www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net This page intentionally left blank www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net Copyright © 2004, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers All rights reserved No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher All inquiries should be emailed to rights@newagepublishers.com ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2656-4 PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002 Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net Material Science has become a very important subject as an interdisciplinary course in almost all universities Keeping this in view we have developed the subject matter for B.E (Material Science and Metallurgy/Production Engineering/Mechanical Engineering), A.M.I.E., Diploma in engineering, M.Sc (Material Science/Physics/Chemistry) and B.Sc (Hons.) courses as per their latest syllabii The book is also useful for UPSC, GATE, NET, SLET and other entrance examinations A reasonably wide coverage in sufficient depth has been attempted, giving the importance to the basic principles, essential theory and experimental details necessary for understanding the nature, properties and applications of materials All efforts have been made to provide topics which are of great use to the readers, e.g semiconductors, superconductors, polymers, composites, nanostructured materials, etc Latest developments, e.g quantum dots, spinotrics, MOSFET, Microelectronic circuits, MEMS, nanotechnology, etc are also covered To make the text more useful, good number of worked out problems, review questions, problems, shortquestion answers, typical objective questions, suggested readings are provided with each chapter We are thankful to M/s New Age International (P) Limited Publishers, for their untiring efforts in bringing out the book with excellent printing and nice get up within the shortest possible time period Suggestions for the improvement of the book are most welcome Bhilwara February 2004 S.L Kakani Amit Kakani www.elsolucionario.net Preface This page intentionally left blank www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net www.elsolucionario.net Preface v Classification and Selection of Materials Introduction Engineering Requirements Classification of Engineering Materials Organic, Inorganic and Biological Materials Semiconductors Biomaterials 10 (a) Current Trends and Advances in Materials 10 (b) Advanced Materials 10 (c) Smart Materials (Materials of the future) 11 (d) Nanostructured Materials and Nanotechnology 12 (e) Quantum Dots (QDs) 12 (f) Spintronics 12 (g) Fermionic Condensate Matter 13 Level of Material Structure Examination and Observation Material Structure 13 10 Engineering Metallurgy 14 11 Selection of Materials 14 Suggested Readings 17 Review Questions 17 Problems 18 Short Question-Answers 18 Objective Questions 19 Atomic Structure, and Electronic Configuration Introduction 20 The Electron 20 Protons 21 Neutrons 21 Atomic Number (Z) 22 Atomic Weight and Mass Number 22 Isotopes 23 Isobars 23 Isotones 23 10 Avogadro’s Number (N) 24 13 20 www.elsolucionario.net Contents www.elsolucionario.net viii Contents Atomic Nucleus 24 Atomic Models 24 Vector Atom Model 43 Quantum Numbers 44 Pauli Exclusion Principle and Electronic Configuration of Atoms Wave Mechanical Picture of the Atom 54 Periodic Table 56 Suggested Readings 59 Review