Leadership in Organizations This page intentionally left blank Ninth Edition Global Edition Leadership in Organizations Gary Yukl State University of New York at Albany William L Gardner, III Rawls College of Business Texas Tech University Harlow, England • London • New York • Boston • San Francisco • Toronto • Sydney • Dubai • Singapore • Hong Kong Tokyo • Seoul • Taipei • New Delhi • Cape Town • Sao Paulo • Mexico City • Madrid • Amsterdam • Munich • Paris • Milan Vice President, Business, Economics, and UK Courseware: Donna Battista Director of Portfolio Management: Stephanie Wall Specialist Portfolio Manager: Kris Ellis-Levy Editorial Assistant: Amanda McHugh Content Producer, Global Editions: Nitin Shankar Acquisitions Editor, Global Editions: Ishita Sinha Senior Project Editor, Global Editions: Daniel Luiz Manufacturing Controller, Production, Global Editions: Kay Holman Vice President, Product Marketing: Roxanne McCarley Product Marketer: Carlie Marvel Product Marketing 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issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners For information regarding permissions, request forms, and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights and Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions This eBook is a standalone product and may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version It also does not provide access to other Pearson digital products like MyLab and Mastering The publisher reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 10: 1-292-31440-0 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-31440-2 eBook ISBN 13: 978-1-292-31442-6 Typeset in Times LT Pro by Integra Software Services Pvt Ltd For their support, devotion, and love, this book is dedicated to Maureen and Claudia This page intentionally left blank BRIEF CONTENTS About the Authors Preface 16 15 Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 The Nature of Leadership 21 Leadership Behavior 42 The Leadership Situation and Adaptive Leadership 66 Decision Making and Empowerment by Leaders 92 Leading Change and Innovation 126 Power and Influence Tactics 158 Leader Traits and Skills 192 Charismatic and Transformational Leadership 223 Values-Based and Ethical Leadership 250 Dyadic Relations and Followers 275 Leadership in Teams and Decision Groups 304 Strategic Leadership in Organizations 335 Cross-Cultural Leadership and Diversity 369 Developing Leadership Skills 395 Overview and Integration 422 References 441 Author Index 525 Subject Index 546 This page intentionally left blank TABLE OF CONTENTS About the Authors Preface 16 CHAPTER 15 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP Introduction 21 Definitions of Leadership 22 Indicators of Leadership Effectiveness 28 Research Methods for Studying Leadership Effectiveness 30 Major Perspectives in Leadership Theory and Research 31 Level of Conceptualization for Leadership Theories 34 Other Bases for Comparing Leadership Theories 38 Organization of the Book 39 Summary 40 Review and Discussion Questions CHAPTER 41 LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR Introduction 42 Reasons for Diverse Taxonomies of Leadership Behavior Some Important Types of Leadership Behavior 43 Specific Task-Oriented Leader Behaviors 46 Specific Relations-Oriented Leader Behaviors 54 Summary 62 Review and Discussion Questions CASE: Consolidated Products 63 CASE: The Hour Glass 65 42 63 CHAPTER THE LEADERSHIP SITUATION AND ADAPTIVE LEADERSHIP Introduction 66 Different Ways Situations Affect Leaders 66 Stewart Model of Situational Determinants 67 Other Situational Determinants of Leader Behavior 70 Guidelines for Coping with Demands and Constraints 76 Early Contingency Theories of Effective Leader Behavior 79 SUBJECT INDEX A Abusive supervision, 257–259 Achievement motivation, 201–202 Achievement orientation, 201–202, 211 Action planning, 46, 115, 138, 186, 202 guidelines for, 47 Active management by exception, 236 Adaptation, 336–342, 357, 363–364 Adaptive leadership, 357 contingency theories and, 79–80 guidelines for, 86–87 Administrative skills for leaders, 76, 205, 357 Affect affective events, 277, 281 emotions, 32, 35, 93, 207, 209–210, 277 moods, 32, 35, 209, 277, 288 Affirmative action programs, 390 After-activity reviews, 310, 322–323, 430 Agreeableness, 203–204, 227, 278 Altruism, 216, 260, 377 Apprising, 174–175 guidelines for, 183 Assessment centers, 58, 193, 195, 207, 217, 403–404 Attitude-centered approach, to change, 127 Attribution theory, 38 attributional ambiguity, 229 determinants of leader attributions, 282–283 external attributions, 281–282 follower attributions and implicit theories, 287–290 follower contributions, 292–294 impression management tactics, 290–292 internal attributions, 282 relational attributions, 283 relational work, 38, 281–282 two-stage attribution model, 281–282 Authentic leadership, 263–265, 290 balanced processing, 263–264 internalized moral perspective, 263–264 relational transparency, 263–264 self-awareness, 263–265, 271 Authority, 354 see also Delegation decentralization of, 433 formal, 27, 69, 136, 159–160, 238, 425 of a leader, 159, 164, 166, 228, 232 legitimate, 131, 159, 168, 177, 235 manager’s scope of, 160 skills and level of, 212–214 Autocratic decisions, 72, 95–96, 99, 102–107, 