization), 56 ISRC (International Standard Recording Code), 56–57 ITU Specification 775, 98–99 iTunes, 93, 131–132 J Japanese Victor Company (JVC), 136 jitter, 258 Junger (d01 compressors), 24 JVC (Japanese Victor Company), 136 K Karaoke CDs, 136 Kashiwa, Gannon, 52–53 Katz, Bob acoustic environment, 17 dither, 56 EDLs, 47 fade-ins, 44 interview with, 199–208 normalization, 41 tape machines, 27 Krell amplifiers, 21–22 269 The Mastering Engineer's Handbook, Second Edition: The Audio Mastering Handbook L M L1 Ultramaximizer compressor (Waves Audio, Ltd.), 24–25 L2 limiter (Waves Audio, Ltd.), 24–25 lacquers, 258 Lake DSP, 56 LAME Ain’t an MP3 Encoder (LAME), 93, 130 lands, 70–71 laser beam recorders (LBRs), 70, 259 lathes, 85–86 Lavry Engineering converters, 22 LBRs (laser beam recorders), 70, 259 LCRS (left, center, right, and mono surround), 98–99 lead-in area, 67–68 lead-out area, 67–68 left, center, right, and mono surround (LCRS), 98–99 levels competitive, 33–34 compression, 39–41 hypercompression, 34–38 limiting, 38–39 Lexicon Collins, Dave, 187 effects devices, 47 Katz, Bob, 203 Meadows, Glenn, 226 LFE channel See Boom channel limiters, 24–25, 38–39 linear curves, 44–45 Linear Pulse Code Modulation (LPCM), 10–11, 259 Lipinski monitors, 18–19 Logitek, 31 look-ahead, 259 lossless codecs, 118–119, 131–133, 150 lossless compression, 259 lossy codecs, 116–118, 130–133, 150 lossy coding, 91, 116, 129, 139–141 lossy compression, 259 loudspeakers, 16 low end, 20 low-frequency crossovers (elliptical EQs), 88, 257 low-frequency effects (LFE) channel (Boom channel) 5.1 format, 98–100 audience perspective, 103–104 defined, 259 documenting, 107 mastering, 120 low-pass filters, 259 LPCM (Linear Pulse Code Modulation), 10–11, 259 Ludwig, Bob acoustic environment, 17 amplifiers, 22 effects, 47 fade-outs, 46 hypercompression, 36 interview with, 209–216 monitors, 19 signal paths, 15–16 tape machines, 27 M5000 compressor (TC Electronic), 24 m906 monitor controllers (Grace Design), 111 Macintosh computers, 11 MacLeod, Ron, 113 Magneto Optical (MO) digital storage, 260 makeup gain, 259 Manley Labs amplifiers, 21 consoles, 28 Massive Passive equalizers, 23 Vari-Mu compressors, 24–25 Martinsound MultiMAX monitor controllers, 111 Massenburg DesignWorks mdweq-v2 equalizers, 23–24 Massive Passive equalizers (Manley Labs), 23 master lacquers, 84 master media preparation documenting details, 107–108 printing test tone, 107 printing time code, 107 slates, 105–106 surround-to-stereo compatibility, 107 master tape track assignments, 105–106 Masterdisk Calbi, Greg, 161 Ludwig, Bob, 210, 213 Sax, Doug, 239 Masterfonics Studios, 217 mastering defined, 3–8, 259 experience in, 7–8 history of, 4–5 preparing for, 49–53 purpose of, 5–6 mastering consoles elliptical equalizers, 88 equalization, 88 overview, 28 preview system, 86–87 surround sound, 111 Mastering Lab, 235 masters backup, 65 cassette, 64 glass, 58–59, 64, 70–71, 258 metal, 71, 88–89 online, 65 parts, 260 MCA, 243 mdweq-v2 equalizers (Massenburg DesignWorks), 23–24 Meadows, Glenn commercial mastering facilities, compression, 40 experience, 7–8 hypercompression, 37 interview with, 217–226 mastering defined, signal paths, 15 www.SolutionManual.info 270 Index Meridian Lossless Packing (MLP) data compression, 118, 143–144, 260 metadata, 115, 259 metal