Questions 59 Problems 60 Short Questions 61 Objective Questions 61 Short Question-Answers 63 Crystal Geometry, Structure and Defects Introduction 64 Crystals 65 Single Crystal 65 Whiskers 65 Lattice Points and Space Lattice 66 (a) Basis 66 Unit Cell 67 Primitive Cell 67 Crystal Classes 68 Crystal Systems 69 10 Crystal Structure for Metallic Elements 75 11 Atomic Radius 78 12 Density of Crystal 79 13 Directions, Lattice Planes and Miller Indices 80 14 Interplanar Spacings 83 14 (a) Angle Between Two Planes or Directions 84 15 Representation of Crystal Planes in a Cubic Unit Cell 84 16 Sketching the Plane from the given Miller Indices 86 17 Common Planes in a Simple Cubic Structure 86 18 Co-ordination Number 87 19 Defects or Imperfections in Crystals 95 20 Point Imperfections 96 21 Line Defects or Dislocations 98 22 Surface and Grain Boundary Defects 101 23 Volume Imperfections 104 24 Liquid Crystals 104 25 Anisotropy 105 26 Frank-Read Source 106 27 Theory of Dislocations: Salient Features 107 28 Determination of Crystal Structure by X-Ray Diffraction 110 29 Bragg’s X-ray Spectrometer 112 30 Reciprocal Lattice 115 31 Methods of Determining Crystal Structure 118 32 Electron and Neutron Diffraction 121 47 64 www.elsolucionario.net 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 www.elsolucionario.net 626 Material Science SUGGESTED READINGS M.S Dresselhaus, et al Science of Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes (San Diego, CA: Academic 1996) P Moriarty, Nanostructured Materials, Rep Prog Phys 64, 297 (2001) What are nanostructured materials? Explain with crystal structures the salient features of (a) graphite (b) fullerenes What are carbon nanotubes? Mention their few important technological applications Write a note on nanowires and nanocones What are the different methods for the production of CNTs Briefly mention them What are the key issues in nanomanufacturing? Mention some important mechanical and electronic properties of CNTs www.elsolucionario.net REVIEW QUESTIONS www.elsolucionario.net Appendix UNITS Quantity 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Activation energy Atomic diameter Bond energy Bond length Bragg angle Calorific value Coercive field Concentration Contact angle Current density Dipole moment Dislocation energy Diffusion co-efficient Diffusion constant Dielectric field strength Electrical conductivity Electron affinity Electron energy level Energy of surface imperfections Enthalpy Entropy External energy Flux 24 Force 25 Fracture stress Symbol Expressed as Q J/mol nm KJ/mole nm rad KJ/m3 — — q — g A/m mol/m3 rad A/m2 C–m J/m m2/s m2/s V/m, N/c Ohm–1m–1 KJ/mol J J/m2 H S — J J/mol J/mol/K J/mol mol/m2/s N rf Newton MN/m2 Hc C F J — E D D0 E s — S.I Units Full Form Joule per mole Nanometre Kilo joule/mole Nanometre Radian Kilo joule per cubic metre Ampere per metre Mole per cubic metre Radian Ampere per square metre Coulomb metre Joule per metre Metre square per second Metre square per second Volt per metre Per Ohm per metre Kilojoule per mole Joule Joule per square metre Joule per mole Joule per mole/Kelvin Joule per mole Mole per square metre per second lbf Mega Newton per square metre Other units cal/mole, cal/gm Å eV/atom; Kcal/mole Å (degree) Oersted No of atoms/cm3 (Degree) amp/cm2 debye erg/cm; eV/plane — — Newton per Coulomb mho/cm eV/atom, kcal/ mole eV (electron volt), erg erg/cm2 cal/mol, cal/gm