Wolfson essential university physics 2nd txtbk

www.elsolucionario.net PHYSIC AL CONSTANTS CONSTANT Speed of light Elementary charge Electron mass Proton mass Gravitational constant Permeability constant Permittivity constant Boltzmann’s constant Universal gas constant Stefan–Boltzmann constant Planck’s constant Avogadro’s number Bohr radius SYMBOL c e me mp G m0 P0 k R s h 15 2p"2 NA a0 THREE-FIGURE VALUE 3.003108 m/s 1.60310219 C 9.11310231 kg 1.67310227 kg 6.67310211 N # m2/kg 1.2631026 N/A2 1H/m2 8.85310212 C 2/N # m2 1F/m2 1.38310223 J/K 8.31 J/K # mol 5.6731028 W/m2 # K4 6.63310234 J # s 6.0231023 mol21 5.29310211 m BEST KNOWN VALUE* 299 792 458 m/s (exact) 1.602 176 4871402 310219 C 9.109 382 151452 310231 kg 1.672 621 6371832 310227 kg 6.674 281672 310211 N # m2/kg 4p31027 (exact) 1/m0c2 (exact) 1.380 65041242 310223 J/K 8.314 4721152 J/K # mol 5.670 4001402 31028 W/m2 # K4 6.626 068 961332 310234 J # s 6.022 141 791302 31023 mol21 5.291 772 08591362 310211 m *Parentheses indicate uncertainties in last decimal places Source: U.S National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2007 values SI PREFIXES POWER 1024 1021 1018 1015 1012 109 106 103 102 101 100 1021 1022 1023 1026 1029 10212 10215 10218 10221 10224 THE GREEK ALPHABET PREFIX yotta zetta exa peta tera giga mega kilo hecto deca — deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto zepto yocto SYMBOL Y Z E P T G M k h da — d c m μ n p f a z y Alpha Beta Gamma Delta Epsilon Zeta Eta Theta Iota Kappa Lambda Mu Nu Xi Omicron Pi Rho Sigma Tau Upsilon Phi Chi Psi Omega UPPERCASE A B G D E Z H U I K L M N J O P R S T Y F X C V LOWERCASE a b g d P z h u i k l m n j o p r s t y f x c v Conversion Factors (more conversion factors in Appendix C) Length in 2.54 cm mi 1.609 km ft 0.3048 m light year 9.4631015 m Velocity mi/h 0.447 m/s m/s 2.24 mi/h 3.28 ft/s Mass, energy, force u 1.661310227 kg cal 4.184 J Btu 1.054 kJ kWh 3.6 MJ eV 1.602310219 J pound 1lb2 4.448 N weight of 0.454 kg Pressure atm 101.3 kPa 760 mm Hg atm 14.7 lb/in2 Time day 86,400 s year 3.163107 s Magnetic field gauss 1024 T www.elsolucionario.net Rotation and angle rad 180°/p 57.3° rev 360° 2p rad rev/s 60 rpm Essential UNIVERSITY PHYSICS SECOND EDITION Richard Wolfson Middlebury College www.elsolucionario.net Publisher: James Smith Executive Editor: Nancy Whilton Project Editor: Martha Steele Director of Development: Michael Gillespie Editorial Manager: Laura Kenney Development Editor: Ashley Eklund Editorial Assistant: Peter Alston Managing Editor: Corinne Benson Production Project Manager: Beth Collins Production Management and Composition: PreMediaGlobal Copyeditor: Joanna Dinsmore Interior and Cover Designer: Derek Bacchus Illustrators: Rolin Graphics Photo Researcher: Eric Schrader Senior Photo Editor: Donna Kalal Manufacturing Buyer: Jeff Sargent Senior Marketing Manager: Kerry Chapman Director of Marketing, Science: Christy Lawrence Cover Photo Credit: Andrew Lambert Photography / Science Photo Library; Andrew Lambert Photography / Science Photo Library Printer: Edwards Brothers Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text and/or on pages C-1and C-2 Copyright © 2007, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Addison-Wesley, 1301 Sansome St., San Francisco, 94111 All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, 1900 E Lake Ave., Glenview, IL 60025 For information regarding permissions, call (847) 486-2635 Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps MasteringPhysics and ActivPhysics are trademarks, in the U.S and/or other countries, of Pearson Education, Inc or its affiliates Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wolfson, Richard Essential university physics / Richard Wolfson.—2nd ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-0-321-70669-0 (v : alk paper) ISBN-10: 0-321-70669-2 (alk paper) ISBN-13: 978-0-321-71204-2 (v : alk paper) ISBN-10: 0-321-71204-8 (alk paper) Physics—Textbooks I Title QC21 3.W65 2012 530—dc22 2010039884 ISBN 10: 0-321-70669-2; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-70669-0 (Volume without Mastering Physics) ISBN 10: 0-321-71204-8; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-71204-2 (Volume with Mastering Physics) ISBN 10: 0-321-71206-4; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-71206-6 (Volume Exam copy) 10—EB—14 13 12 11 10 ISBN 10: 0-321-70127-5; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-70127-5 (Volume without Mastering Physics) ISBN 10: 0-321-71174-2; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-71174-8 (Volume with Mastering Physics) ISBN 10: 0-321-71198-X; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-71198-4 (Volume Exam copy) www.elsolucionario.net Brief Contents Chapter 22 Electric Potential 372 Chapter Doing Physics Chapter 23 Electrostatic Energy and Capacitors 389 PART ONE Chapter 24 Electric Current 403 Mechanics 12 Chapter 25 Electric Circuits 419 Chapter Motion in a Straight Line 13 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field 439 Chapter Motion in Two and Three Dimensions 30 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction 466 Chapter Force and Motion 48 Chapter 28 Alternating-Current Circuits 491 Chapter Using Newton’s Laws 66 Chapter 29 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves 510 Chapter Work, Energy, and Power 85 Chapter Conservation of Energy 101 PART FIVE Chapter Gravity 118 Optics 531 Chapter Systems of Particles 133 Chapter 30 Reflection and Refraction 532 Chapter 10 Rotational Motion 155 Chapter 31 Images and Optical Instruments 544 Chapter 11 Rotational Vectors and Angular Momentum 174 Chapter 32 Interference and Diffraction 564 Chapter 12 Static Equilibrium 186 PART SIX Modern Physics 585 PART TWO Oscillations, Waves, and Fluids 203 Chapter 13 Oscillatory Motion 204 Chapter 33 Relativity 586 Chapter 34 Particles and Waves 609 Chapter 35 Quantum Mechanics 628 Chapter 14 Wave Motion 224 Chapter 36 Atomic Physics 644 Chapter 15 Fluid Motion 246 Chapter 37 Molecules and Solids 662 PART THREE Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics 680 Thermodynamics 264 Chapter 39 From Quarks to the Cosmos 706 Chapter 16 Temperature and Heat 265 Chapter 17 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 282 Chapter 18 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics 295 APPENDICES Appendix A Mathematics A-1 Appendix B The International System of Units (SI) A-9 Chapter 19 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 312 Appendix C Conversion Factors A-11 Appendix D The Elements A-13 PART FOUR Appendix E Astrophysical Data A-16 Electromagnetism 331 Chapter 20 Electric Charge, Force, and Field 332 Chapter 21 Gauss’s Law 351 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-17 Credits C-1 Index I-1 iii www.elsolucionario.net About the Author Richard Wolfson Richard Wolfson is the Benjamin F Wissler Professor of Physics at Middlebury College, where he has taught since 1976 He did undergraduate work at MIT and Swarthmore College, and he holds an M.S degree from the University of Michigan and Ph.D from Dartmouth His ongoing research on the Sun’s corona and climate change has taken him to sabbaticals at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado; St Andrews University in Scotland; and Stanford University Rich is a committed and passionate teacher This is reflected in his many publications for students and the general public, including the video series Einstein’s Relativity and the Quantum Revolution: Modern Physics for Nonscientists (The Teaching Company, 1999), Physics in Your Life (The Teaching Company, 2004), and How the Universe Works: Understanding Physics, from Quark to Galaxy (The Teaching Company, 2011); books Nuclear Choices: A Citizen’s Guide to Nuclear Technology (MIT Press, 1993), Simply Einstein: Relativity Demystified (W W Norton, 2003), and Energy, Environment, and Climate (W W Norton, 2007); and articles for Scientific American and the World Book Encyclopedia Outside of his research and teaching, Rich enjoys hiking, canoeing, gardening, cooking, and watercolor painting iv www.elsolucionario.net Preface to the Instructor Introductory physics texts have grown ever larger, more massive, more encyclopedic, more colorful, and more expensive Essential University Physics bucks that trend—without compromising coverage, pedagogy, or quality The text benefits from the author’s three decades of teaching introductory physics, seeing firsthand the difficulties and misconceptions that students face as well as the “Got It!” moments when big ideas become clear It also builds on the author’s honing multiple editions of a previous calculus-based textbook and on feedback from hundreds of instructors and students Goals of This Book Physics is the fundamental science, at once fascinating, challenging, and subtle—and yet simple in a way that reflects the few basic principles that govern the physical universe My goal is to bring this sense of physics alive for students in a range of academic disciplines who need a solid calculus-based physics course—whether they’re engineers, physics majors, premeds, biologists, chemists, geologists, mathematicians, computer scientists, or other majors My own courses are populated by just such a variety of students, and among my greatest joys as a teacher is having students who took a course only because it was required say afterwards that they really enjoyed their exposure to the ideas of physics More specifically, my goals include: ● ● ● ● ● Helping students build the analytical and quantitative skills and confidence needed to apply physics in problem solving for science and engineering Adressing key misconceptions and helping students build a stronger conceptual understanding Helping students see the relevance and excitement of the physics they’re studying with contemporary applications in science, technology, and everyday life Helping students develop an appreciation of the physical universe at its most fundamental level Engaging students with an informal, conversational writing style that balances precision with approachability New to This Edition We’ve updated this second edition based on user feedback to expand coverage of a few key topics and abbreviate coverage of some that are less widely taught We’ve also added new and revised features to improve conceptual understanding and spotlight relevancy, and have completely overhauled end-of-chapter problem sets Specific changes include: ● ● ● ● ● Expanded coverage of impulse (Ch 9), the addition of the wave equation (Ch.14), and a new statistical treatment of entropy (Ch 19) Reduced coverage of toroids (Ch 26) and phasors (Ch 28) New Conceptual Examples that contain a Making the Connection follow-up question applying the concept from the example to a quantitative problem based on a real-world situation New Applications to emphasize how physics concepts apply to real-world situations, including biomedical and engineering fields To Learn/To Know chapter previews are now called New Concepts, New Skills/Connecting Your Knowledge, and have been revised to better emphasize the key concepts in each chapter and to show how they connect with concepts in previous chapters www.elsolucionario.net ● ● ● ● ● ● Complete edition Volumes 1–2 (shrinkwrapped) with MasteringPhysics® (ISBN 0-321-714385): Chapters 1–39 Volume with MasteringPhysics® (ISBN 0-321-71204-8): Chapters 1–19 Volume with MasteringPhysics® (ISBN 0-321-71174-2): Chapters 20–39 Complete edition Volumes 1–2 (shrinkwrapped) (ISBN 0-32169692-1): Chapters 1–39 Volume (ISBN 0-321-70669-2): Chapters 1–19 Volume (ISBN 0-321-70127-5): Chapters 20–39 v vi Preface to the Instructor ● ● ● ● ● End-of-chapter (EOC) problem sets now include new biomedical-related problems that investigate physics concepts in biology, medicine, and biomedical technologies, and new computational problems that require a computer or graphing calculator Every end-of-chapter problem set now includes new Passage Problems similar to the types of questions asked on the MCAT Exam Each set includes multiplechoice questions based on a passage of text, often with an accompanying figure or graph, and involves biomedical and other real-world scenarios EOC problem sets have been thoroughly revised to include new calculus-based problems, new context-rich problems, and more medium-difficulty problems All quantitative results—both in-text examples and EOC problems—have been checked independently for accuracy by two physicists Finally, we’ve incorporated new research results and new applications of physics principles wherever they’re relevant Pedagogical Innovations This book is concise, but it’s also progressive in its embrace of proven techniques from physics education research and strategic in its approach to learning physics Chapter introduces the IDEA framework for problem solving, and every one of the book’s subsequent worked examples employs this framework IDEA—an acronym for Identify, Develop, Evaluate, Assess—is not a “cookbook” method for students to apply mindlessly, but rather a tool for organizing students’ thinking and discouraging equation hunting It begins with an interpretation of the problem and an identification of the key physics concepts involved; develops a plan for reaching the solution; carries out the mathematical evaluation; and assesses the solution to see that