masters (fathers), 71, 88–89 metering, 31 MFS 432 equalizers (Sontec), 23 Microsoft, 11, 131–132 Mid-Side Joint Stereo (MS Joint Stereo) setting, 94 Millennia Media, 56 Minnetonka SurCode, 119 μ-law format, 132 MLP (Meridian Lossless Packing) data compression, 118, 143–144, 260 MO (Magneto Optical) digital storage, 260 modulation, 260 monitor controllers, 111 monitors, 16, 18–20, 109 Monoliners, 72–73 mothers (reverse image stampers), 71–72, 89, 260 MP3 (MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3) format client refs, 65 encoding, 91–95 history of, overview, 130–132 MPEG-4, 131 MR 70 electronics (Ampex), 27, 203–204 multichannel test discs, 110 MultiMAX monitor controllers (Martinsound), 111 multiplexing (bit splitting), 254 music film, 123–124 television, 124–125 muting, 260 Mytek, 22, 31 N Neumann Cheppa, David, 171–172 lathes, 85 Ludwig, Bob, 15, 216 Sax, Doug, 239 SP-75 vinyl mastering consoles, 86 Neyrinck SoundCode, 119 noise shaping, 260 normalization, 41, 260 Nyquist Theorem, O Oasis Mastering, 243 obsolete formats PMCD, 61–62, 260 Sony PCM-1630, 27–28, 60–61 Ogg Vorbis (.ogg), 132 Olhsson, Bob, 7, 36, 227–234 online masters, 65 onstage perspective, 104 optical discs See also CDs; DVDs alternative technologies, 155–156 Blu-ray, 152–155 DTS, 141–142 DVD-A, 143–145 DVD-V, 139–140 HD-DVD, 150–152 SA-CD, 145–147 Orange Book, 136 outboard gear, 13, 21, 112 overs, 260 Oxford Dynamics 500w compressors, 24–25 Oxford EQ-500 equalizers (Sonnex), 23–25 P parametric equalizers, 260 parts, 260 See also masters patchbays, 16 PCM-1630 format, 27–28, 60–61 peak meters, 31 phantom images, 260 phase shifting, 261 PH-DVDs (Polar High-Definition DVDs), 156 Philips, 136 Photo CD format, 136 pink noise, 20–21, 110 pitch, 76, 80, 261 pits, 68–71, 149 plate (reverb), 261 PlayStation game units, 153 plug-ins, 47, 112–113 PMCD (Pre-Mastered CD) format, 61–62, 260 Pohlmann, Ken, Polar High-Definition DVDs (PH-DVDs), 156 POW-r (Psychoacoustically Optimized Wordlength Reduction), 56 PQ burst, 60 PQ codes, 57–59, 261 predelay, 261 PreMaster CD2 software, 30 Pre-Mastered CD (PMCD) format, 61–62, 260 pressing records, 88–89 preview systems, 86–87 printing test tones/time codes, 107 Prism Sound converters, 22 Pro Tools DAWs, 30, 119 processing on load-in, 43 production, 64 program area, 67–68 Psychoacoustically Optimized Wordlength Reduction (POW-r), 56 Pultec EQs, 15, 166, 261 pumping, 40, 261 punchy, 261 271 The Mastering Engineer's Handbook, Second Edition: The Audio Mastering Handbook R range control, 261 ratio control, 261 razorblade editing, 43 real-time analyzers (RTAs), 21 recall, 261 Record Plant, 161 Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) curve, 76, 78, 262 records See vinyl records Red Book defined, 261 DVD-V, 138–139 overview, 135–136 SA-CD, 146 Red Hot Chili Peppers, 36 reference levels, 262 refs (reference records) acetates, 84, 253 client, 65 defined, 262 release, 39–40, 262 repeatability, 13 replication master formats, 61–63 replicators, 65–66 return inputs, 262 reverb (chamber), 47, 254, 262 reverse image stampers (mothers), 71–72, 89, 260 revolutions per minute (rpm), 68 rewritable CDs (CD-RWs), 136 RIAA (Recording Industry Association of America) curve, 76, 78, 262 rpm (revolutions per minute), 68 RTAs (real-time analyzers), 21 RTW meters, 31 rumble, 77 Scully