cal/mole/°C cal/gm/°C cal/mole, cal/gm No of atoms/cm2/sec kgf/mm2, PSi (Contd.) www.elsolucionario.net Units, Conversion Factors, Physical Constants www.elsolucionario.net 628 Appendices Contd. Symbol Expressed as S.I Units Full Form Other units 26 Fracture toughness Gc (Strain energy release rate) —Stress intensity factor Kc 27 Frequency of radiation v 28 Gibbs free energy G 39 Hysteresis loss Hall Petch constant K 30 Interatomic force F 31 Interfacial energy Y 32 Internal energy E 33 Interplanar spacing d 34 Kinetic energy E 35 Lattice parameter a 36 Magnetic induction B J/m Joules per square metre lb-in/in2 MN/m3/2 S–1, Hz J/mol J/m3 MNm–32 N J/m2 J/mol nm J nm Wb/m2 or T KSi in1/2 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 P Am2 H/m A.T/m Kg Kg m/s W MPa, MN/m2 44 Resistivity 45 Shear modulus r u Ohm.m GN/m2 46 Shear stress Shear strain 47 Specific heat 48 Specific heat 49 Specific volume 50 Specific energy 51 Strain energy 52 Surface energy 53 Surface tension 54 Temperature 55 Temperature co-efficient of resistance 56 Tensile strength r g Cv Cp — — e Y g T a0 N/m2 Pa — J/mol/k J/mol/k m3/Kg J/Kg J/m3 J/m2 N/M K K–1 Mega newton per (metre)3/2 per second; Hertz Joule per mole Joule per cubic metre Mega Newton/(metre)32 Newton Joule per square metre Joule per mole Nanometre Joule Nanometre Weber per square metre of Tesla Ampere square metre Henry per metre Ampere turns per metre Kilogram Kilogram metre per second Watt mega pascal; mega Newton/ square metre Ohm metre Giga Newton per square metre Newton/m2 pascal — Joule per mole per Kelvin Joule per mole per Kelvin Cubic metre per kilogram Joule per kilogram Joule per cubic metre Joule per square metre Newton per metre Kelvin per Kelvin — MN/m2 57 Tensile stress 58 Thermal energy 59 Thermal conductivity s RT — MN/m2 J/mol W/m/K UTS MN/m2 Magnetic moment Magnetic permeability Magnetic field strength Mass Momentum Power Pressure 60 Ultimate tensile strength m m H — — cal/mole, cal/gm — —Kgf/m3/2 Kgf, lb, dyne erg/cm2 cal/mole, cal/gm Å erg, eV Å Gauss Oersted lb — ft.lbf atmosphere, psi Kg/cm2, dyne/ cm2, mm of Hg ohm.cm Kgf/mm2; PSi, dyne/cm2 Kgf/mm2, PSi, dyne/cm2 — cal/mol/°C; cal/gm/°c cal/gm/°C ft3/lb, cm3/gm Btu/lb erg/cm3 erg/cm2 dyne/cm °C, °F per °F Mega Newton Kgf/mm2, Psi, dyne/cm2 per square metre Mega Newton per square metre Psi, Kgf/mm2 Joule per mole cal/mole, cal/gm Watt per metre Kcal/m/s/°C per deg Kelvin Mega Newton per PSi, Kgf/mm2 square metre (Contd.) www.elsolucionario.net Quantity www.elsolucionario.net 629 Appendices Contd. 61 Vibration frequency 62 Viscosity Symbol n or S h 63 Wavelength of radiation l 64 Young’s modulus E 65 Yield strength sy –1 Expressed as –1 S Pas; N/m2s nm GPa, N/m2 S.I Units Full Form Per second Pascal second Newton per square metre second nanometre Giga pascal; Newton/m2 Other units — Poise A PSi, Kgf/mm2 Kgf/mm2 www.elsolucionario.net Quantity www.elsolucionario.net Appendix 2 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 1° 1Å A.hr ampere atm Btu Btu/lb Btu/ft3 bar Calorie Coulomb Debye Dyne/Cm dyne/cm2 erg erg/cm eV eV/entity eV/particle farad Gauss gram-calorie Henry Hertz HP Kgf/mm2 KSi/in lb/Cu.ft lumen Newton Oersted Poise PSi T°C T°F torr (mm of Hg) = 0.01745 rad =10–10 m = 0.1 nm = 3.6 Kc = C/s = 0.101325 ´ 106 N/m2 = 760 mm Hg = 105 Pascal = 1.05506 kJ = 2326 J/Kg = 37.2589 KJ/m3 = 10–1 MPa = 4.18 J = A-s = 3.33 ´ 10–30 cm = 10–3 N/m = 0.1 