it makes sense, to compare the example with others, and to mine additional insights into physics In nearly all of the text’s worked examples, the Develop phase includes making a drawing, and most of these use a hand-drawn style to encourage students to make their own drawings—a step that research suggests they often skip IDEA provides a common approach to all physics problem solving, an approach that emphasizes the conceptual unity of physics and helps break the typical student view of physics as a hodgepodge of equations and unrelated ideas In addition to IDEA-based worked examples, other pedagogical features include: ● ● ● ● ● ● Problem-Solving Strategy boxes that follow the IDEA framework to provide detailed guidance for specific classes of physics problems, such as Newton’s second law, conservation of energy, thermal-energy balance, Gauss’s law, or multiloop circuits Tactics boxes that reinforce specific essential skills such as differentiation, setting up integrals, vector products, drawing free-body diagrams, simplifying series and parallel circuits, or ray tracing Got It? boxes that provide quick checks for students to test their conceptual understanding Many of these use a multiple-choice or quantitative ranking format to probe student misconceptions and facilitate their use with classroom-response systems Tips that provide helpful problem-solving hints or warn against common pitfalls and misconceptions Chapter openers that include a forward-looking New Concepts, New Skills list for the chapter ahead, and a backward-looking Connecting Your Knowledge list of important ideas on which the chapter builds Both lists reference specific chapter sections by number Applications, self-contained presentations typically shorter than half a page, provide interesting and contemporary instances of physics in the real world, such as bicycle stability; flywheel energy storage; laser vision correction; ultracapacitors; wind energy; magnetic resonance imaging; global climate change; combined-cycle power generation; circuit models of the cell membrane; CD, DVD, and Blu-ray technologies; and radiocarbon dating www.elsolucionario.net Preface to the Instructor vii ● ● ● ● For Thought and Discussion questions at the end of each chapter designed for peer learning or for self-study to enhance students’ conceptual understanding of physics Annotated figures that adopt the research-based approach of including simple “instructor’s voice” commentary to help students read and interpret pictorial and graphical information End-of-chapter problems that begin with simpler exercises keyed to individual chapter sections and ramp up to more challenging and often multistep problems that synthesize chapter material Context-rich problems focusing on real-world situations are interspersed throughout each problem set Chapter summaries that combine text, art, and equations to provide a synthesized overview of each chapter Each summary is hierarchical, beginning with the chapter’s “big picture” ideas, then focusing on key concepts and equations, and ending with a list of “applications”—specific instances or applications of the physics presented in the chapter Organization This contemporary book is concise, strategic, and progressive, but it’s traditional in its organization Following the introductory Chapter 1, the book is divided into six parts Part One (Chapters 2–12) develops the basic concepts of mechanics, including Newton’s laws and conservation principles as applied to single particles and multiparticle systems Part Two (Chapters 13–15) extends mechanics to oscillations, waves, and fluids Part Three (Chapters 16–19) covers thermodynamics Part Four (Chapters 20–29) deals with electricity and magnetism Part Five (Chapters 30–32) treats optics, first in the geometrical optics approximation and then including wave phenomena Part Six (Chapters 33–39) introduces relativity and quantum physics Each part begins with a brief description of its coverage, and ends with a conceptual summary and a challenge problem that synthesizes ideas from several chapters Essential University Physics is available in two paperback volumes, so students can purchase only what they need—making the low-cost aspect of this text even more attractive Volume includes Parts One, Two, and Three, mechanics through thermodynamics Volume contains Parts Four, and Five, and Six, electricity and magnetism along with optics and modern physics Instructor Supplements NOTE: For convenience, all of the following instructor supplements (except the Instructor Resource DVD) can be downloaded from the “Instructor Area,” accessed via the left-hand navigation bar of MasteringPhysics® (www.masteringphysics com) ● ● The Instructor Solutions Manual (ISBN 0-321-697235) contains solutions to all end-of-chapter exercises and problems, written in the Interpret/Develop/Evaluate/ Assess (IDEA) problem-solving framework The solutions are provided in PDF and editable Microsoft® Word formats for Mac and PC, with equations in MathType, and can also be downloaded from the Instructor Resource Center (www.pearsonhighered.com/irc) The Instructor Resource DVD (ISBN 0-321-71171-8) provides all the figures, photos, and tables from the text in JPEG format All the problem-solving strategies, Tactics Boxes, key equations, and chapter summaries are provided in PDF and editable Microsoft® Word formats with equations in MathType Each chapter also has a set of PowerPoint® lecture outlines and “clicker” questions ● ● A comprehensive library of more than 220 applets from ActivPhysics OnLineTM and a suite of over 70 PhET simulations are also included MasteringPhysics® (www masteringphysics.com) is the most advanced physics homework and tutorial system available This online homework and tutoring system guides students through the toughest topics in physics with self-paced tutorials that provide individualized coaching These assignable, in-depth tutorials are designed to coach students with hints and feedback specific to their individual errors Instructors can also assign end-of-chapter problems from every chapter, including multiple-choice questions, sectionspecific exercises, and general problems Quantitative problems can be assigned with numerical answers and randomized values (with sig fig feedback) or solutions Pearson eText is available either automatically when MasteringPhysics® is packaged with new books or as a www.elsolucionario.net Index A Aberration of starlight, 588, 589 Aberrations, 555 astigmatism, 555 chromatic aberrations, 539, 555, 559 of lenses, 539, 555, 559 of mirrors, 546 spherical aberration, 546, 555 of starlight, 588, 589 ABS (antilock braking system), 77 Absolute motion, 587, 590 Absolute temperature, 267 Absolute zero, 266, 670, 676 Absorption spectra, 616 AC circuits See Alternating-current circuits Acceleration angular acceleration, 157–158, 169 average, 17 average acceleration vector, 33 centripetal, 42 constant acceleration in one dimension, 19–22, 25 in two dimensions, 35–36 defined, 18, 44 force and, 51 gravitation and, 54 of gravity, 119–120 constant acceleration, 22–24, 25 near Earth’s surface, 22–24, 119–120 in Space, 119–120 instantaneous, 17, 33 instantaneous acceleration vector, 33 mass and, 51–53, 55 in one dimension, 17–21 radial, 43, 157 simple harmonic motion and, 208 straight-line motion, 17–22, 25 tangential, 43, 157 in two dimensions, 33–36 uniform circular motion and, 41–42 Acceleration vectors, 33–34, 41, 42 Acceptor levels, 672 Acousto-optic modulators (AOMs), 571 Actinide series, 655 Action-at-a-distance forces, 53, 127 Activation analysis, radioactivity for, 690 Activity, of radioisotopes, 686–687 Addition scientific notation and, 5, of vectors, 31, 33 Adiabat, 301 Adiabatic compression, heat engine, 314 Adiabatic equation, 301 Adiabatic expansion, heat engine, 314 Adiabatic free expansion, 322 Adiabatic path, 301 Adiabatic processes, 300–302, 303, 307, 330 Aerodynamic lift and airflow, 256 Air dielectric constant of, 393 optical properties of, 534 thermal properties of, 270 Air resistance, acceleration of gravity and, 22 Aircraft aerodynamic lift and airflow, 256 motion of, 15, 21, 35 Alkali metals, electronic structure of, 656 Allowed transitions, 656 Alpha decay, 637, 688, 702 Alpha particle, properties of, 691 Alpha radiation, 688 Alternating current (AC), 491–492, 505 Alternating-current circuits (AC circuits), 491–505 circuit elements in, 492–496 electric power in, 502 high-Q circuit, 500 LC circuits, 496–499, 505 RLC circuits, 499–501, 505 See also Electric circuits Aluminum electrical properties of, 406 thermal properties of, 268, 270, 289 work function of, 613 Aluminum oxide, dielectric constant of, 393 Ammeters, 429, 434 Amorphous solids, 667 Ampere (A), 3, 403 Ampère, André Marie, 403 Ampère’s law, 453–459, 460, 530 ambiguity in, 511–512 Biot-Savart law and, 454 electromagnetic waves, 516–517 in magnetic fields, 455–459, 510, 511, 513, 526, 530 Ampèrian loop, 455 Amplifier, transistor as, 409 Amplitude oscillatory motion, 205, 207 waves, 225 Anderson, Carl, 707 Angle, units of, 3, 9, 156 Angle of incidence, 532, 540, 545 Angle of reflection, 532, 540, 545 Angular acceleration, rotational motion, 157–158, 169 Angular displacement, 156 Angular frequency, 218, 226, 242 Angular magnification, 557, 560 Angular momentum, 177–180, 182 calculation of, 177 conservation of, 178–179, 182, 710 gyroscopes, 180 of the nucleus, 683 orbital, 647–648 quantization of, 676 space quantization, 648 spin angular momentum, 649, 658 total, 650 See also Spin Angular momentum coupling rules, 650–651 Angular speed, 156, 169 Angular velocity, rotational motion, 156, 169 Annihilation, 601, 710 Anti-electron, 689 Antibaryons, 710 Anticolor, 711 Antineutrinos, 688, 710 Antinodes, 237 Antiparticles, 639, 711 Antiquarks, 711 Antireflection coatings, 533 AOMs See Acousto-optic modulators Aphelion, 123 Apparent weight, 61, 62 Apparent weightlessness, 55, 62 Archimedes’ principle, 250–251, 258 Argon electronic structure of, 654 specific heat of, 305 Aristotle, 48 Artificial radioactivity, 689 Astigmatism, 555 Astronauts escape speed of, 126, 129 orbital motion of, 122 space maneuvers, 127 weightlessness, 54–55, 58 Astrophysics Big Bang theory, 716, 720 cosmic rays, 707, 708 double-star system, 570 expansion of the universe, 716 Hubble’s law, 716 neutron star, 651 nucleosynthesis, 693 pulsars, 178 in sun’s core, 699 supernova explosions, 597–598 telescopes, 546, 549, 558–559, 560, 578 white dwarf, 651 See also Telescopes; Universe Asymmetric decay, 711 Atmosphere (atm), 247 Atmosphere (of earth), 521–522 Atom See Atomic physics; Atoms; Nuclear physics Atomic bomb, 700 See also Nuclear weapons Atomic clock, 3, 24 Atomic energy, 622 Atomic number, 652, 680, 702 Atomic physics, 644–658 classical model of atom, 452 electron spin, 639, 648–651 exclusion principle, 651–652, 658, 711 hydrogen atom, 644–648 isotopes, 681, 686–687, 702 magnetic moment of electrons, 649 nuclear force, 53, 681–682 periodic table, 652–655 spin-orbit coupling, 650–651 Stern-Gerlach experiment, 649 total angular momentum, 650–651, 658 Atomic spectra, 616, 624, 655–656 hydrogen spectrum, 616, 624 sodium doublet, 656 Atoms Bohr model, 618, 619, 624 ground state, 645–646 monatomic structure, 305 multinuclear, 652 See also Atomic physics; Elements; Hydrogen atom; Nuclear physics; Nucleus Audiotapes, 452 Automobiles See Cars Average acceleration, 17 Average acceleration vector, 33 Average angular velocity, 156 Average motion, 13–14 Average speed, 13–14 Average velocity, 14, 15, 17 Average velocity vector, 33 B Back emf, 477, 478 Ballistic pendulum, 145 Balmer, Johann, 616 Balmer series, 616 Band gaps, 669 Band theory, 676 Bands, 669, 676 Bandwidth, 537 Bar magnet, 452 I-1 www.elsolucionario.net I-2 Index Bardeen, John, 675 Barometers, 248, 249 Bartholdi, Frédéric-Auguste, 191 Baryon number, 710 Baryons, 709, 710, 711–712, 713, 720 Baseball, 39, 48, 256 Batteries, 407, 421, 422 BCS theory, 675 Beam splitter, 573 Beats, 233–234 Becquerel (Bq), 686, 702 Becquerel, Henri, 685 Benzene, optical properties of, 534 Bernoulli effect, 255–256, 258 Bernoulli’s equation, 253–254, 255, 256, 258 Beryllium, electronic structure of, 654 Beta decay, 688–689, 702, 710, 711 Beta radiation, 688 Bicycling, 181 Big Bang theory, 716, 720 Binding energy, 691–692 Binnig, Gerd, 637 Biot-Savart law, 446–447, 460, 530 Ampere’s law and, 454 Birds, aerodynamic lift and airflow, 256 Blackbody, 273, 610 radiance of, 610, 612, 624 Blackbody radiation, 610–612, 624, 628 Blu-ray discs, 579, 673 Bohr, Aage, 685 Bohr, Niels, 616, 623, 634, 685 Bohr atom, 616–619, 620, 624 Bohr magneton, 649, 658 Bohr model, of hydrogen atom, 618, 619, 624 Bohr radius, 617, 624, 645 Boiling point, 267 Boiling-water reactors (BWRs), 696 Boltzmann’s constant, 291, 611 Bonding, 662–664, 676 covalent bonding, 663–664 hydrogen bonding, 664 ionic bonding, 663–664 metallic bonding, 664, 676 van der Waals bonding, 664 Bone scans, 689 Born, Max, 630 Bose, Satyendra Nath, 652 Bose-Einstein condensate, 652, 656, 658 Bosons, 652, 658, 709 Bottom quarks, 712, 713 Bound state, 637, 640 Bound system, 111 Boundary conditions, 632 Bragg condition, 571 Brahe, Tycho, 119 Brain, Brass, thermal properties of, 289 Breeder reactors, 697 Brewster angle, 536 Bridges, 186, 187, 217 Btu (British thermal unit), 93, 268 Bubble chamber, 708 Buckminsterfullerene, 