lathes, 85 SDDS (Sony Dynamic Digital Sound), 98, 105–106, 262 SDII or SD2 (Sound Designer II) format, 12 Selective Synchronous (Sel-Sync) recording, sequencing sessions, 51 servo systems, 70 sibilance, 32, 263 signal chains Calbi, Greg, 166 Collins, Dave, 182, 185 dither, 56 Meadows, Glenn, 226 monitor systems, 16 Sax, Doug, 240 vinyl records cutting, 85 lathing, 85–86 master lacquers, 84 mastering consoles, 86–88 signal paths, 14–16 slates, 105–106, 263 smooth frequency response, 18 software DAWs, 30 encoders, 119–120 equalizers, 23 surround sound tools, 112–115 sonic quality, 13, 47, 75–76 Sonic Solutions, 5, 30, 61 Sonic Studio, 30 Sonnex Oxford EQ-500 equalizers, 23–25 Sontec MFS 432 equalizers, 23 Sony BVU-800 3/4" U-matic video machines, 27, 43, 60, 264 Sony DAE-3000 video editors, 43 Sony DMR 4000 video machines, 27, 43, 60 Sony DTA-2000 Error Checkers, 63 Sony Dynamic Digital Sound (SDDS), 98, 105–106, 262 Sony PCM-1630, 27–28, 60–61 Sony PlayStation game units, 153 Sound Designer II (SDII or SD2) format, 12 Sound Forge, 30 sound pressure level (SPL), 263 source files, 91–92 source tapes, 263 SP-75 vinyl mastering consoles (Neumann), 86 Spatializer process, 263 Spielberg, Steven, 117 SPL (sound pressure level), 263 SPL Labs, 28, 263 spreads, 6, 44, 46 SRCs (sample rate converters), 31, 263 StageTech EC2, 63, 65, 224 stampers defined, 263 reverse image, 71–72, 89, 260 Steinberg WaveLab software, 30 stems, 120, 124, 263 www.SolutionManual.info S SA-CD (Super Audio CD) format, 136–137, 145–147 SADiE system, 30, 56 sample rate, 9, 262 sample rate converters (SRCs), 31, 263 sampling, 9, 108, 146, 262 Sax, Doug, 15, 235–241 scalability, 143–144, 262 scanning discs, 68–70 Scarlet (Crimson or Burgundy) Book, 136, 146 Schreyer, Eddy commercial mastering facilities, compression, 40 fade-outs, 46 frequency feathering, 43 hypercompression, 36 interview with, 243–251 limiting, 39 monitors, 19 272 Index stereo compatibility with surround sound, 107 conversion to 5.1, 113 versus surround sound, 102–103, 120 Stereo Narrowing setting, 95 Sterling Sound Calbi, Greg, 161 Ludwig, Bob, 210 Olhsson, Bob, 227 streaming audio, 133 Studer 827 tape machines, 26 subwoofers (subs), 20–21, 100–101, 104, 110, 263 Sun audio formats, 132 Super Audio CD (SA-CD) format, 136–137, 145–147 Super Jewel Boxes, 146 surround sound audience perspective, 103 bass management, 100–101 center channel, 104 history of, 97–98 LFE channel, 100 master media preparation, 105–108 mixes for picture/music, 103 onstage perspective, 104 software tools, 112–115 versus stereo, 102–103 stereo compatibility, 107 tools authoring, 120–121 bass management, 110 converters, 111 data compression, 116 data rate, 115 Dialnorm, 115 DLT, 122 lossless codecs, 118–119 lossy codecs, 116–118 monitor controllers, 111 monitoring, 109 outboard gear, 112 software encoders, 119–120 versus stereo mastering, 120 test equipment, 110 types of, 98–102 sweet spot, 103 synchronization, 263 T Tannoy monitors, 18–19 tape machines, 26–27, 253 Tascam DA-45HR DAT machines, 27 TC Electronic effects devices, 47 Finalizer, 92 M5000 compressor, 24 UnWrap plug-in, 113 television DTV, 257 mastering, 124–125 mixing for, 263 test equipment, 110 test tones, 107, 263 three-beam scanning, 70 threshold, 263 Threshold amplifiers, 21 THX (Tomlinson Holman Experiment), 264 