N/m2 = 10–7 J = 10–5 J/m = 1.602 ´ 10–19 J = 96.49 KJ/mol (of entities) = 96.49 KJ/mol = C/V = 10– Wb/m2 = 4.185 J = V-s/A = cycle/s = 0.7457 KW = 9.81 MN/m2 = 1.1 MN/m3/2 = 16.01 kg/m3 = 0.0016 W (at 0.55 mm) = kg.m/s2 = 79.6 A/m = 0.1 PaS = 6.89 KN/m2 105 = (T + 273.15) K = 5/9 (T + 459.67) K = 133.3 N/m2 www.elsolucionario.net Conversion Factors www.elsolucionario.net Appendices TR Watt TR Joule K-cal = = = = = 3024 KCal Joule/sec 3024 Kcal/hg 107 ergs 4.18 kJ www.elsolucionario.net 37 38 39 40 41 631 www.elsolucionario.net Appendix Constant 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Acceleration due to gravity Atomic mass unit Avogadro’s number Bohr magneton (magnetic moment) Boltzmann’s constant Electron rest mass Electronic charge Faraday’s constant Gas constant Mass of proton Mass of electron Planck’s constant Permeability of free space Velocity of light in free space Permittivity of free space Volume of kg mole of ideal gas at N.T.P Magnetic constant Gravitation constants Radius of electron Symbol g amu N b k me e F R mp me h m0 c e0 V mi G re Value = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = 9.81 m/s2 1.660 ´ 10–24 g 6.023 ´ 10– 23/g mol 9.273 ´ 10–24 A m2 1.380 ´ 10–23 J/K 8.620 ´ 10–5 eV/k 9.109 ´ 10–31 Kg 1.602 ´ 10–19 C 9.649 ´ 104 C/mol 8.314 J/mol/K 1.673 ´ 10–24 g 9.108 ´ 10–28 g 6.626 ´ 10–34 Js 1.257 ´ 10–6 H/m 2.998 ´ 108 m/s 8.854 ´ 10–12 F/m 22.41 m3 1.2566 ´ 10–8 H/cm 6.670 ´ 10–1 2.81777 ´ 10–15 m www.elsolucionario.net Physical Constants www.elsolucionario.net Appendix Name 10 11 1 1 1 1 1 Deci exa Giga Kilo Mega micro milli micron Nano m peta tera Symbol d E G K M m mm mie nm P T Factor by which unit is multiplied = = = = = = = = = = = 10–1 1018 109 103 106 10–6 10–3 0.001 in = 25 mm 10–9 m 1015 1012 www.elsolucionario.net Prefix Names, symbols and Multiplication factors www.elsolucionario.net Acid pickling 339 Addition polymerization 561 Additives 580 Adiabatic and isothermal straining 360 Adsorption inhibitors 393 Advanced composites 593 Advanced materials 10 Advanced polymer materials 579 Age hardening 335 Ageing 322 Ageing of polymers 566 Amorphous 64 Anelastic behaviour 228 Anelasticity 359 Anisotropy 105, 214 Annealing 322 Anodic inhibitors 392 Antiferromagnetism 460, 467 Aramid fibre-reinforced polymer composites 607 Aromatic intermediates 557 Atomic diffusion 363 Atomic number 22 Austempering orthothermal quenching 331 Austentite 302 Austenite grain size 310 Avanlanche breakdown 507 Avogadro number 24 Avrami equation 298 Bainite 303 Band theory of electrons 400 Band theory of solids 160 Basis 66 Batch furnaces 337 Bauschinger effect 359 Bending strength 217 Binary alloys 279 Bioluminescence 424 Block wall 466 Blue brittleness 363 Body centered cubic structure 75 Bohr’s atomic model 27 Bond length 134 Bonds in solids 129 Boron-nitride curved nanostructures Bragg’s law 111 Bragg’s X-ray spectrometer 112 Branched polymers 563 Breaking stresses 249 Brillouin zones 162 Brinell hardness test 249 Brittle fracture 261 Brittleness 213, 224 Burgers vector 99 623 Carbon-carbon composites 609 Carbon-fibre reinforced polymer composites Carbon nanocones 621 Carbon nanotubes 616 Carbon steels 311 Carburization 204, 233 Case hardening 204, 322, 333 Castability 268 Casting 301 Cementite 303 Centrifugal casting 268 Ceramic and ternary phase diagrams 294 Ceramic materials 534 Ceramic-matrix composites 608 Ceramics 411, 445 