664 Buildings, 209, 217 cogeneration, 320 energy-saving windows, 274 household voltage, 492 household wiring, 406 insulating properties of building materials, 271 solar greenhouse, 275 water heater, 275, 320 Bungee jumping, 90 Buoyancy center of, 251 of fluids, 250–251 BWRs See Boiling-water reactors C Calatrava, Santiago, 186 Calculations See Problem solving Caloric, 267 Calorie (cal), 93, 268 Calorimeters, 708 Cameras, 395, 432, 521, 557 Cancer from radiation exposure, 690 radiotherapy for, 690 Candela (cd), CANDU design, 697 Capacitance, 390–391 Capacitive reactance, 493, 505 Capacitors, 390–391, 398 in AC circuits, 493 displacement current, 512 in electric circuits, 429–433, 434 energy storage in, 390–391, 398 equivalent capacitance, 395 in LC circuits, 497 in parallel, 393–394, 398 parallel-plate capacitor, 390, 398, 512 practical version of, 392–393 reactance, 493, 505 in series, 394, 398 ultracapacitors, 395 working voltage, 393 Carbon-14, 686 Carbon-14 dating, 686, 687 Carbon dioxide, optical properties of, 534 Carnot, Sadi, 315 Carnot cycle, 315, 321 Carnot efficiency, 317, 330 Carnot engine, 314, 315–316, 326 Carnot’s theorem, 316 Cars ABS brakes in, 77 acceleration of, 93 on a curve, 51 banked curve, 43 changing a tire, 159 crash tests, 143 Doppler effect, 240 engines, 319 flywheel-based hybrid vehicles, 166 friction in engine, 75 frictional forces in stopping, 76–77 hybrid cars, 451, 473 lightning and, 366 physics of, regenerative braking, 473 shock absorbers, 215, 216 speed traps, 21 starting a car, 411, 423 Cartesian coordinate system, 31 Cavendish, Henry, 121 Cavendish experiment, 121 CDs, 535, 566, 571, 579, 673 Cell membrane, 405, 427 Cell phones, 525 Celsius temperature scale, 266, 277 Center of gravity, 188, 195 Center of mass, 133–138, 150 of continuous distribution, 136–137 finding location of, 135–136 kinetic energy of, 142 motion of, 133, 138 Center-of-mass frame, 149 Centripetal acceleration, 42 Centripetal force, 71 Ceramics, electrical properties of, 406 Cesium, work function of, 613 Cesium chloride, crystal structure of, 667 Chain reaction, 695, 702 Charge See Electric charge Charge conjugation, 711 Charge distributions, 335–336 continuous, 341 electric dipole, 339–340 electric field lines of, 352 of electric fields, 338–339, 341 www.elsolucionario.net of arbitrary charge distributions, 362–363 with line symmetry, 360–361, 367 with plane symmetry, 361, 367 with spherical symmetry, 357–359, 367 electrical potential of, 375 Charged capacitors, 391 Charged conductors, 363–364 Charged particles electromagnetic force on, 441 in magnetic field, 441–444 trajectories in three dimensions, 443 See also Point charge Charmed quarks, 712, 713 Chart of the nuclides, 682 Chemical elements See Elements Chemical properties, 654 Chemical reactions, energy of, 389 Chernobyl accident, 687, 697 Chlorine, electronic structure of, 654 Chlorine atom, ionization energy of, 663 Chromatic aberrations, 539, 555, 559 Chromium, electronic structure of, 655 Circular motion constant acceleration and, 42 forces involved in, 71 harmonic motion and, 212–213 Newton’s second law and, 71, 202 nonuniform, 43 uniform, 41–43, 44 See also Rotational motion Circular orbits, 121–122, 123, 126, 129 Classical physics, 609, 619, 632, 670 Clausius statement, 316 Cliff diving, 22 Closed circuits, induced current in, 475 Closed orbits, 123 Closed-shell nuclear structure, 685 Cloud chamber, 708 CMB See Cosmic microwave background Coal energy plants, 695 Coaxial cable, 366 Cobalt-60, beta decay of, 711 Coefficient of kinetic friction, 75, 80 Coefficient of linear expansion, 291 Coefficient of performance (COP), 319, 326 Coefficient of static friction, 75, 80 Coefficient of volume expansion, 289, 291 Coherence, waves, 565 Coherence length, 565 Cohesive energy, ionic, 668 Collective model, 685 Collisions, 150 center-of-mass frame, 149 defined, 142, 150 elastic, 143, 145–149, 150 energy in, 143 impulse, 143 inelastic, 143–145 kinetic energy and, 145 momentum and, 142, 145 in systems of particles, 142–149 totally inelastic, 143–145, 150 Color charge (quarks), 711, 712, 713 Colorless particles, 711 Combined cycle power plant, 318 Comets, orbits of, 123 Complementarity, 623, 624 Compound microscope, 558, 560 Compressibility, of gases and liquids, 247, 258 Compression force, 52–53 Compton, Arthur Holly, 614 Compton effect, 614–615, 624, 629 Compton shift, 615 Compton wavelength, 615 Computer disks, 452, 474 Concave lenses, 550, 552 Concave meniscus lenses, 554 Concave mirrors, 548, 549 Concrete, thermal properties of, 268, 270 Condenser, 317 Index Conditionally stable equilibrium, 192 Conduction in electric fields, 405–410, 670, 671 in ionic solution, 407, 415 in metals, 407, 415 in plasma, 408, 415 in semiconductors, 408, 415 in superconductors, 409–410, 415, 485 of heat, 269–272, 277 Conduction band, 671 Conductivity, electrical, 406, 415 See also Conductors; Superconductivity Conductors, 344, 415 charged, 363–364 electric field at conductor surface, 365–366 Gauss’s law, 363–366, 367 magnetic force between, 448 mechanism of conduction in, 405–410 See also Conductivity; Electric current Confinement time, 699 Conservation of angular momentum, 178–179, 182, 710 Conservation of baryon number, 710 Conservation of electric charge, 333, 710 Conservation of energy, 101–113 in fluid flow, 253–254 gravitational potential energy, 125 mechanical energy, 106–109, 113 nonconservative forces, 106, 109 rolling downhill, 168 Conservation of mass, in fluid flow, 252–253 Conservation of momentum, 139–140, 202 angular momentum, 178–179, 182 fusion, 144 Conservation of parity, 711 Conservative electric field, 484 Conservative forces, 101, 102, 106 See also Potential energy Constant acceleration, 19–22, 25 angular, 169 circular motion and, 42 in two dimensions, 35–36 Constant of universal gravitation, 119 Constant-volume gas thermometers, 266 Constant-volume processes, 299–300, 303, 307, 330 Constructive interference, 232, 564, 567, 580, 584 Contact forces, 53 Continuity equation, 252–253, 258 Continuous charge distributions, 341 Continuum state, 638 Control rods, 696 Controlled fusion, 701 Convection, 272, 277 Converging lenses, 550, 551 Convex lenses, 552 Convex meniscus lenses, 554 Convex mirrors, 547, 548, 549 Coolant, for nuclear power reactors, 696 Cooper, Leon, 675 Coordinate systems, 14 vectors and, 31 COP See Coefficient of performance Copernicus, Nicolaus, 119 Copper electrical properties of, 406 electronic structure of, 655 thermal properties of, 268, 270, 287, 289 work function of, 613 Corner reflector, 533 Corona discharge, 383 Corrective glasses, 556, 557 Correspondence principle, 623, 634 Cosmic microwave background (CMB), 717, 720 Cosmic rays, 707, 708 Cosmological constant, 719 Coulomb (C), 333 Coulomb, Charles Augustin de, 333, 334 Coulomb’s law, 333–335, 346, 355, 362, 530 Gauss’s law and, 454 Covalent bonding, 663–664, 676 CP conservation, 711 CPT conservation, 711 CPT symmetry, 711 Crash tests, 143 Credit cards, 452, 474 Critical angle, 536, 540 Critical damping, 218, 499 Critical density, 718 Critical field, 674, 676 Critical ignition temperature, 699 Critical mass, 695, 702 Critical point, 288, 291 Croquet, 148–149 Cross product, 176, 182 Crossover network, 496 Crystal structure, 667–669 Crystalline solids, 667–669 Curie (Ci), 686 Curie, Irene, 689 Curie, Marie, 685 Curie, Pierre, 685 Curie temperature, 453 Current See Electric current Current density, 405, 415 Ohm’s Law, 406, 410, 411, 412, 415, 425, 530 Current loops, 447, 449, 451, 460 Curve of binding energy, 692, 702 Curved mirrors, 545–547, 560 Cyclic processes, thermodynamics, 303–304 Cyclotron frequency, 443, 460 Cyclotrons, 442–443 D D-D reaction (deuterium-deuterium reaction), 699, 701 D-T reaction (deuterium-tritium reaction), 699, 701 Damped harmonic motion, 215–216, 218 Damping, 499 Dark energy, 719, 720 Dark matter, 719, 720 Daughter nucleus, 688 Davisson, Clinton, 621 DC See Direct current de Broglie, Louis, 619, 620 de Broglie wavelength, 620, 624 de Broglie’s wave hypothesis, 621, 629, 630, 632 Decay asymmetric decay, 711 radioactive See Radioactive decay string theory, 714 Decay constant, 686 Decay rate (radioactivity), 685–691 Decay series, 689 Deceleration, 18 Decibel (dB), 231 Defibrillator, 389, 395, 413 Definite integral, 89 Degenerate electron pressure, 651 Degenerate states, 638 Degree of freedom, 305, 307 Delayed neutrons, 696 Democritus, 610 Density, of fluids, 247 Density of states, 670 Derivative, 16, 17 Descartes, René, 534 Destructive interference, 232, 564, 580, 584 Deuterium, 681, 698 Deuterium-deuterium reaction See D-D reaction Deuterium oxide, 697 Deuterium-tritium reaction See D-T reaction Deuteron, 147 Diamagnetism, 453, 460, 485, 486, 674 Diamond, 534, 664 Diatomic molecule, 305 Dielectric breakdown, 345 Dielectric constant, 392, 393, 398 Dielectrics, 345, 346, 392, 398 Diesel engine, 302 Differential equation, 431 www.elsolucionario.net Diffraction, 574–577, 580, 584, 621 See also Interference Diffraction gratings, 568–571, 584 Diffraction limit, 577–579, 580, 584 Diffuse reflection, 533 Diodes, 505 Diopter, 556 Dipole moment, 346 electric, 340, 346 induced, 340 magnetic, 449, 683 nuclear magnetic, 683 Dipoles See Electric dipoles; Magnetic dipoles Dirac, Paul, 630 Dirac equation, 639 Direct current (DC), 504 Disk, rotational inertia by integration, 162, 163 Disorganized states, 313 Dispersion of light, 538–539, 540 in wave motion, 232–233 Displacement angular displacement, 156 coordinate systems, 14 defined, 14 Displacement current, 512 Displacement vector, 31 Dissociation energy, 663 Diverging lenses, 550 Division, scientific notation and, 5, DNA, bonding in, 664 Donor levels, 672 Doping, 408, 672, 676 Doppler, Christian Johann, 239 Doppler effect (Doppler shift), 239–241, 242 light, 241 redshift and, 716 Dot product See Scalar product Double concave lenses, 554 Double convex lenses, 554 Double-slit interference, 566–568 Double-star system, 570 Doublet, 651 Down quarks, 711, 712, 713 Drag forces, 79 Drift velocity, 404, 407, 415 Driven oscillations, 215 DVDs, 1–2, 155–156, 571, 579, 673 Dynamics, 48, 49 rotational dynamics, 163–165 See also Motion Dynodes, 615 E Earth atmosphere, 521–522 climate of, 272, 276 convection and solar heat, 272 ether concept and motion of, 587, 605 global warming, 276 greenhouse effect, 276 Greenland ice cap, 251 interior structure of, 236 magnetic field of, 449 ocean waves, 2, 232, 234 precession of, 180–181 pressure at ocean depths, 248 rainbow, 538, 540 seasons on, 174 smog, 302 tides, 128 Eddy currents, 474 Efficiency of Carnot engine, 315 of engine, 314 thermodynamic efficiency, 317 Eightfold Way, 711 Einstein, Albert, 49, 54 photoelectric effect, 613, 624 relativity and, 586, 589, 594, 719 I-3 I-4 Index Einstein cross, 604 Elastic collisions, 143, 145–149, 150 in one dimension, 145–148, 150 in two dimensions, 145, 148–149 Elastic potential energy, 105 Electric charge, 332–333, 346, 710 charge distribution, 335–336 conservation of, 333, 710 Coulomb’s law, 333–335, 346, 355, 362, 530 magnetism and, 440 moving, 530 point charges, 335 quantity of, 333 quantization of, 333, 610 source charge, 334 superposition principle, 336, 338, 346 test charge, 337 units of, 333 See also Charge distributions; Charged particles Electric circuits, 418–434 AC circuits, 491–505 capacitors in, 429–433, 434 electromotive force (emf), 420 high-Q circuits, 500 inductors in, 478–479 Kirchoff’s laws, 426, 434 LC circuits, 496–499, 505 multiloop circuits, 426–427 parallel circuits, 530 RC circuits, 430–433, 495 resistors, 420–425, 434 RL circuits, 480, 495 RLC circuits, 499–501, 505 with series and parallel components, 424–425 series circuits, 530 symbols used, 419 See also Alternating-current circuits Electric current, 344, 403–405, 415, 530 ammeters, 429 current density, 405 induced currents, 466–467, 470 magnetic force and, 444–445 Ohm’s Law, 406, 410, 411, 412, 415, 425, 530 units of, 3, 403 See also Conductors Electric dipole moment, 340 Electric dipole potential, 384 Electric dipoles, 339–340, 344, 346 in electric fields, 344, 346, 362 oscillating, 522 point charge, 362 Electric eels, 407 Electric field, 336–338, 346, 373, 530 of arbitrary charge distributions, 362–363 of charge distributions, 338–339 charged ring, 341 continuous, 341 or charge distributions, linear, 342, 346 conduction in, 405–410 in ionic solutions, 407, 415 in metals, 407, 415 in plasmas, 408, 415 in semiconductors, 408, 415 in superconductors, 409–410, 415, 485 at conductor surface, 365–366 conductors, 344 conservative/nonconservative, 484 corona discharge, 383 dielectrics, 345, 346 electric dipoles in, 344, 346 electric field lines, 351–352 energy in, 396–397 Gauss’s law, 355–362, 367, 453, 510, 511, 513, 526, 530 insulators, 344–345 magnetic field and, 457–458 Ohm’s Law, 406, 410, 411, 412, 415, 425, 530 of point charge, 338, 346 point charges in, 342–344, 346 solenoids, 458–459, 460 Electric field lines, 351–352, 367 of charge distribution, 352 Electric flux, 353–354, 367 Electric force, 332, 346, 372, 530 gravity and, 335 superposition principle, 336, 338, 346 Electric generators, 2, 473, 474, 486 Electric motors, Electric potential, 372, 384, 644 of charge distribution charged disk, 380 charged ring, 379–380 charged sheet, 375 continuous, 379–380 curved paths, 375 dipole potential, 378–379 nonuniform