time codes, 107–108 Tomlinson Holman Experiment (THX), 264 Tomlinson Holman’s Test and Measurement Series discs, 110 tools acoustic environment, 17 amplifiers, 21–22 compressors, 24–25 consoles, 28–29 converters, 22–23 DAWs, 29–30 de-essers, 32 digital detanglers, 16 digital tape machines, 27–28 equalizers, 23–24 limiters, 24–25 metering, 31 monitor systems, 16 monitors, 18–20 sample rate converters, 31 signal paths, 14–16 software 96-kHz/24-bit, 114 codecs, 114–115 overview, 112 stereo-to-5.1 conversion, 113 Waves 360° surround, 113 subwoofers, 20–21 surround sound authoring, 120–121 bass management, 110 converters, 111 data compression, 116 data rate, 115 Dialnorm, 115 DLT, 122 lossless codecs, 118–119 lossy codecs, 116–118 monitor controller, 111 monitoring, 109 outboard gear, 112 software encoders, 119–120 versus stereo mastering, 120 test equipment, 110 tape machines, 26–27 track-at-once mode, 62 transfer consoles, 28 273 The Mastering Engineer's Handbook, Second Edition: The Audio Mastering Handbook transfer engineers, truncation, 55 Tube-Tech, 24, 250 TV mixes, 263 two-track tape machines, 6, 253 U UDF (Universal Disc Format), 138, 150, 264 UDO (Ultra Density Optical) discs, 156 U-matic video machines, 27, 43, 60, 264 unity gain, 264 Universal Disc Format (UDF), 138, 150, 264 UnWrap plug-in, 113 UpMix plug-in, 113 V Variable Bit Rate (VBR) mode, 94 variable pitch, 264 Vari-Mu compressors (Manley Labs), 24–25 varispeed parameter, 264 VBR (Variable Bit Rate) mode, 94 verification, 65 Versatile Multilayer Discs (VMDs), 156 Video CDs, 136 video specs Blu-ray, 154 DTS, 142 DVD-A, 145 DVD-V, 140 HD-DVD, 150–151 SA-CD, 146–147 vinyl records Better Quality Sound, 171 grooves, 77–84 history of, 4–5, 75–76 masters, 64 physics of, 76–84 pressing, 88–89 pressing records, 88–89 sequencing, 51 signal chain cutting, 85 lathing, 85–86 master lacquers, 84 mastering consoles, 86–88 volume, 34 vinylite, 89, 264 Virtual Precision Instruments (VPIs), 30 VMDs (Versatile Multilayer Discs), 156 VPIs (Virtual Precision Instruments), 30 VU meters, 31 W watermarking, 144 WAV (Waveform Audio) files, 11, 264 WaveLab software, 30 Waves Audio, Ltd 360° surround, 113 Collins, Dave, 15, 180, 185 compressors, 24–25 Katz, Bob, 204 L1 Ultramaximizer compressor, 24–25 L2 limiter, 24–25 Ludwig, Bob, 216 Olhsson, Bob, 233 Schreyer, Eddy, 250 Weiss Electronics consoles, 28 EQ-1 equalizers, 23 POW-r, 56 SFC2 SRCs, 31 Westrex Corporation, 76 White Book, 136 wide frequency response, 18 Windows Media Audio (.wma) format, 131–132 word length, 9–10, 264 Y Yellow Book, 136 www.SolutionManual.info Z 274 Z-Systems 2-src SRCs, 31 detanglers, 16 Katz, Bob, 207–208 Meadows, Glenn, 15 outboard gear, 112 POW-r, 56 Z-Q1 equalizers, 23 ... all The Mastering Engineer's Handbook, Second Edition: The Audio Mastering Handbook the songs blend together into a cohesive unit In the case of mastering for CD, he has inserted the spreads (the. .. III: The Interviews provides a behind -the- scenes look at the mastering world through the eyes of some of the finest (and, in some cases, legendary) mastering engineers in the world Meet the Mastering. .. 96 kHz Therefore, the higher the sampling rate, the better the representation of the signal and the greater the audio bandwidth—which means it sounds better! The Mastering Engineer's Handbook,