Charpy test 256 Chemiluminscence 424 Chevrel phases 529 Chrome tanning Classical free electron theory 156 Coherence 426 606 www.elsolucionario.net Subject Index www.elsolucionario.net Coherence length 539 Cohesive energy 133 Cold working 369, 442 Colorants 581 Complex-reinforced composites 595 Composite materials 228 Composites 593 Compression and transfer moulding 582 Compressive strength 217 Concentration cell 380 Concrete 597 Condensed phase rule 287 Condensation polymerization 561 Conductors 163, 165 Constitutional diagram 286 Continuous and aligned fibre composites 599 Continuous casting 269 Continuous cooling transformation curve 314 Continuous furnaces 337 Coordination number 87 Coring 295 Corrosion 230, 376 Corrosion fatigue 237, 387 Corrosion penetration rate 381 Corrosion rates 381 Corrosion resistance Copolymerization 561 Copolymers 568 Cottrelt atmospheres 100 Coupon testing 394 Covalent bond 140 Covalent solids 142 Creep 213 Creep curve equations 239 Creep fracture 242 Creep limit 238 Creep test 242 Critical resolved shear stress 353 Cross linked polymers 565 Cross-slip 107 Crystal anisotropy 475 Crystal dislocations 80 Crystalline anisotropy energy 465 Crystal growth 122 Crystal growth methods 122 Crystallographic planes 80 Curie temperature 462 Curie-Weiss temperature 452 Current density in metal 167 Debye Temperature 401 Debye Theory 404 Decarburization 204, 339 Defects or imperfections in crystals 95 Deformation of materials 348 Degradation 375 Degree of polymerization 559 Dendrite formation and structure of ingots 300 Density Diamagnetic substances 459 Diamagnetism 460 Diecasting 265 Dielectric constant 446 Dielectrics 445 Dielectric strength 448 Diffusionless transformation 296 Diffusivity 200 Dipole bonds 146 Direct corrosion 375 Discontinuous and aligned fibre composites 602 Discontinuous and randomly oriented fibre composites 603 Dislocation climb 107 Dislocation movement theory 236 Dispersion bonds 146 Dispersion strengthened composites 596, 598 Domain boundaries or walls 471 Domain model 466 Domains and hysteresis 471 Donor and acceptor states 497 Drift velocity 167, 433 Drude-Lorentz theory 156 Ductile-brittle transition curve 255 Ductile fracture 261 Ductility 2, 214 Ductile to brittle transition 264 Dulong Petit law 401, 403 Edge dislocation 98 Effective mass 491 Einstein’s photoelectric equation 183 Elastic anisotropy 227 Electrical resistance of materials 164 Elastic deformation 348 Elastic deformation mechanism 572 Elasticity 213, 214 Elastic strain 218 Elastomers 558, 559, 576 Electrical conductivity 433 Electrical properties 213 Electrical resistivity 431 Electrochemical corrosion 375 Electrode potentials 377 Electron-phonon interaction 545 Electron multiplier 187 Electron phases 286 635 www.elsolucionario.net Subject Index www.elsolucionario.net Electronic conduction 435 Electronic polarization 418 Electron gas 439 Electrostriction 454 Electronegativity 150 Elongation strain 218 Embryos 298 Endurance limit 226, 230 Energy bands 165 Extrinsic semiconductors 492 Extrusion blow moulding 584 Extrusion moulding 584 Face centered cubic structure 76 Fatigue 213, 230 Fatigue failure 231 Fatigue fracture 231 Fatigue limit theory 236 Fermi-Dirac distribution function 159 Fermi energy 157 Fermi level 157 Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor 498 Fermionic condensate matter 13 Fermions 13 Ferrimagnetism 460, 463, 468 Ferrite 