fields, 375 point charge, 376 with superposition, 378 charged conductors, 382 electric field and, 380–382 electric field from, 380–382 zero of, 376 See also Electromotive force (emf); Voltage Electric potential difference, 373, 384, 530 calculating, 375–382 high-voltage power line, 377 units of, 374 using superposition, 378 Electric power, 412, 415 in AC circuits, 502 fusion energy, 701 nuclear power, 698 nuclear reactors, 695, 696 pumped storage of, 105 See also Electric generators; Electric power lines; Electric power plants Electric power lines, 412 magnetic force and, 445 potential relative to ground, 377–378 Electric power plants combined cycle power plant, 318 steam system, 317 thermodynamics of, 317–318 See also Nuclear power; Nuclear reactors Electric power supply direct current (DC), 504 transformers and, 412, 503, 505 See also Electric power; Electric power lines; Electric power plants; Nuclear power Electric shock, 414 Electrical conduction See Conduction Electrical conductivity, 406, 415 Electrical energy See Electric power; Electrostatic energy Electrical measurements, 428–429 Electrical meters, 428–429 Electrical resistance See Resistance, electrical Electrical resistivity See Resistivity Electrical safety, 413–414, 415 Electrocution, 414 Electromagnetic force, 441, 530, 720 electroweak unification, 714 quantum electrodynamical description of, 707 Electromagnetic induction, 466–486, 530 defined, 467 eddy currents, 474 energy and, 471 Faraday’s law, 468–470, 472, 477, 483, 486, 510, 511, 513, 526, 530 induced currents, 466–467, 470 induced electric fields, 483–485 inductance, 476–480 Lenz’s law, 471–472, 486 See also Inductance; Inductors Electromagnetic radiation, blackbody radiation, 610–612, 624 Electromagnetic spectrum, 521–522, 526 Electromagnetic systems, www.elsolucionario.net Electromagnetic waves, 224, 237, 514, 526, 530, 706 Ampere’s law, 516–517 Doppler effect, 241 electromagnetic spectrum, 521–522, 526 Faraday’s law, 515–516 Gauss’s laws, 515 in localized sources, 524 momentum, 525 photons in, 629 plane electromagnetic wave, 514–515 polarization, 519–520, 526 producing, 522 properties of, 517–520 radiation of, 273, 277 radiation pressure, 525 in vacuum, 514, 526 wave amplitude, 518 wave fields, 517 wave intensity, 523–524 wave speed, 517–518 See also Light; Photons Electromagnetism, 2, 53, 331–346, 530 four laws of, 454, 510, 511, 513, 526 Maxwell’s equations, 513, 526, 530, 574, 587, 605, 629 quantization and, 610, 624 quantum-mechanical view of, 706–707 relativity and, 587, 589, 603–604 See also Electromagnetic force; Electromagnetic waves Electromotive force (emf), 420, 434 back emf, 477, 478 induced emf, 468, 469 motional emf, 472 Electron capture, 689 Electron diffraction, 621 Electron microscope, 620 Electron neutrinos, 709 Electron-positron pair, annihilation of, 710 Electron spin, 639, 648–651 Electron-volt (eV), 93, 374 Electronic scales, 61 Electrons Bohr atom, 620, 624 Compton effect, 614–615, 624, 629 discovery of, 610 exclusion principle, 651–652, 658, 711 magnetic moment of, 649 photoelectric effect, 613, 624, 628, 629 properties of, 691, 709 relativistic electron, 602 split, 649 Electronvolt (eV), 374 Electrostatic analyzer, 345 Electrostatic energy, 389, 390 Electrostatic equilibrium, 363 Electrostatic precipitators, 383 Electroweak forces, 53 Electroweak unification, 714 Elementary charge, 333 Elementary particles See Particles Elements chemical behavior and, 654 isotopes, 681, 702 origin of, 693 periodic table, 652 radioisotopes, 681, 686–687 See also Atomic physics; Nuclear physics Elevators, 55, 56–57, 104 Elliptical orbits, 123 emf See Electromotive force Emission spectra, 616 Emissivity, 273 Energy, 202 of chemical reactions, 389 in circular orbits, 126 in collisions, 143 conservation of, 101–113 in fluid flow, 253–254 consumption by society, 95 Index in electric field, 396–397 electromagnetic induction and, 471 energy-momentum relation, 602, 605 energy-time uncertainty, 622–623 fusion energy, 701 magnetic, 481–482 mass and, 600–602, 605 mass-energy equivalence, 600–602 from nuclear fission, 694–695 quantization and, 610, 624 in simple harmonic motion, 213–215, 218 units of, 93, 97, 267 wind energy, 257 work and, 397 work-energy theorem, 93, 97, 106, 113, 253 See also Heat; Kinetic energy; Potential energy Energy density, 396, 398 Energy-level diagram, 618 Energy levels, in molecules, 664–666 Energy-momentum 4-vector, 600 Energy-momentum relation, 602 Energy quality, 321 Energy storage, 389 in capacitors, 390–391, 398 in flywheels, 165 Energy-time uncertainty, 622–623 English system, 4, 93 Enrichment of uranium, 694, 695 Entropy, 320–325, 326, 330 availability of work, 322 second law of thermodynamics and, 324–325 statistical interpretation of, 323 Entropy change, 321–322 Equations of motion, 20–21 Equilibrium conditionally stable, 192 conditions for, 186 electrostatic, 363 hydrostatic, 247–250, 258, 263 metastable, 192, 195 neutrally stable, 192, 195 potential energy and, 192, 195 stable, 191–194, 195 static equilibrium, 186–195 thermodynamic, 266, 288 unstable, 191, 192, 195 Equilibrium temperature, 269, 277 Equipartition theorem, 305–306, 307 Equipotentials, 380–381, 384 Equivalent capacitance, 395 Erg, 93 Escape speed, 126, 129 Estimation, Eta particles, 709 Ether concept, 587, 605 Ethyl alcohol optical properties of, 534 thermal properties of, 287 Events in relativity, 590–592, 595 Excimer laser, 556 Excited states, 617 of hydrogen atom, 674 Exclusion principle, 651–652, 658, 711 Expansion, thermal, 289–290, 291 External forces, 134, 141 External torque, 178, 180 Eye, 555–557 Eyeglasses, 556, 557 Eyepiece, of microscope, 558 F Fahrenheit temperature scale, 266, 277 Farad (F), 391 Faraday, Michael, 319 Faraday’s law, 468–470, 472, 473, 477, 483, 486, 510, 511, 513, 526, 530 electromagnetic waves, 515–516 Farsightedness, 556 Fermi, Enrico, 693 Fermi energy, 670, 676 Fermilab, 712 Fermions, 652, 658, 708, 709 Ferromagnetism, 452–453, 460 FET See Field-effect transistor Feynman, Richard, 707 Fiberglass, thermal properties of, 270 Fiberoptics, 537 Field-effect transistor (FET), 409 Field particles, 709, 713 Field point, 339 Films, thin films, 572–573 Filtering (electrical), 504 Fine structure, 651, 658 Finite potential wells, 637–638, 640 Fire safety, radioactivity for, 690 First law of thermodynamics, 295–297, 307, 312, 330 Fissile nuclei, 694, 702 Fission, nuclear See Nuclear fission Fission products, 693, 697 Fissionable nuclei, 694 Fitzgerald, George F., 594 Flash camera, 395, 432 Floating objects, Archimedes’ principle, 251 Flow tube, 252, 253 Fluid dynamics, 252–257, 263 aerodynamic lift and airflow, 256 applications of, 254–257 Bernoulli’s equation, 253–254, 255, 256, 258 conservation of energy, 253–254 conservation of mass, 252–253 continuity equation, 252–253, 258 turbulence, 257 See also Fluids Fluid flow Bernoulli’s equation, 253–254, 255, 256, 258 viscosity, 257, 258 Fluid friction See Viscosity Fluid motion, 246–258 steady flow, 252 unsteady flow, 252 Venturi flowmeters, 255 See also Fluid dynamics; Fluid flow Fluid point, 339 Fluid speed, 255 Fluids, 246–258 Archimedes’ priciple, 250–251, 258 buoyancy, 250–251 density, 247 hydrostatic equilibrium, 247–250, 258, 263 Pascal’s law, 249 pressure, 247, 258 viscosity, 257, 258 See also Fluid dynamics Fluorine, electronic structure of, 654 Flux See Electric flux; Magnetic flux Flywheels, 166 Focal length, 546, 548, 552, 556, 560, 584 Focal point, 545, 550, 560 Food preservation, radioactivity for, 690 Foot-pound, 93 Forbidden transitions, 656 Force(s), 48, 49, 52–53, 62, 202 action-at-a-distance, 53, 127 buoyancy force, 250 centripetal, 71 compression, 52–53 conservative, 101, 102 contact forces, 53 drag forces, 79 electroweak, 53 external/internal, 134, 141 frictional, 53, 75–79 fundamental forces, 53, 714, 720 grand unification theories (GUTs), 714, 720 gravitational, 52 interaction forces, 49, 62 measurement of, 60–61 momentum and, 50 net force, 49, 50 nonconservative, 101, 102–103 www.elsolucionario.net normal, 59–60 potential energy and, 112 strong, 53, 711, 712, 720 tension, 53 of massless rope, 70–71 of spring, 60–61 unification of, 53, 714–715 units of, 51, 54 varying with position, 88–92 weak, 53 work, 86–88 See also Electric force; Gravity; Magnetic force Forward bias, 672 Four-vectors, 599–600, 605 Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, 232 Fourier analysis, 232 Frames of reference, 34 inertial, 52, 589, 605 Franklin, Benjamin, 332 Free-body diagram, 55, 62 Free expansion, 322 Free fall, 22–24, 25, 54, 55, 60 Frequency, 225 angular frequency, 218, 226, 242 oscillatory motion, 205, 207, 218 units of, 205 Friction kinetic, 75, 80 Newton’s first law and, 75–79, 80 static, 75, 80 Frictional forces, 53, 75–79 Frisch, Otto, 693 Fuel cells, 407 Fuel rods (nuclear reactor), 697 Fundamental forces, 53, 714, 720 Fusion conservation of momentum, 144 heat of, 286 nuclear See Nuclear fusion G Galaxies, Hubble’s law and, 716 Galilean relativity, 587 Galileo, 22, 48–49, 54, 119 Gallium, electronic structure of, 655 Gamma decay, 689, 702 Gamma rays, 521, 522, 688 Gas See Gases Gas-cooled nuclear reactors, 697 Gas-cylinder system, heat engine, 313 Gas thermometers, 266 Gas water heater, cogeneration, 320 Gases, 291 adiabatic free expansion, 322 adiabatic processes, 300–302, 303, 307 constant-volume processes, 299–300, 303, 307 cyclic processes, 303–304 distribution of molecular speeds, 285–286 equipartition theorem, 305–306, 307 ideal-gas law, 282–284, 291, 301 isobaric processes, 300, 303, 307 isothermal processes, 298–299, 303, 307 microstates/macrostates, 323 phase changes, 286–289 plasmas, 408 quantum effect, 306 real gases, 286 specific heat of, 269 thermodynamics of, 297–298 universal gas constant, 283, 291 van der Waals force, 286 See also Ideal gases Gasoline, thermal expansion of, 290 Gasoline engine, 300, 319 Gauge bosons, 709, 720 Gauge pressure, 249 Gauss’s law, 355–362, 367, 530 conductors and, 363–366, 367 Coulomb’s law and, 454 I-5 I-6 Index Gauss’s law (Continued) for electric field, 355–362, 453, 510, 511, 513, 526, 530 for infinite line of charge, 360 with line symmetry, 360–361, 367 with plane symmetry, 361, 367 for point charge within a shell, 359 with spherical shell, 357–359 with spherical symmetry, 357–359, 367 for electromagnetic waves, 515 experimental tests of, 364–365 hollow conductor, 364 for magnetism, 450, 453, 454, 460, 510, 511, 513, 526 Geiger, Hans, 616 Gell-Mann, Murray, 711 General theory of relativity, 52, 118, 590, 603–604, 605, 719 Generation time, 695 Generators, 2, 473, 474, 486 Geometrical optics, 532, 564, 584 See also Light Geosynchronous orbit, 122–123, 124, 129 Gerlach, Walther, 649 Germer, Lester, 621 Giant Magellan Telescope, 559 Glashow, Sheldon, 712, 714 Glass dielectric constant, 393 dielectric constant of, 393 electrical properties of, 406 optical properties of, 534 thermal properties of, 268, 270, 289 Global positioning system See GPS Global warming, 276 Gluons, 709, 711, 712, 713 Glycerine, optical properties of, 534 Gold, electrical properties of, 406 Goltzmann’s constant, 273 Goudsmit, Samuel, 649 GPS (global positioning system), 118, 539, 604 Grand unification theories (GUTs), 714, 720 Graphite moderators, 697 Grating spectrometer, 570 Gratings acousto-optic modulators (AOMs), 571 diffraction gratings, 568–571, 584 reflection gratings, 569 resolving power of, 570 transmission gratings, 569 X-ray diffraction, 571 Gravitation center of gravity, 188, 195 universal, 119–121, 129, 202 See also Gravity Gravitational field, 127–128, 129, 336 Gravitational force, 52 Gravitational potential energy, 104, 113, 124–126, 129 Gravitons, 709, 713 Gravity, 53–55, 118–128, 720 acceleration and gravitation, 54 Cavendish experiment, 121 center of gravity, 188, 195 electric force and, 335 escape from, 125–126, 129 historical background, 119 hydrostatic equilibrium with, 247–248, 258, 263 inertia and, 54 inverse square feature of, 120 near Earth’s surface, 120 free fall, 22–24, 25, 54, 55, 60 projectile motion, 121 work done against, 91–92, 97, 108 orbital motion and, 119, 121–123 quantum physics and, 714 third-law pair, 60 universal law of, 119–121, 129 weight and, 53–54 work done against, 91–92 Gray (Gy), 690 Green-antired, 712 Greenhouse effect, 217 Greenhouse gases, 276 Greenland ice cap, 251 Ground fault circuit interrupter, 414 Ground state, 617, 645–646 Ground-state energy, 633 Ground-state wave function, 633 Guth, Alan, 718 GUTs See Grand unification theories Gyroscopes, 180 H Hadrons, 709, 711, 713, 720 Half-life, 686, 687, 702 Hall coefficient, 445 Hall effect, 445 Hall potential, 445 Hard ferromagnetic materials, 452 Harmonic oscillators, 635–636 quantum harmonic oscillator, 666 quantum mechanical, 635, 640 selection rule for, 666 See also Oscillatory motion Harmonics, 237 Head-on collisions, 145–148 Heat, 277, 330 defined, 267 phase changes and, 286 units of, 268 Heat capacity, 267, 277 specific heat and, 267–268 Heat conduction, 269–272, 277 Heat engine adiabatic compression, 314 adiabatic expansion, 314 isothermal compression, 314 isothermal expansion, 314 Heat engines, 313–315 limitations of, 316–319 Heat loss, thermal-energy balance, 274–275, 277 Heat of fusion, 286 nuclear power plant meltdown, 287 Heat of sublimation, 286 Heat of transformation, 286, 287, 291, 330 Heat of vaporization, 