302 Ferroelectric curie temperature 451 Ferroelectricity 451 Ferromagnetic curie temperature 451 Ferromagnetic domains 465 Fery’s total radiation pyrometer 340 Fibre composites 593 Fibre phase 604 Fibre reinforce composites 598 Fibres 558, 559, 578 Fick’s law of diffusion 199 Field effect transistor 516 Fillers 580 Flame hardening 332 Flame retardants 581 Forward and reverse biasing 503 Fractional solidification 295 Fracture 260 Fractures of polymers 572 Frank read source 106 Free electron gas 156 Free electron theory 55 Free energy 438 Fretting 387 Front wall cell 188 Fullerenes 615 Galvanic cell 380 Material Science Galvanic corrosion 375 Galvanic series 380, 381 Galvanizing 393 Gas phototube 187 Geometrical isomerism 567 Ginzburg Landau parameter 539 Glass-fibre-reinforced polymer composites Glass transition 302 Grain boundaries 101 Grain boundary diffusion 197 Grain growth 366 Grain size 244 Graphite 614 Griffith theory of brittle fracture 263 Gunn effect 511 Gunn effect and Gun diode 512 606 Haeckelites 621 Hardening 322, 325 Hardening capacity and hardenability 325 Hard magnetic materials 475 Hardness 2, 5, 213, 228 Hardwoods 587 Heat capacity 400 Heat treatment 231, 322 Heat treatable alloys 284 Heat wood 587 Heavy fermion superconductors 530 Heisenberg exchange interaction theory 464 Heterogeneous nucleation 299 Hexagonal closed packed structure 78 High energy hard magnetic materials 476 High temperature oxidation corrosion 375 High temperature cuprate superconductors 531 Homogeneous nucleation 299 Hooke’s law 219, 348, 403 Hot working 368 Hybrid composites 609 Hydrogen bonds 147 Hydrogen embrittlement 388 Hydrogen spectrum 36 Hysteresis loop 478 Igneous rocks Impact strength 2, 229 Impatt, Trapatt and Qwitt diodes Improper ferroelectrics 451 Incubation period 313 Induction heating 337 Induction hardening 332 Injection moulding 583 Inner diffusion 197 Insulators 164, 166, 434, 443 513 www.elsolucionario.net 636 www.elsolucionario.net Insulation resistance 450 Integrated circuitary Interchange mechanism 199 Inter diffusion 203 Intergranular corrosion 384 Intermetallic compounds 281, 529 Interplanar spacings 83 Interstitial imperfections 97 Interstitial mechanism 198 Intrinsic conductivity 492 Intrinsic resistivity 493 Intrinsic semiconductors 489 Inversion temperature 173 Investment (lost wax) casting 269 Ionic bonding 134 Ionic solids 164, 166 Ionization potential 38 Isobars 23 Isomerism 556 Isothermal transformation 312, 330 Isotones 23 Isotope effect 538 Isotopes 23 Jogs in dislocation 108 Jominy end-quench test 326 Josephson effects 540 Josephson junctions 541 Junction transistor 514 Laminar composites 603 Large particle composites 596 Laser 425 Laser vaporisation 621 Lattice points 66 Lattice vibration waves (phonons) 409 Lauders bands 362 Laue’s methods 118 Lever rule 290 Light emitting diode 510 Linear polymers 563 Line defects or dislocations 98 Liquid crystal display 511 Liquid crystal polymers 578 Liquid crystals 104 Longitudinal tensile strength 602 Lumber grading 588 Luminescence 424 Machinability 266 Magnetic dipoles 458 Magnetic dust method 258 Magnetic flux density 457 Magnetic induction 457 Magnetic moments 458 Magnetic storage 477 Magnetic susceptibility 458 Magnetism 456 Magnetization 457 Magneto striction 469 Malleability 213, 216 Martempering or steeped quenching 332 Martensite 303, 315 Mass effect 336 Matrix-Matrix composites 608 