286 Heat pumps, 319–320, 326 Heat transfer, 269–273, 330 conduction, 269–272, 277 convection, 272, 277 first law of thermodynamics, 295–297, 307, 312 radiation, 273, 277 Heavy water, 147, 697 Heisenberg, Werner, 621, 623, 630 Helicopters aerodynamic lift and airflow, 256 weight in, 61 Helium atomic structure of, 681 mass defect in, 692 specific heat of, 305 thermal properties of, 270 Helium-3, 683 Helium-4, 683, 688, 692 Helium atom, electronic structure of, 653 Henry (H), 477 Henry, Joseph, 466, 477 Hertz (Hz), 205 Hertz, Heinrich, 205, 521, 612 Higgs bosons, 713 High-energy particles, 707–714 High-Q circuit, 500 High-temperature superconductors, 675 Hiroshima bomb, 693, 695, 700 Hockey, 144 Hodgkin, Alan L., 427 Holes (semiconductors), 672 Holograms, 656 Hooke’s law, 60–61, 62 Horizontal range, 40 www.elsolucionario.net Horsepower (hp), 94 Hubble, Edwin, 716 Hubble constant, 716 Hubble Deep Field, 716, 720 Hubble Space Telescope, 546, 549, 559, 578 Hubble’s law, 716 Human body cardiac catheterization, 413 electric current, effects on, 413 electric shock, 414 the eye, 555–557 radiation, effects of on, 690 resistance of skin, 413 sound and the ear, 231 static equilibrium, 190 See also Medical devices Huxley, Andrew F., 427 Huygens, Christian, 574 Huygens’ principle, 574, 580, 584 Hybrid-car motor, 451 Hydraulic lift, 249 Hydrogen fusion of, 698 isotopes of, 681, 686 tritium, 686 Hydrogen atom, 644–648 Bohr model, 618, 619, 624 excited states of, 674 fine structure of, 651 ground state, 645–646 potential-energy curve for, 676 Hydrogen bomb, 700 Hydrogen bonding, 664, 676 Hydrogen spectrum, 616, 628 Hydrostatic equilibrium, 247–250, 258, 263 Hyperfine splitting, 683 Hyperfine structure, 651 I Ice boiling point of, 267 bonding in, 664 crystal structure of, 290 melting point of, 267 optical properties of, 534 thermal properties of, 268, 289 See also Water Ice skating, 178 IDEA strategy, 8, See also Problem solving Ideal emf, 420 Ideal gas law, 282–284, 291, 301, 330 Ideal gases, 283–285, 291, 330 adiabatic processes, 300–302, 303, 307 aqdiabatic free expansion, 322 constant-volume processes, 299–300, 303, 307 cyclic processes, 303–304 equipartition theorem, 305–306, 307 internal energy of, 300 isobaric processes, 300, 303, 307 isothermal processes, 298–299, 303, 307 quantum effect, 306 specific heats of, 304–306 Ideal spring, 60, 62, 107, 206 Image distance, 548, 552, 560 Images, 544, 560 with lenses, 550–552 with mirrors, 545–549 real images, 544, 546, 547, 548, 552, 584 virtual images, 544, 546, 547, 548, 552, 554, 584 See also Lenses; Mirrors Impact parameter, 148 Impedance, 500, 505 Impulse, 143 Incandescent lightbulbs, 612 Incompressibility, of liquids, 247, 258 Index of refraction, 534, 584 Induced current, 466–467, 470 closed and open circuits, 475 eddy currents, 474 Index Induced dipole moments, 345 Induced electric fields, 483–485 Induced emf, 468 Faraday’s law and, 469, 472, 477, 483, 486, 510, 511, 513, 526, 530 Inductance, 476–480, 486 mutual inductance, 476 self-inductance, 476–477 Induction See Electromagnetic induction Inductive reactance, 494, 505 Inductive time constant, 479, 480, 486 Inductors, 476, 486 in AC circuits, 493–494, 495–496 in electric circuits, 478–479 magnetic energy in, 481–482 reactance, 494, 505 Inelastic collisions, 143–145 Inert gases electronic structure of, 654 specific heat of, 305 Inertia, 51 gravitation and, 54 rotational, 160–163, 169, 177, 218 Inertial confinement, 700 Inertial confinement fusion, 700, 702 Inertial reference frames, 52, 589, 605 Infinite square well, 632–635, 640 Infinitessimals, 16, 25 Inflation (of universe), 717–719 Infrared cameras, 521 Infrared frequency range, 521, 522 Insect control, radioactivity for, 690 Instantaneous acceleration, 17 Instantaneous acceleration vector, 33 Instantaneous angular velocity, 156 Instantaneous power, 94 Instantaneous speed, 15 Instantaneous velocity, 15–17 Instantaneous velocity vector, 33 Insulators, 344–345, 406, 670, 671 Integrals definite integral, 89 line integral, 91, 97 setting up, 137 Integration, rotational inertia, 161–162 Intensity, waves, 229–230, 242 Interaction force pair, 58 Interaction forces, 49, 62 Interference, 232, 234, 263, 565, 566, 580 constructive interference, 232, 564, 567, 580, 584 destructive interference, 232, 564, 580, 584 double-slit interference, 566–568 interferometry, 571–574 multiple-slit interference, 568–571, 580 in two dimensions, 234 waves, 232, 234 X-ray diffraction, 571 See also Diffraction Interference fringes, 566, 584 Interference pattern, intensity in, 567–568 Interferometry, 571–574, 580, 588 Internal energy, 267, 295, 296, 300 Internal kinetic energy, 142 Internal resistance, 422, 434 International Space Station, 43, 122, 127, 135 Invar, thermal properties of, 289 Invariants, relativistic, 599–600, 605 Inverse Compton effect, 615 Inverse square force laws, gravity as, 120 Inversion (of atmosphere), 302 Inverted image, 544, 546, 547, 548, 552 Iodine-131, 686 Ionic bonding, 663–664, 676 Ionic cohesive energy, 668 Ionic conduction, 407, 415 Ionic solutions, electrical conduction in, 407, 415 Ionization, 619 Ionization energy, 619 Iron electrical properties of, 406 thermal properties of, 268, 270 Irreversible/reversible processes, 298–299, 313, 321, 322, 330 Isobaric processes, 300, 303, 307 Isochoric processes, 299 Isometric processes, 299 Isotherm, 298–299 Isothermal compression, heat engine, 314 Isothermal expansion, heat engine, 314 Isothermal processes, 298–299, 303, 307, 330 Isotopes, 681, 702 radioisotopes, 681, 686–687 transuranic isotopes, 697 Isovolumic processes, 299 ITER fusion reactor, 701 J Jensen, J Hans, 685 Joliot-Curie, Frédéric, 689 Jordan, Pascal, 630 Joule (J), 86, 93, 97, 267 Joule, James, 86, 267 K Kaon particles, 709, 710 Kayaking, 140 Keck Telescopes, 559 Kelvin (K), 3, 266 Kelvin-Planck statement, 313 Kelvin temperature scale, 266, 267, 277 Kepler, Johannes, 119, 123 Kepler’s third law, 122 Kilocalorie, 268 Kilogram (kg), Kilowatt-hours (kWh), 93 Kinematics, 13, 25 See also Motion Kinetic energy, 92–93, 97 of center of mass, 142 collisions and, 145 of composite object, 167 defined, 92, 97 internal, 142 of mass element, 165 relativistic, 600–602 rotational, 165 of systems of particles, 142 work and, 92, 93 Kinetic friction, 75, 80 Kirchoff’s laws, 426, 434 Krypton, electronic structure of, 655 L Ladders, 189–190 Lakes heat conduction in, 270–271 turnover, 290 wave motion in, 237 Lambda particles, 709, 710 Lanthanide series, 655 Lanthanum, electronic structure of, 655 Large Electron Positron Collider, 713 Large Hadron Collider (LHC), 706, 715 Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO), 573–574 Laser light, 519, 567 Laser printer, 383 Lasers, 652, 656 CDs or DVDs, 1, 2, 673 excimer laser, 556 laser light, 519, 567 vision correction with, 556 LASIK, 556 Law of conservation of mechanical energy, 106, 113 Law of inertia, 51 Law of Malus, 520 Law of universal gravitation, 129 Laws of motion See Newton’s laws of motion www.elsolucionario.net Lawson criterion, 700 LC circuits, 496–499, 505 LCDs (Liquid crystal displays), 520 Lead, thermal properties of, 287 LEDs (light emitting diodes), 673 Lee, Tsung-dao, 711 Length, units of, 3, Length contraction, 594–595, 605 Lens equation, 551–552 Lenses, 550, 584 aberrations of, 539, 555, 559 antireflection coatings, 533 astigmatism, 555 chromatic aberration, 539, 555, 559 concave lenses, 550, 552 contact lenses, 556, 557 converging lenses, 550, 551 convex lenses, 552 corrective glasses, 556, 557 diverging lenses, 550 image formation with, 550–552, 560 lens equation, 551–552 magnifying glass, 552 optics of, 554–555 refraction in, 552–555 thin lenses, 550 See also Refraction Lensmaker’s formula, 554, 555, 560 Lenz’s law, 471–472, 486 Lepton-antilepton pairs, 708 Lepton number, 710 Leptons, 708, 713–714, 720 Lever arm, 159 Levitation, magnetic, 485, 674, 675 LHC See Large Hadron Collider Light Compton effect, 614–615, 624, 629 diffraction, 574–577, 580, 584 diffraction limit, 577–579, 580, 584 dispersion of, 538–539, 540 Doppler effect, 241 double-slit interference, 566–568 as electromagnetic phenomenon, 518 interference, 232, 234, 565, 566, 580, 584 laser light, 519, 567 Michelson-Morley experiment, 588–589, 590, 605 multiple-slit interference, 568–571, 580 photoelectric effect, 612–614, 624, 629 photons, 612–615 polarization of, 519–520, 526, 536 rainbow, 538, 540 reflection of, 532–533, 536, 584 refraction of, 534–536, 584 Snell’s law, 534, 535, 584 speed of, 3, 611 total internal reflection of, 536–537, 540 visible light, 521 wave/particle duality, 614, 623, 624, 629–630 See also Electromagnetic waves; Images; Lenses; Light; Optical instruments; Photons Light emitting diodes See LEDs Light-water reactors (LWRs), 696, 697, 698 Lightbulbs, 612 Lightning, 338, 345, 366 LIGO See Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory Line charge density, 341 Line integral, 91, 97 Line symmetry, charge distributions, 360–361, 367 Linear accelerators, 715 Linear-expansion coefficient, 289, 291 Linear momentum conservation of, 139–140 defined, 139 Linear speed vs angular speed, 156–157 See also Speed Liquid crystal displays See LCDs Liquid-drop model, 683 I-7 I-8 Index Liquids optical properties of, 534 phase changes, 286–289 Liter (L), Lithium atom, electronic structure of, 653–654 Longitudinal waves, 225, 242 Lorentz, H.A., 594 Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction, 594 Lorentz transformations, 596–597, 605 Loudspeaker systems, 496, 501 Luminosity, units of, LWRs See Light-water reactors Lyman series, 616 M Mach angle, 241 Mach number, 241 Macrostates, 323 Madelung constant, 668 Magic numbers, 685 Magnetic confinement, 700 Magnetic confinement fusion, 700–701, 702 Magnetic dipole moment, 449, 683 Magnetic dipoles, 448–451 Magnetic domain, 452 Magnetic energy, 481–482 Magnetic-energy density, 481, 486 Magnetic field, 439–440, 530 Ampere’s law, 453–459, 510, 511, 513, 526, 530 Biot-Savart law, 446–447, 460, 530 charged particles in, 441–444 electric field and, 457–458 Gauss’s law, 450, 453, 454, 460, 510, 511, 513, 526, 530 induced currents, 466–467, 470 Maxwell’s equations, 526, 530 origin of, 446–448 solenoids, 458–459, 460 superposition principle, 454 toroids, 459 units of, 441 Magnetic flux, 450, 468–469 Magnetic force, 440, 460, 530 between conductors, 448 electric current and, 444–445 Hall effect, 445 See also Electromagnetic force Magnetic levitation, 485, 674, 675 Magnetic matter, 452 Magnetic moment, of electrons, 649 Magnetic monopoles, 450 Magnetic permeability, 453 Magnetic recording, 474 Magnetic resonance imaging See MRI Magnetic torque, 450–451 Magnetism, 439–440, 460 diamagnetism, 453, 460, 485, 486, 674 ferromagnetism, 452–453, 460 Gauss’s law for, 450, 453, 454, 460, 510, 511, 513, 526, 530 magnetic matter, 452 paramagnetism, 453, 460 superconductivity and, 574 Magnets, 452 Magnification, 547, 560 Magnifiers, 552, 557 Malus, law of, 520 Manometers, 248, 249 Marconi, Guglielmo, 521 Marsden, Ernest, 616 Mass acceleration of, 51–53, 55 center of mass, 133–138 conservation of, in fluid flow, 252–253 energy and, 600–602, 605 mass-energy equivalence, 600–602 units of, vs weight, 53, 54, 62 Mass defect, 691 Mass elements, 136 Mass-energy equivalence, 600–602 Mass flow rate, 253 Mass number, 681, 702 Mass spectrometers, 442 Mass-spring system harmonic motion in, 209, 213–214, 216, 635 vertical, 209 wave propagation in, 225 Matter annihilation, 601, 710 antiparticles, 639 Bose-Einstein condensate, 652, 656, 658 in electric fields, 342–345 electromagnetic waves in, 518–519 matter-wave interference, 621 phase changes in, 286–289 quantization of, 610, 624 relativistic particles, 602 thermal behavior of, 282–293 wave-particle duality, 614, 623, 624, 629–630 See also Gases; Liquids; Particles; Solids Matter-wave hypothesis, 620 Matter-wave interference, 621 Matter waves, 619–621 Maxwell, James Clerk, 286, 512, 518, 521 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, 286, 305 Maxwell’s equations, 513, 526, 530, 573 relativity and, 587, 605, 629 Mayer, Maria Goeppert, 685 Measurement prefixes for units, 4, units of, 3–4 Mechanical energy conservation of, 106–109, 113 defined, 106 Mechanical waves, 224, 225 Mechanics, 2, 12, 587, 609 Medical devices and procedures bone scans, 689 defibrillator, 389, 395, 413 laser vision correction, 556 lasers, 556, 656 MRI, 180, 217, 410, 441, 482, 673, 684 PET, 601, 687, 689 radioactivity used in, 689–690 Medium, 224 Meissner effect, 485, 676 Meitner, Lise, 693 Melting point, 267 Mendeleev Dmitri, 652 Mercury electrical properties of, 406 thermal properties of, 268, 287 Mercury barometers, 248 Merry-go-rounds, 179 Mesons, 707, 709, 711, 713, 720 Metal detectors, 475 Metallic bonding, 664, 676 Metallic conductors, 670–671 Metals electrical conduction in, 407, 415 thermal conduction in, 270 Metastable equilibrium, 192, 195 Metastable states, 656 Meter (m), Metric system, 3–4 Michelson, Albert A., 573, 588 Michelson interferometer, 573–574, 580, 588 Michelson-Morley experiment, 588–589, 590, 605 Microamperes, 403 Microelectronics, 622 Microgravity, 55 Microscopes, 558, 560 electron microscope, 620 scanning tunneling microscope, 628, 637 Microstates, 323 Microwave ovens, 237, 345 Microwaves, 521 cosmic microwave background, 717, 720 Milliamperes (mA), 403 www.elsolucionario.net Millikan, Robert A., 333, 610, 613 Mirrors, 545–549, 584 aberrations of, 546 concave, 548, 549 convex mirrors, 547, 548, 549 curved mirrors, 545–547, 560 magnification, 547, 560 mirror equation, 547–548 parabolic mirrors, 545–546 plane mirrors, 545 See also Reflection Mode number, 237 Moderator (nuclear power reactor), 147, 696 Modern physics, 2, 585 See also Quantum chromodynamics; Quantum electrodynamics; Quantum mechanics; Quantum physics; Relativity Modes, 237 Molar specific heat at constant pressure, 300 Molar specific heat at constant volume, 299–300 Mole (mol), Molecular bonding See Bonding Molecular spectra, 666 Molecular speed, 285 Molecules as electric dipoles, 339 energy levels in, 664–666 equilibrium states of, 194 potential-energy curve for, 111 resonance in, 217 spectra of, 666 See also Bonding Moment of inertia, 160 Momentum, 138–141, 202 in collisions, 142, 145 conservation of, 139–140, 202 defined, 50, 62, 138 electromagnetic waves, 525 energy-momentum relation, 602, 605 forces and, 50 relativistic, 600, 605 uncertainty principle, 621–623, 624 viscosity and, 257, 258 See also Angular momentum Monatomic structure, 305 Moon circular orbit of, 122 gravity and, 119, 120 Morley, Edward W., 588 Motion Aristotle on, 48 average motion, 13–14 of center of mass, 133, 138 changes in, 49 equations of motion, 20–21 ether concept and, 587, 605 kinematics and, 25 mechanics and, relative motion, 34–35 straight-line motion acceleration, 17–22 velocity in, 15–17 in three dimensions, 44 in two dimensions circular, 41–43 with constant acceleration, 35–36, 42 projectile, 37–41, 44 relative motion, 34–35 vector description, 30–34 uniform motion, 50 See also Circular motion; Fluid motion; Newton’s laws of motion; Oscillatory motion; Projectile motion; Rotational motion; Wave motion Motional emf, 472 Motors See Electric motors MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), 180, 217, 410, 441, 482, 673, 684 Multimeters, 429 Multiple-slit diffraction systems, 576–577 Multiple-slit interference, 568–571, 580 Index Multiplication scientific notation and, 5, of vectors, 31, 33, 176 Multiplication factor, 695 Multiwire proportional chamber, 708 Muon neutrinos, 709, 713 Muons, 592, 708, 709, 713 Music CDs, 535, 566, 571, 579, 673 loudspeaker systems, 496, 501 sound waves, 233, 238 Musical instruments standing waves in, 238 tuning a piano, 498 Mutual inductance, 476 Myopia, 555 N N-type semiconductor, 408, 672 Nagasaki bomb, 693 Nanotube, 585 National Ignition Facility (NIF), 700 Natural frequency, oscillatory motion, 216 Natural greenhouse effect, 276 Near pint, 556 Nearsightedness, 555, 556 Ne’eman, Yuval, 711 Negative work, 103 Neon electronic structure of, 654 specific heat of, 305 Net charge, 332 Net force, 49, 50 Neutral buoyancy, 250 Neutrally stable equilibrium, 192, 195 Neutrinos, 688, 698, 708, 714 Neutron star, 651 Neutrons, 681, 689, 720 beta decay of, 688, 710 high-energy fission, 696 properties of, 691, 709 Newton (N), 51 Newton, Sir Isaac, 42, 48, 49, 118, 119, 121, 123, 538 Newton-meter (Nm), 86, 97 Newtonian mechanics, 12 Newton’s laws of motion, 48, 80, 202 first law, 49–50, 51, 62, 202 friction and, 75–79, 80 uniform motion, 49–50 rotational analogs of, 174, 175 second law, 50–52, 62, 150, 202 applications, 55–57, 66–70, 80 circular motion, 71–74 drag forces, 79 for multiple objects, 69–70 for rotational motion, 158, 160, 163 for systems of particles, 133, 134, 138 weight and, 53 third law, 57–61, 62, 150, 202, 256 Nickel, work function of, 613 NIF See National Ignition Facility NIST-F1 clock, 24 Nitrogen dioxide, specific heat of, 305 NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance), 217, 684 Nodal line, 234 Node, 237, 426 Nonconservative electric field, 484 Nonconservative forces, 101, 102–103, 106 conservation of energy, 106, 109 Nonlinear pendulum, 211 Nonohmic materials, 406 Nonuniform circular motion, 43 Normal force, 59–60 Normalization condition, 631–632, 634, 640, 646 North Star, 181 Nuclear energy, 622 Nuclear fission, 692, 693–698, 702 chain reaction, 695, 702 energy from, 694–695 fission products, 693, 697 nuclear power, 696–697 radioactive waste, 694, 697–698 to trigger fusion reactions, 700 weapons, 693, 694, 695 Nuclear force, 53, 681–682, 707, 712 Nuclear fuel, Nuclear fusion, 692, 698–701, 702 inertial confinement fusion, 700, 702 magnetic confinement fusion, 700–701, 702 Nuclear magnetic dipole moment, 683 Nuclear magnetic resonance See NMR Nuclear magneton, 683 Nuclear physics, 680–702 binding energy, 691–692 nuclear structure, 681–685 radioactivity, 685–691 See also Nuclear fission; Nuclear fusion; Nucleus Nuclear power, 696–697, 698 Nuclear power plants elastic collisions in, 147 meltdown, 287 thermal pollution, 297 Nuclear radiation See Radioactivity Nuclear radius, 682 Nuclear reactors, 695, 696 Nuclear shell model, 683 Nuclear spin, 683–684 Nuclear structure, 681–685 Nuclear symbols, 681 Nuclear waste, 694, 697–698 Nuclear weapons, 693, 694, 695, 700 Nucleons, 680, 681, 683 Nucleosynthesis, 693 Nucleus (nuclei), 680, 681 angular momentum of, 683 binding energy, 691–692 models of nuclear structure, 685 nuclear force, 53, 681–682 size of, 682–683 spin of, 683–684 stability of, 682 Nuclides, 682 Numbers estimation, prefixes, 4, scientific notation, 5–6 significant figures, 6–7 O Object distance, 548, 552, 560 Objective lens, 558 Ocean waves, 2, 232, 234 Oceans Archimedes’ principle, 251 pressure at depths, 248 turnover, 290 Ohm, 406 Ohm, Georg, 406 Ohmic materials, 406 Ohmmeters, 429 Ohm’s law, 410–411, 412, 415, 425, 530 macroscopic version of, 410, 411 microscopic version of, 406, 411 Oil drop experiment, 333, 610 Omega particles, 709 One dimension acceleration in, 17–21 collisions in, 145–148, 150 straight-line motion, 15–22 velocity in, 15–17 Onnes, H Kamerlingh, 409 Open circuits, 410, 475 Open orbits, 123 Operational definition, Optical fibers, 537, 540 Optical instruments, 395, 432, 544, 555–560, 557 cameras, 395, 421, 432, 557 contact lenses, 556, 557 corrective glasses, 556, 557 diffraction gratings, 568–571, 584 www.elsolucionario.net I-9 electron microscopes, 620 magnifiers, 552, 557 microscopes, 558, 560 telescopes, 546, 549, 558–559, 578 See also Images; Lenses Optical spectra, 656 Optics, 2, 532, 584 chromatic aberration, 539, 555, 559 focal length, 546, 548, 552, 556, 560, 584 focal point, 545, 550, 560 geometrical, 532, 564, 584 lens equation, 551–552 lensmaker’s formula, 554, 555, 560 magnification, 547, 560 mirror equation, 547–548 physical, 564, 584 Snell’s law, 534, 535, 584 See also Images; Lenses; Light; Optical instruments Orbital angular momentum, 647–648 Orbital magnetic quantum number, 648, 658 Orbital motion circular orbits, 121–122, 123, 129 closed/open, 123 elliptical orbits, 123 geosynchronous orbits, 122–123, 124, 129 gravity and, 119, 121–123 precession, 180–181, 182 Orbital period, 122 Orbital quantum number, 647–648, 658 Orbitals, 652 Orbits, uniform circular motion, 41, 43 Order (of dispersion), 567, 569 Organized states, 313 Oscillating dipole, 522 Oscillatory motion, 204–218, 263 amplitude, 205, 207 basic characteristics of, 205 damped harmonic motion, 215–216, 218 driven, 215 frequency, 205, 207, 218 period, 205, 207, 218 phase, 207–208 resonance, 216, 218 simple harmonic motion, 205–208, 218 applications, 209–212 circular motion, 212–213 energy in, 213–215 pendulum, 210–212 potential-energy curves and, 215 tuned mass damper, 208, 209 universality of, 204, 205 in waves, 225 See also Harmonic oscillators Oscillatory system, Oxygen isotopes of, 681 radioisotope of, 686 thermal properties of, 287 Oxygen-15, 686 Ozone, 522 P P-type semiconductor, 408, 672 Pair creation, 639 Paper, dielectric constant of, 393 Parabolic mirrors, 545–546 Parallel-axis theorem, 163 Parallel circuits, 530 Parallel-plate capacitor, 390, 392, 398, 512 Parallel resistors, 420, 423–425, 434 Paramagnetism, 453, 460 Paraxial rays, 546 Parent nucleus, 688 Parity, 711 Parity conservation, 711 Parity reversal, 711 Partial derivatives, 228, 516 Partial differential equation, 228 Partial reflection, 533 Particle accelerators, 712, 715 I-10 Index Particles classifying, 707–710 conservation laws and, 710 detection of subatomic particles, 708, 712 high-energy particles, 707–714, 720 particle accelerators, 712, 715 potential energy curve, 632–638 properties of, 709, 710, 720 quarks, 53, 333, 711–713, 714, 720 spin-1/2 particles, 649, 658, 683 standard model, 713, 720 symmetries, 710–711 wave-particle duality, 614, 623, 624, 629–630 See also Systems of particles Pascal (Pa), 247 Pascal’s law, 249 Paschen series, 616 Pauli, Wolfgang, 648 Pauli exclusion principle See Exclusion principle Peak radiance, 610, 624 Peak-to-peak amplitude, 205 Pendulum, 210–212 ballistic pendulum, 145 nonlinear, 211 physical, 212 simple, 210 Perfect emitter, 273 Perihelion, 123 Period oscillatory motion, 205, 207, 218 waves, 225, 226, 242 Periodic table, 652 Permeability constant, 446, 460 PET (positron emission tomography), 601, 687, 689 Phase oscillatory motion, 207–208 wave motion, 227 Phase changes, 286–289, 330 critical point, 288, 291 heat and, 286 sublimation, 286, 288 triple point, 289, 291 Phase constant, 208 Phase diagrams, 288–289, 291 critical point, 288, 291 triple point, 289, 291 of water, 289, 290 Phasor diagrams, 495, 500 Phasors, 495, 505 Phipps, T.E., 649 Phosphorescent materials, 656 Photocopier, 383 Photoelectric effect, 612–614, 624, 628, 629 Photomultipliers, 613–614 Photons, 612–615, 624, 652, 688, 707, 709 Compton effect, 614–615, 624, 629 energy states of, 707 gamma decay and, 689 in particle physics, 712 properties of, 713 virtual photon, 707 wave/particle duality, 614, 623, 624, 629–630 waves and, 629 See also Light Physical optics, 564, 584 Physical pendulum, 212 Physics problem solving with IDEA strategy, 8, realms of, 1–2, simplicity of, 7–8 Piano, 498 Pions, 708, 709, 710 Piston-cylinder system, 298 Planck, Max, 611 Planck’s constant, 611, 624 Planck’s equation, 611 Plane electromagnetic wave, 514–515 Plane mirrors, 545 Plane symmetry, charge distributions, 361, 367 Plane waves, 230 Planetary orbits, 119, 121, 123 Plano-concave lenses, 554 Plano-convex lenses, 554 Plasmas, 699 electrical conduction in, 408, 415 quark-gluon plasma, 717 Plexiglas, dielectric constant of, 393 Plutonium-239, 686, 694–695, 697 Plutonium weapons, 695 PN junction, 408, 409, 676 Point charges, 335 in electric field, 342–344, 346 field of, 338, 346, 362 See also Charged particles Point of symmetry, 357 Polaris, 181 Polarization, 519–520, 526, 536 Polarizing angle, 536, 540 Polyethylene, dielectric constant of, 393 Polystyrene dielectric constant of, 393 electrical properties of, 406 optical properties of, 534 Population inversion, 656 Position angular position, 169 with constant acceleration, 18, 19, 25 uncertainty principle, 621–623, 624 as vector, 30–31, 42 Position-momentum uncertainty, 621–622, 623, 624 Position vector, 30–31, 42 Positron emission tomography See PET Positrons, 601, 639, 688, 689, 698, 707 Potassium electronic structure of, 655 radioisotope of, 686 work function of, 613 Potassium-40, 686 Potential barrier, 110 Potential difference See Electric potential Potential energy defined, 113 elastic, 105 equilibrium and, 192, 195 force as derivative of, 112 gravitational, 104, 113, 124–126, 129 stability and, 192 work and, 103–106 Potential-energy curves, 105, 110–112, 113, 632–638 for complex structures, 194 finite potential wells, 637–638, 640 hat-shaped, 715 for hydrogen atom, 676 infinite square well, 632–635, 640 molecular, 111 simple harmonic motion, 215 symmetry breaking and, 715 Potential-energy difference, 372–373 Potential-energy function, for ionic crystals, 668 Potential well, trapping in, 110 Pound (lb), 54 Power, 94–96 defined, 94, 97 energy storage, 166 units of, 93, 97 of waves, 229 work and, 96 See also Electric power Power factor, 502, 505 Power plants See Electric power; Electric power plants; Nuclear power; Nuclear power plants; Nuclear reactors Power supply direct current (DC), 504 transformers and, 412, 503, 505 See also Electric power supply Power transmission, 412 Powers, numbers, Poynting, J.H., 522 Poynting vector, 523 www.elsolucionario.net Precession, 180–181, 182 Prefixes, 4, Presbyopia, 556 Pressure, 247, 258 barometers, 248, 249 hydrostatic equilibrium, 247–250, 258, 263 manometers, 248, 249 measuring, 248–249 Pascal’s law, 249 units of, 247 Pressure melting, 290 Pressurized-water reactors (PWRs), 696 Priestley, Joseph, 334 Primary coil, transformer, 503 Principal quantum number, 647, 658 Principle of complementarity, 623, 624 Probability, 629, 631, 634 radial probability distribution, 646, 647 Probability density, 640 Probability distribution hydrogen atom, 646 radial, 646 Problem solving Ampere’s law, 455 checking answer, conservation of energy, 107 Coulomb’s law, 334 estimation, Faraday’s law and induced emf, 469 fluid dynamics, 254 Gauss’s law, 356–357 with IDEA strategy, 8, Lorentz transformations, 597 motion with constant acceleration, 20 multiloop circuits, 426 multiple answers, 25 Newton’s second law, 56, 62, 69 projectile motion, 38 significant figures, 6–7 static equilibrium, 189 thermal-energy balance, 274 units or measurement and, 21 Projectile motion, 37–41, 44 drag and, 79 flight times, 40 range of projectile, 40 trajectories, 39, 41, 121, 123 Projectiles, range of, 40 Propagation (wave), 224 Proper time, 591 Proton-proton cycle, 699 Protons, 681, 720 electric field, 339 grand unification theories (GUTs), 714, 720 properties of, 691, 709 Pulsars, 178 Pump (lasers), 656 Pumped-storage facilities, 105 Pumping, 656 pV diagram cyclic process, 303, 304, 307 isothermal processes, 298–299 PWRs See Pressurized-water reactors Q QCD See Quantum chromodynamics QED See Quantum electrodynamics Quadratic potential-energy function, 635 Quanta, 63 Quantization, 609–610, 621, 624 of angular momentum, 676 Bohr atom, 616–619, 624 of orbital angular momentum, 648 space quantization, 658 Quantized spin angular momentum, 649, 658, 683 Quantum chromodynamics (QCD), 711 Quantum effect, gases, 306 Quantum electrodynamics (QED), 707 Quantum harmonic oscillator, 666 Index I-11 Quantum mechanics, 628–640, 676, 719 Bose-Einstein condensate, 652, 656, 658 Dirac equation, 639 electromagnetism and, 706–707 exclusion principle, 651–652, 658, 711 finite potential wells, 637–638, 640 harmonic oscillator, 635–636, 640, 666 infinite square wells, 632–635, 640 molecular energy levels, 664–666 orbital angular momentum, 647–648 orbital quantum number, 647–648 probability, 629, 631, 634, 646, 647 radial probability distribution, 646, 647 relativistic, 639 Schrödinger equation, 630–632, 638, 640 space quantization, 648 in three dimensions, 638 tunneling, 636–637, 640, 688 Quantum number, 633 orbital magnetic quantum number, 648, 658 orbital quantum number, 647–648, 658 principal quantum number, 647, 658 spin quantum number, 683 Quantum physics, 2, 628, 630 blackbody radiation, 610–612, 624, 628 complementarity, 623, 624 gravity and, 714 hydrogen spectrum, 616, 628 matter waves, 619–621 photoelectric effect, 612–614, 624, 628, 629 quantization, 609–610, 621, 624 uncertainty principle, 621–623, 624 wave-particle duality, 614, 623, 624, 629–630 See also Quantum chromodynamics; Quantum electrodynamics; Quantum mechanics; Relativity Quantum state, 633 Quantum tunneling, 636–637, 640, 688 Quark-antiquark pairs, 711 Quark-gluon plasma, 717 Quarks, 53, 333, 711–713, 714, 720 Quartz, dielectric constant of, 393 Quasi-static process, 297 R R-factor, 271, 274 Radial acceleration, 43, 157 Radial probability distribution, 646, 647 Radian (rad), 3, 156, 206 Radiance, 610, 612, 624 Radiation (heat), 273, 277 Radiation (nuclear) See Electromagnetic radiation; Radioactivity Radiation pressure, electromagnetic waves, 525, 526 Radio transmitter, 522 Radio waves, 521 Radioactive decay, 685–688, 702 conservation of momentum in, 140 decay constant, 686 decay rate, 685–691 decay series, 689 Radioactive isotopes, 681 Radioactive tracers, 689 Radioactive waste, 694, 697–698 Radioactivity, 685–691 artificial, 689 biological effects of, 690–691 for cancer treatment, 690 Chernobyl disaster, 687, 697 decay rate, 685–688 decay series, 689 decay types, 688–689, 702 half-life, 686, 687, 702 human body, effects on, 690–691 radiocarbon dating, 687, 688 types of radiation, 688, 688–689 units of, 702 uses of, 689–690 Radiocarbon dating, 687, 688 Radioisotopes, 681, 686–687 Radium-226, 686 Radius of curvature, 43 Radon-222, 686 Rainbows, 538, 540 Range or projectile, 40 Rankine temperature scale, 266, 277 Ray diagram for lens equation, 551 for lenses, 552 mirrors, 548 Ray tracings with lenses, 550–551 with mirrors, 546, 548 Rayleigh criterion, 577, 578, 580 Rayleigh-Jeans law, 612 Rays, 532 RBMK reactors, 697 RC circuits, 430–433, 495 Reactance, 493, 494, 505 Reactors See Nuclear reactors Real battery, 422 Real gases, 286 Real image, 544, 546, 547, 548, 552, 584 Rectangular coordinate system, 31 Red-antiblue, 712 Redshift, 716 Reference frames See Frames of reference Reflecting telescopes, 559 Reflection, 235–236 diffuse reflection, 533 of light, 532–533, 536, 584 partial reflection, 533 specular reflection, 533 total internal reflection, 536–537, 540 See also Mirrors Reflection gratings, 569 Reflectors, 558 Refracting telescopes, 558–559, 560 Refraction, 236, 584 at aquarium surface, 553 at curved surfaces, 552–553 index of refraction, 534, 584 of light, 534–536, 584 See also Lenses Refractors, 558 Refrigerators, 316, 319, 324, 326 Regenerative braking, 473 Relative motion, 34–35 Relative velocity, 34–35 Relativistic factor, 600 Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), 715, 717 Relativistic invariants, 599–600, 605 Relativistic momentum, 600, 605 Relativistic particles, 602 Relativistic quantum mechanics, 639 Relativistic velocity addition, 598–599 Relativity, 2, 586–604 electromagnetism and, 587, 589, 603–604 Galilean, 587 general, 590, 603–604, 605, 719 invariants in, 599–600, 605 length contraction, 594–595, 605 Lorentz transformations, 596–597, 605 momentum and, 600 simultaneity, 595–596 special, 589–590, 605 time and, 590–594, 605 twin paradox, 593–594 velocity addition, 598–599 See also Quantum mechanics; Quantum physics Reprocessing, of spent reactor fuel, 695 Resistance, electrical in LC circuits, 499 Ohm’s law and, 406, 410–411, 412, 415, 425, 530 of skin, 413 Resistance, thermal, 271 Resistivity, 406 Resistors, 411, 412, 420–425 in AC circuits, 492 parallel resistors, 420, 423–425, 434 series resistors, 420, 421–422, 434 www.elsolucionario.net Resolving power of grating, 570, 580 Resonance, 216, 218 in RLC circuit, 499 standing waves, 237 Resonance curves, 217 Resonant frequency, 499, 505 Rest energy, 601 Restoring force, simple harmonic motion, 205–206 Reverse bias, 672 Reversible engine, 315 Reversible/irreversible processes, 298–299, 313, 321, 322, 330 RHIC See Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider Rho particles, 709 Right-hand rule, rotational motion, 174–175 Rigid bodies, 16, 133 Ring, rotational inertia by integration, 162, 163 RL circuits, 480, 495 RLC circuits, 499–501, 505 rms See Root-mean-square Rocket propulsion, 17, 41, 57, 125, 142, 150 Rod, rotational inertia by integration, 161, 163 Rods, rotational inertia by integration, 161, 163 Rohrer, Heinrich, 637 Roller coaster, 66, 73–74, 110, 112 Rolling motion, 167–168, 169 Root-mean-square (rms), 491 Roots, numbers, Rotational dynamics, 163–165 Rotational energy, 165–167, 676 Rotational energy levels, 664–665, 666 Rotational inertia, 160–163, 169, 177, 218 Rotational kinetic energy, 165 Rotational motion, 155–169, 202 angular acceleration of, 157–158, 175 angular momentum, 177–180, 182 angular velocity of, 156, 169, 174 conservation of angular momentum, 178–179, 182 direction of, 174 energy of, 165–167 inertia, 160–163, 169, 177, 218 Newton’s law, analogs of, 174, 175 Newton’s second law for, 158, 160, 163, 202 right-hand rule, 174–175 of rolling body, 167–168, 169 torque, 158–159, 169, 175–176, 178, 182 See also Angular momentum; Circular motion; Torque Rotational vectors, 174–180, 182 Rubber, electrical properties of, 406 Rubbia, Carlo, 714 Rutherford, Ernest, 616, 680 Rutile, optical properties of, 534 Rydberg atoms, 619 Rydberg constant, 616 S s states, 647 Safety electrical, 413–414, 415 nuclear power plants, 698 Sakharov, Andrei, 711 Salam, Abdus, 714 Satellites de-spinning, 164 orbital motion of, 121–123 Scalar, vector arithmetic with, 33 Scalar product, 87–88 Scales, force measurement with, 61 Scanning tunneling microscope (STM), 628, 637 Schrieffer, John Robert, 675 Schrödinger, Erwin, 630 Schrödinger equation, 630–632, 638, 640, 662 for crystals, 669 multielectron atoms, 652 spherical coordinates, 645 Schwinger, Julian, 707 Scientific notation, 5–6 Scintillation detectors, 708 Scuba diving, 299 I-12 Index Second (sec), Second derivative, 19 Second law of thermodynamics, 313–320, 326, 330 applications of, 317–320 Clausius statement, 316 entropy and, 324–325 general statement, 324 heat engines, 313–315 Kelvin-Planck statement, 313 Secondary coil, transformer, 503 Selection rules, 656 Self-inductance, 476–477 Semiconductors, 671–673, 676 electric conduction in, 408, 415 stability analysis of, 193 Series circuits, 530 Series resistors, 420, 421–422, 434 Shell of multinuclear atoms, 652 SHM See Simple harmonic motion Shock absorbers, 215, 216 Shock hazard, tools, 414 Shock waves, 241, 242 Short circuit, 410, 414 SI units, 3–4, of absorbed dose of radiation, 691 of activity (radioactivity), 686 of electric charge, 333 of energy, 93, 267 prefixes for units, 4, of R, 271 of resistivity, 406 of specific heat, 267 of temperature, 266 of thermal resistance, 271 Sievert (Sv), 690, 702 Sigma particles, 709 Significant figures, 6–7 Silicon crystalline structure, 408 phosphorus-doped, 408 work function of, 613 Silver electrical properties of, 406 work function of, 613 Simple harmonic motion (SHM), 205–208, 218 applications of, 209–212 circular motion, 212–213 energy in, 213–215, 218 mass-spring system, 209, 213–214, 216 pendulum, 210–212 potential-energy curves and, 215 tuned mass damper, 208, 209 Simple harmonic wave, wave motion, 226, 242 Simple pendulum, 210 Simultaneity, 595–596 Single-slit diffraction, 575, 576 Sinusoidal wave, wave motion, 226 Skiing, 67, 68–69, 75, 80, 85, 133 Skyscrapers, 209 SLAC See Stanford Linear Accelerator Center Smog, 302 Snell, van Roijen, 534 Snell’s law, 534, 535, 584 Soap film, 572 Sodium, work function of, 613 Sodium atom band structure of, 670 electronic structure of, 654, 656 ionization energy of, 663 Sodium chloride cohesive energy of crystal, 668 optical properties of, 534 Soft ferromagnetic materials, 452 Solar currents, 454–455 Solar energy, 524 Solar greenhouse, 275 Solenoids electric field and, 458–459, 460 induced electric field in, 484 inductance, 477 magnetic flux, 468 Solids, 667–673 band theory, 669–673 crystal structure of, 667–669 phase changes, 286–289 semiconductors, 193, 408, 416, 671–673, 676 superconductors, 409–410, 415, 485, 675 Sound human ear and, 231 units of, 231 Sound intensity level, 231 Sound waves, music, 233 musical instruments, 238 wave motion, 231–232 Source charge, 334 Space quantization, 658 Spacecraft, 3, 48 escape speed of, 126, 129 International Space Station, 43 weightlessness, 54–55, 58 Spacetime, 599, 604, 605 Spatial frequency, wave motion, 227 Special theory of relativity, 589–590, 605 See also Relativity Specific heat, 267–268, 277, 307 of gas mixture, 306 of ideal gases, 304–306 molar specific heat at constant pressure, 300 molar specific heat at constant volume, 299–300 Spectra atomic, 616, 624, 655–656 molecular, 666 optical, 656 Spectral lines, 616 Spectrometers, 570 Spectroscopy, 539, 584 Specular reflection, 533 Speed angular speed, 156, 169 average speed, 13–14 in circular orbit, 126 instantaneous speed, 15 of light, 587 linear speed vs angular speed, 156–157 terminal speed, 79 uniform circular motion and, 41–42 units of, as vector, 41 of waves, 226, 232, 242 See also Acceleration; Velocity Speed limits, expressing, Speed of light, 3, 611 Speed traps, 21 Spherical aberration, 546, 555 Spherical coordinates, Schrödinger equation, 645 Spherical symmetry, charge distributions, 357–359, 367 Spherical waves, 230 Spin, 639, 648–651, 710 Spin-1/2 particles, 649, 658, 683 Spin angular momentum, quantized, 649, 658, 683 Spin-orbit coupling, 650–651, 658 Spin-orbit effect, 651 Spin quantum number, 683 Split, electrons, 649 Spontaneous emission, 656, 658 Spring constant, 61, 62 Spring scale, 61 Springs, 62 elastic potential energy, 105, 108, 113 forces exerted by, 60–61 Hooke’s law, 60–61, 62 ideal, 60, 62, 107, 206 mass-spring system, 209, 213–214, 216 simple harmonic motion, 206 stretching of, 89–90 work done on, 89–90, 97 Square wave, 232 Square-well ground state, 634 www.elsolucionario.net Stable equilibrium, 191–194, 195 See also Static equilibrium Standard model (particle physics), 713, 720 Standing waves, 236–238, 242, 263 Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC), 594, 712, 715 Starlight, aberration of, 588, 589 State variable, 321 Static equilibrium, 186–195, 202 center of gravity in, 188, 195 conditions for, 186–187 examples of, 189–191 stability of, 191–194 See also Stable equilibrium Static friction, 75, 80 Statistical mechanics, 265, 330 Steady flow, fluid motion, 252 Steel, thermal properties of, 268, 270, 289 Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 610 Stefan-Boltzmann law, 273 Step-down transformers, 412, 503 Step-up transformers, 503 Steradian (sr), Stern, Otto, 649 Stern-Gerlach experiment, 649 Stimulated absorption, 657, 658 STM See Scanning tunneling microscope Stored energy See Energy storage Straight-line motion acceleration, 17–22 velocity in, 15–17 Strange quarks, 711, 712, 713 Strangeness, 710 Strassmann, Fritz, 693 Streamlines, 252, 258 String, wave motion on, 228–230 String instruments, standing waves in, 238 String theory, 714–715 Strong force, 53, 711, 712, 720 See also Nuclear force Strontium-90, 686 Styrofoam, thermal properties of, 270 Subatomic particles See Particles; Systems of particles Sublimation, 288 heat of, 286 Subshells, 652 Subtraction scientific notation and, 5, of vectors, 33 Sulfur, thermal properties of, 287 Sulfur dioxide, specific heat of, 305 Sun beta decay in, 689 magnetic field of, 449, 454, 481 nuclear fusion, 699 solar currents, 454–455 solar energy, 524 temperature of, 273 as white dwarf, 651 Super Kamiokande experiment, 714 Superconductivity, 673–675, 676 Superconductors electric conduction in, 409–410, 415, 485 at high temperatures, 675 Supercritical mass, 695 Superfluidity, 683 Supernova explosions, 597–598 Superposition principle electric charge, 