Matrix phase 606 Matthiessen’s rule 440 Mean free path 171 Meissner-Ochsenfeld effect 527, 535 Melting point 416 Metal cladding 390 Metallic bond 142 Metallic bonds 147 Metallic bonding 155 Metamorphic rocks Metal spraying 390 Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor 517 Microgalvanic corrosion cells 376 Microelectromechanical systems 519 Microelectronic circuits 518 Microscopic BCS theory 545 Miller indices 82 Mobility 168 Molar heat capacity 401 Monochromaticity 426 Multicomponent alloys 279 Multiphase transformations 300 Nanomaterial advantage 624 Nanostructured materials 12 Nanostructures in motion 624 Nanowires 620 Neel temperature 467 Network polymers 566 Neumann bands 356 Nitriding 334 Non-crystallite 64 Non-linear optics 426 Non-heat treatable alloys 284 N-type semiconductors 494 Nucleation 297 Nucleation and growth 299 Ohm’s law 433 Olefin intermediates 556 Opacity and translucency in insulators 423 www.elsolucionario.net 637 Subject Index www.elsolucionario.net Optical fibres in communication 426 Optical properties of metals 419 Optical properties of non metals 420 Optical pyrometers 341 Orange Peel effects 363 Orbital frequency 30 Organic materials Organic superconductors 529 Orowan theory 236 Oxidation 375 Oxygen scavengers 392 Pack carburizing 334 Paramagnetic substances 460 Paramagnetism 461 Particle-reinforced composites 596 Passivity 382 Passivating metals 378 Pauli paramagnetism 462 Pearlite 303 Penetration depth 539 Periodic table 56 Periodic table and chemical bonding 150 Persistent current 526 Phase 280 Phase diagram 280, 286, 330 Phase equilibrium 280 Phase rule 303 Phase transformation 280, 296 Photoconductive cells 186, 190 Photoconductivity 425 Photoelectric cells 186 Photoelectric effect 179 Photoelectric work function 183 Photoelectrons 179 Photoemissive cells 186 Photoluminescence 424 Photomultiplier tube 187 Photodiode Photon 179 Photophorescence 424 Photo tubes 179, 186 Photovoltaic cells 188 Piezoelectricity 454 Pin diodes 554 Pitting corrosion 384 Plastic deformation 349 Plastic deformation mechanism 572 Plasticity 213, 214 Plasticizers 581 Plastics 558, 573 Plastic strain 219 PN junction 501 Material Science Point group symmetry 69 Point imperfections 96 Poisson’s ratio 220 Polar and non-polar materials 448 Polarization 449 Polycrystalline materials 357 Polymers 555, 559 Polymerization process 561 Polymer additives 580 Polymer crystallinity 569 Polymer-matrix composites 606 Polymer-matrix materials 608 Polymers 228, 409, 413 Potential barrier 502 Portland cement concrete 597 P-type semiconductor 495 Powder method 118 Power factor 448 Preferred orientation 364 Prestressed concrete 597 Primary bonds 130 Primitive cell 67 Proper ferroelectrics 451 Pyrolysis 621 Quantum Quantum Quantum Quantum Quantum dots 12, 520 model 43 numbers 44 spin ladder materials tunneling 547 530 Radiation pyrometers 340 Radiography 259 Radioluminescence 424 Random copolymer 568 Reciprocal lattice 115 Recovery and recrystallizastion 365 Recrystallization 366 Reinforced concrete 597 Reinforced polymers 584 Relaxation processes 228 Resilience 213, 225 Resin transfer moduling 610 Retentivity or remanence 472 Roentgenolumiescence 424 Rutherford’s nuclear atomic model 25 Salt bath carburizing 334 Sand blasting 339 Sand casting 268 Sandwich structures 604 Sapwood 587 Schmid’s law 353 www.elsolucionario.net 638 www.elsolucionario.net Schrodinger wave equation 141 Screw dislocation 98, 99 Season cracking 359 Secondary bonds 131, 144 Seeback effect 173 Sedimentary rocks Self diffusion 197, 198, 203 Semiconductors 434 Semiconductor devices 500 Shear strength 217 Short range forces 132 Slip 350 Slip line 353 Smart materials 11 Soft woods 507 Solar cell 189, 509 Sommerfield free-electron theory 155, 156 Sorbite 303 Space lattice 66 Space group symmetry 69 Specific heat 2, 400 Spherodising 324 Spintronics 12, 520 Spontaneous polarization 452 Stabilizers 581 Stacking faults 103 Stark effect 44 Stereoisomerism 567 Step function 160 Steinmetz coefficient 473 Stiffness 213, 225 Stopping potential 181 Strain ageing 363 Strain hardening 357, 442 Strain relief crystallization 365 Stress corrosion 386 Stress cycles 231 Stress rupture test 243 Squids 549 Superconductors 164, 166, 413, 489 Surface diffusion 197, 205 Surface hardening 322, 332 Superstrong materials 624 Synthetic graphite 616 Thermoelectric current 173 Thermo e.m.f 173 Tempering 315, 322, 328 Tensile strength 2, 216 Ternary alloys 279 Thermal conductivity 2, 409 Thermal expansion Thermal fatigue 4, 416 Thermal-plastic resins 559 Thermal properties 2, 213 Thermal properties of superconductors 536 Thermal resistance Thermal shock 409, 416 Thermal stresses 415 Theories of fatigue 236 Thermistors and barretters 511 Thermocouple 173 Thermoelectric current 173 Thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers 568 Thermoplastic elastomers 577 Thermoplastics Thermosetting plastics Thermosetting resins 559 Thompson’s atomic model 24 Threshold frequency 181, 182, 183 Tilt boundaries 102 Time dependent transformation diagram 312, 313 Torsional strength 218 Toughness 213, 225 Transducers 454 Transparent materials 418 Transistor 514 Transverse tensile strength 602 Troostite 303 True strain 222 True stress 222 Tunnel diode 508 Tunnel effect 508 Turner’s Sclerometer test 255 Twinning 355 Twinning plane 350 Twin boundaries 102 Ultimate strength 216 Ultimate tensile strength Ultrasonic test 259 Unit cell 66, 67 248 Vacancy mechanism 197 Vacuum photo emission cell 186 Valence band 437 Vapour phase inhibitors 393 Vanderwaals bonding 146 Vector atom model 43 Vegetable tanning Viscoelastic behaviour 228 Viscoelastic creep 572 Volume imperfections 104 Volumetric strain 218 Vulcanization 565 www.elsolucionario.net 639 Subject Index www.elsolucionario.net Wave mechanical picture of the atom 54 Wear resistance Weiss theory 464 Weldability 266 Whiskers 65, 604 Wiedemann-Franz law 156 Wood 587 Wood’s theory 236 Work hardening 357 Wridemann-Franz ratio Material Science Yield point 221, 361 Yield point phenomenon 361 Yield strength 361 Zener diode 507 Zener impedence 507 Zener resistance 507 Zero resistivity 535 Zone theory 155 www.elsolucionario.net 640 ... Crystals 65 Single Crystal 65 Whiskers 65 Lattice Points and Space Lattice 66 (a) Basis 66 Unit Cell 67 Primitive Cell 67 Crystal Classes 68 Crystal Systems 69 10 Crystal Structure for Metallic Elements... as smart sensors, microsystem technology (MST) or microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) Materials/devices employed as sensors include optical fibers, piezoelectric materials (including some polymers),... highly malleable and ductile as well as extremely corrosion resistant Alloys of these metals are harder than the basic metals Carbonates, sulphates and sulphide ores are more reactive metals Biological