336, 338, 346, 564 magnetic fields, 454, 564 wave motion, 232 Surface charge density, 341 Surfing, 227 Symmetries, particles, 710–711 Symmetry axis, 360 Symmetry breaking, 715 Synchrotrons, 443, 715 Systems of particles, 133–149 centers of mass, kinetic energy of, 142 collisions in, 142–149 Index I-13 continuous distribution of matter, 136–137, 161 equilibrium states of, 194 kinetic energy of, 142 momentum, 138–141 Newton’s second law and, 133, 134, 138 T Tangential acceleration, 43, 157 Tantalum oxide, dielectric constant of, 393 Tau neutrinos, 709, 713 Tau particles, 708, 709, 713 Taylor, J.B., 649 Teflon, dielectric constant of, 393 Telescopes, 546, 549, 558–559, 578 Temperature, 266, 277 absolute temperature, 267 absolute zero, 266, 670, 676 defined, 267 equilibrium temperature, 269, 277 transition temperature, 673 units of, 3, 266–267 Temperature scales, 266–267, 277 Tension forces, 53 massless rope, 70–71 spring, 60–61 Terminal speed, 79 Terminals, 420 Tesla (T), 441 Tesla, Nikola, 441 Test charge, 337 Theory of everything, 720 Theory of relativity See Relativity Thermal conductivity, 269, 271 Thermal contact, 255 Thermal-energy balance, 274–275, 277 Thermal expansion, 289–290, 291 Thermal noise, 407 Thermal pollution, 297 Thermal resistance, 271 Thermal speed, 285 Thermally insulated, 266 Thermochemical calorie, 268 Thermodynamic efficiency, 317 Thermodynamic equilibrium, 266, 277, 330 Thermodynamic state variable, 296 Thermodynamics, 2, 265, 330 adiabatic processes, 300–302, 303, 307, 330 constant-volume processes, 299–300, 303, 307, 330 cyclic processes, 303–304 entropy, 320–325, 326 equipartition theorem, 305–306, 307 first law of, 295–297, 307, 312, 330 isobaric processes, 300, 303, 307 isothermal processes, 298–299, 303, 307, 330 quantum effect, 306 reversible/irreversible processes, 298–299, 313, 321, 322, 330 second law of, 313–320, 324–325, 326, 330 state variable, 321 work and volume changes, 298 zeroth law of thermodynamics, 266, 330 Thermometers, 266 Thermonuclear weapons, 700 Thin films, interferometry, 572–573 Thin lenses, 550 Third-law pair, 58, 60 Thompson, Benjamin, 267 Thomson, George, 621 Thomson, J.J., 610, 621 Three dimensions charged particle trajectories in, 443 quantum mechanics in, 638 Thunderstorms, 396 Tidal force, 128 Tides, 128 Time atomic clock, 3, 24 energy-time uncertainty, 622–623 proper time, 591 relativity and, 590–594, 605 time dilation, 590–592, 605 units of, Time constant, 431 Time dilation, 590–592, 605 Time-independent Schrödinger equation, 630, 640 Tokamak, 700–701 Tomonaga, Sin-Itiro, 707 Tools, shock hazard, 414 Top quarks, 712, 713 Toroid, 459 Torque, 158–159, 169, 175–176, 182, 187 angular momentum and, 178 external, 178, 180 on magnetic dipole, 450–451 torsional oscillator, 209–210 Torsional oscillator, 209–210, 218 Total angular momentum, 650–651, 658 Total energy, 601 Total internal reflection, 536–537, 540 Totally inelastic collisions, 143–145, 150 Trajectory, of a projectile, 39, 41, 121, 123 Transformation, heat of, 286, 287, 291, 330 Transformers, 503, 505 power supplies and, 503 step-down transformers, 412, 503 step-up transformers, 503 Transistors, 409 Transition elements, 655 Transition temperature, 673 Transmission gratings, 569 Transuranic isotopes, 697 Transverse waves, 225, 242 Trapping in potential well, 110 Triple point, 289, 291 of water, 266, 267 Tritium, 686 Tsunamis, wave motion, Tuned mass damper, 208, 209 Tunneling, 636–637, 640, 688 Turbulence, 257 Tweeter, 496 Twin paradox, 593–594 Two dimensions acceleration in, 33–36 constant acceleration, 35–36, 42 circular motion in, 41–43 collisions in, 145, 148–159 interference in, 234 projectile motion in, 37–41, 44 relative motion, 34–35 vector description, 30–34 velocity in, 33–34 Two-source interference, 234 Type I/II superconductors, 674, 676 U U value, 271 Uhlenbeck, George, 649 Ultracapacitors, 395 Ultraviolet catastrophe, 612 Ultraviolet rays, 521, 522 Unbound states, 638, 640 Uncertainty energy-time uncertainty, 622–623 position-momentum uncertainty, 621–622, 623, 624 Uncertainty principle, 621–623, 624 quantum tunneling, 636–637, 640 Underdamped motion, 215 Unification, of forces, 53, 714–715 Unified electroweak force, 714 Unified mass units, 691 Uniform circular motion, 41–43, 44 Uniform motion, 50 Unit vectors, 32 Units of measurement, 3–4 Universal gas constant, 283, 291 Universal gravitation, 119–121, 129, 202 www.elsolucionario.net Universe, 715–719, 720 Big Bang theory, 716, 720 cosmic microwave background (CMB), 717, 720 dark matter and dark energy, 718–719 electromagnetic spectrum, 522 expansion of, 716 Hubble’s law, 716 inflationary universe, 717–718 Unstable equilibrium, 191, 192, 195 Unstable isotopes, 702 Unsteady flow, fluid motion, 252 Up-down quark pair, 712 Up quarks, 711, 712, 713 Upright image, 544, 546, 547, 548, 552 Uranium enrichment of, 694, 695 isotopes of, 681, 686 nuclear fission of, 693–698 Uranium-233, 694 Uranium-235, 686, 694 Uranium-238, 686, 689, 693, 694, 697 Uranium dioxide, thermal properties of, 287 Uranium enrichment, 694, 695 V Vacuum electromagnetic waves in, 514, 526 Maxwell’s equations in, 513 Valence band, 671 van der Meer, Simon, 714 Van der Waals bonding, 664, 676 Van der Waals force, 286 Vaporization, heat of, 286 Variable of integration, 162 Vector cross product, 176, 182 Vectors, 30–34, 44 acceleration vectors, 33–34 addition of, 31, 33 components of, 31–32 cross product, 176 defined, 30 displacement vector, 31 four-dimensional, 599, 605 multiplication of, 31, 33, 176 position as, 30–31, 42 position vector, 30–31, 42 rotational, 174–180, 182 scalar product, 87–88 subtraction of, 33 unit vectors, 32 velocity vectors, 33–34, 41 Velocity angular, 156 average velocity, 14, 15, 17 average velocity vector, 33 defined, 18, 44 instantaneous velocity, 15–17, 33 instantaneous velocity vector, 33 power and, 96 relative velocity, 34–35 relativistic addition of, 598–599 simple harmonic motion and, 208 in two dimensions, 33–34 uniform circular motion and, 41–42 as vector, 33–34, 41 See also Acceleration ; Speed Velocity addition, 598–599 Velocity selectors, 441 Venturi flow, Bernoulli effect and, 255–256, 258 Venus, phases of, 119 Vibrational energy, 676 Vibrational energy levels, 665–666, 676 Videotapes, 452 Virtual image, 544, 546, 547, 548, 552, 554, 584 Virtual photon, 707 Viscosity, 257, 258 Visible light, 521 Vision astigmatism, 555 contact lenses, 556, 557 I-14 Index Vision (Continued) corrective glasses, 556, 557 the eye, 555–557 laser vision correction, 556 lenses, 550–555, 584 Volt (V), 374 Voltage, 374 household voltage, 92 measuring, 428, 429 Ohm’s Law, 406, 410, 411, 412, 415, 425, 530 working voltage of capacitor, 393 See also Electromotive force (emf) Voltage divider, 421 Voltmeters, 428, 429, 434 Volume, units of, Volume charge density, 341 Volume-expansion coefficient, 289, 291 Volume flow rate, 253 von Fraunhofer, Josef, 616 W W particles, 713, 714 Walking, 212 Water dielectric constant of, 393 optical properties of, 534 phase diagram, 289, 290 phases of, 287 thermal expansion of, 290 thermal properties of, 268, 270, 287 triple point of, 266, 267 wave motion in, 237 See also Ice Water heaters, 275, 320 Watt (W), 94, 97 Watt, James, 94 Wave See Waves Wave amplitude, electromagnetic waves, 518 Wave equation, 227–228 Wave fields, 517 Wave function, 630, 640 constraints on, 631–632 See also Schrödinger equation Wave intensity, electromagnetic waves, 523–524 Wave motion, 2, 224–242 angular frequency, 226, 242 dispersion, 232–233 mathematical description of, 226–228 period, 225, 226, 242 phase, 227 propagation, 224, 225 simple harmonic wave, 226, 242 sinusoidal wave, 226 sound waves, 231–232 spatial frequency, 227 speed of, 226 on stretched string, 228–230, 236–237, 242 superposition principle, 232 tsunamis, wave equation, 227–228 wave number, 226, 242 waveforms, 225 Wave number, 226, 242 Wave-particle duality, 614, 623, 624, 629–630 Wave speed, 226, 232, 242 electromagnetic waves, 517–518 Waveforms, 225 Wavefronts, 230 Wavelength, 225, 226 electromagnetic spectrum, 521–522 Waves, 242, 263 amplitude, 225 beats, 233–234 coherence, 565 diffraction, 574–577, 580, 584 diffraction limit, 577–579, 580, 584 Doppler effect, 239–241, 242 double-slit interference, 566–568 frequency, 225 Huygens’ principle, 574, 580, 584 intensity, 229–230, 242 interference, 232, 234, 565, 566, 580, 584 longitudinal, 225, 242 matter-wave interference, 621 multiple-slit interference, 568–580 period, 225, 226, 242 power of, 229 reflection, 235–236 refraction, 236 shock waves, 241, 242 simple harmonic wave, 226, 242 sinusoidal, 226 square, 232 standing, 236–238, 242, 263 transverse, 225, 242 types, 225 wave speed, 226, 232, 242 wavelength, 225, 226 See also Electromagnetic waves; Light; Sound waves Weak force, 53, 720 electroweak unification, 714 Weight, 53–54, 62 apparent weight, 61, 62 mass vs., 53, 54 units of, 54 Weightlessness, 54–55, 58, 62 Weightlifting, 135 www.elsolucionario.net Weinberg, Steven, 714 Wheel, rolling motion, 167–168 White dwarf, 651 Wide-angle mirrors, 547 Wien’s law, 610 Wind energy, 257 Wind instruments, standing waves in, 238 Wind turbines, 155, 157, 158, 257 Windsurfing, 36 Wireless technologies, Wollaston, William, 616 Wood electrical properties of, 406 thermal properties of, 268, 270 Woofer, 496 Work, 86–88, 96, 97, 202 against gravity, 91–92 by conservative forces, 102–103, 106 energy and, 397 by force varying with position, 88–92 heat engine efficiency, 314 kinetic energy and, 92–93 negative work, 103 by nonconservative forces, 102, 106 potential energy, 103–106 power and, 94–96 scalar product and, 88 thermodynamics, 296, 298, 307 units of, 86, 97 work-energy theorem, 93, 97, 106, 113, 253, 600 Work-energy theorem, 93, 97, 106, 113, 253, 600 Work function, 613 Working fluid, 315 Working voltage, 393 Wu, Chien-Shiung, 711 X X-ray diffraction, 571, 580 X rays, 521 potential difference in X-ray tube, 374 Y Yang, Chen Ning, 711 Yerkes Refractor, 559 Young, Thomas, 518, 566 Yukawa, Hideki, 707, 708 Z Z particles, 709, 713, 714 Zeeman effect, 651 Zeeman splitting, 651 Zero of electrical potential, 376 Zeroth law of thermodynamics, 266, 330 Zweig, George, 711 GEOPHYSIC AL AND ASTROPHYSIC AL DATA EARTH Mass Mean radius Orbital period Mean distance from Sun Mean density Surface gravity Surface pressure Magnetic moment 5.9731024 kg 6.373106 m 3.163107 s (365.3 days) 1.5031011 m 5.53103 kg/m3 9.81 m/s2 1.0133105 Pa 8.031022 A # m2 MOON Mass Mean radius Orbital period Mean distance from Earth Mean density Surface gravity 7.3531022 kg 1.743106 m 2.363106 s (27.3 days) 3.853108 m 3.33103 kg/m3 1.62 m/s2 SUN Mass Mean radius Orbital period (about galactic center) Mean distance from galactic center Power output (luminosity) Mean density Surface gravity Surface temperature 1.9931030 kg 6.963108 m 631015 s (200 My) 2.631020 m 3.8531026 W 1.43103 kg/m3 274 m/s2 5.8 103 K P E R I O D I C TA B L E O F T H E E L E M E N T S H He 1.008 4.003 6.941 Atomic number Symbol 4.003 Atomic mass (u)* He 9.012 11 Metals Li Be Semimetals Nonmetals 12 Na Mg 22.99 24.31 19 20 K 21 Ca Sc 22 23 Ti V 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 10 B C N O F Ne 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18 17 18 13 14 15 16 Al Si P S 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95 31 32 33 34 35 36 Cl Ar Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 I Xe Rb Sr 85.47 87.62 55 56 Y 88.91 Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.75 127.60 126.90 131.29 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 57–71 Lanthanide 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.21 190.2 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 132.91 137.33 series Cs Ba 87 88 Hf Ta W Re Os 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 Ir 109 82 83 84 85 Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 110 111 112 207.2 208.98 (209) (210) (222) 113 114 115 116 117 118 (294) Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn (223) (261) (268) (266) (272) (277) (276) (281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (292) (294) 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 Actinide (226) series Lanthanide series Actinide series 57 86 La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu 138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 89 90 91 92 Ac Th Pa U 232.04 238.03 (227) (231) (145) 93 150.36 151.97 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (260) * Atomic mass is average over abundances of stable isotopes For radioactive elements other than uranium and thorium, mass is in parentheses and is that of the most stable important (in availability, etc.) isotope A list of the elements is given in Appendix D www.elsolucionario.net ... www.elsolucionario.net Rotation and angle rad 180°/p 57.3° rev 360° 2p rad rev/s 60 rpm Essential UNIVERSITY PHYSICS SECOND EDITION Richard Wolfson Middlebury College www.elsolucionario.net Publisher: James Smith... MasteringPhysics and ActivPhysics are trademarks, in the U.S and/or other countries, of Pearson Education, Inc or its affiliates Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wolfson, Richard Essential. .. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wolfson, Richard Essential university physics / Richard Wolfson. ? ?2nd ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-0-321-70669-0