227, 375 Awards, 59–61, 162, 290, 341, 413 546 B Behavioral flexibility, 210 Behavior approach see Leadership behaviors Behavior description questionnaires, 33, 43, 238, 372 Benchmarking, 148, 197, 361 Bias attribution, 236, 282, 284, 351, 434 follower perceptions, 253 manager’s, 282–283 self-serving bias of subordinates, 282 “Big Five” personality traits, 203–205 Brainstorming, 327–328 Brain writing, 328 Business games and simulations, 408–410 C Career counseling, 405, 413, 415, 418 Cascading process, 25, 236–237 Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) study, 212, 398–399, 409 Ceremonies, 59, 139–140, 226, 232, 321, 340, 348, 429 Change approaches to implementing, 132–136 commitment to, 130, 137–141 developmental change, 128 guidelines for implementing, 136–141 influence of vision, 141–146 leader behaviors to influence change, 44–45, 424 organizational learning and innovation, 146–153 pace and sequencing of, 135–136 prior experience and reaction to, 129–130 process, 128–130 reasons for accepting/rejecting, 130–132 resistance to, 131 responsibility for implementing, 133–135 stages in reaction to, 129 in teams and organizations, 127–128 Change agents and process of change, 127, 135, 138–139, 424, 440 Charisma, conceptions of attribution of, 244 dark side of, 231 emotional contagion and, 226 implications for organizations, 234 intensive case studies, 230 laboratory and field experiments, 230–231 negative charismatic leaders, 227–228 positive charismatic leaders, 227–228 situational variables, 240 survey studies, 230 Subject Index traits and values of charismatic leaders, 227 vs transformational leadership, 237–239 Charismatic leadership, 45 charismatic leadership tactics, 233–234 comparison of transformational and, 237–239 effects of, 230–234 facilitating conditions for, 258 implications for, 240 influence processes, 225–226 leader behaviors, 224–225 negative, 227–228 positive, 227–228 self concept theory of, 225–226 situation of, 228–230 Chief executive officer (CEO), 335, 344–346, 349–351 constraints on, 344 cultural beliefs of, 347–348 descriptive studies of CEO decisions and actions, 349–350 evaluation of research on strategic leadership, 351 executive teams and, 352–355 impact of environment uncertainty and crises, 345–346 influence of, 340–344 succession research, 349 survey studies of CEO leadership, 350–351 Choices of leaders, 68 Clarifying, function of, 43, 44, 47–48 see also Leadership behaviors, clarification of roles and objectives Coaching, 36, 58, 72, 87, 111, 117, 236, 319–320, 377, 398, 430, 431–432 executive, 407–408, 435 upward, 299 Coacting group, 304 Coalition tactics, 174, 177–178, 180 Coercive power, 161, 166, 169 guidelines for using, 169–170 of military and political leaders, 161 for subordinates, 161 Cognitive moral development, 255, 426 Cognitive resources theory, 214–215 Cognitive skills, 133, 205–207, 314, 426 Cohesiveness, 72, 82, 306, 308, 315, 320, 322, 325, 330 Collaboration, 174, 176, 181 guidelines for, 186–187 Collective efficacy, 226, 236, 238, 240, 309, 312, 432, 436 and team performance, 349 Collective identification, 226, 240, 309, 321, 429, 439 Collective learning, 126, 146–147, 151, 322–323, 433–434 Collectivism, 289, 373–376 see also Cultural values Commitment, 172, 427–429 Communication skills, 163, 209, 426 Competencies, 193, 215 core, 362 emotional intelligence, 209–210 guidelines for understanding and improving relevant, 217 for high-level military officers, 211 leadership, 209 learning ability, 211 managerial, 209–211 social intelligence, 210–211 Competitive strategy, 338–340, 343, 350, 358, 363–364 Complexity theory of leadership, 357–358 Compliance, 172 with change, 130 exchange tactics and, 175–176 individual tactics and, 179 instrumental, 236, 427 with legitimate rules and requests, 159–160, 167–168 passive, 425 pressure tactics and, 177 rewards and, 169 Conceptual skills, 205–207, 210–214 Confidence, 54, 56–57, 98, 116, 117, 130, 139–140, 143, 146, 151, 167, 217, 225, 226, 242, 262, 286, 322, 337, 355, 385, 426, 431–432, 440 Conscientiousness, 203 Consensus, 96, 252, 255, 323, 329, 354, 439 Consideration see Leadership behaviors Constraints and leadership behavior, 68, 84 guidelines for coping, 76–79 internal and external, 344 top executives, 344–346 Consultation about decisions, 174, 175, 181 guidelines for, 185–186 Contingency planning, 46, 79 Contingency theories, 39 evaluation of, 85 leadership substitutes theory, 80 LPC contingency model, 79 multiple-linkage model, 81–84 path-goal, 79–80 Contingent rewards, 236, 373 Cooperative relationships, 57, 429 Coordination, 25, 36, 46, 72, 82, 99, 113, 206, 280, 304, 307, 313, 343, 423, 430, 433 Core competencies, 146, 362 Core self-evaluation, 195, 198, 237 Counseling, upward, 299 Crisis management, 359, 364 Crisis situations role expectations in, 74 role of leader in, 107 Criteria of leadership effectiveness, 28–29, 40, 204, 237 see also Effective leadership Cross-cultural leadership collectivistic values and, 375–376 culture clusters, 378 547 548 Subject Index Cross-cultural leadership (continued ) differences in leadership behavior among countries, 372 on effects of leader behavior, 373 evaluation of cross-cultural research, 379–380 gender egalitarianism and, 376 humane orientation, 377 importance, 370 individualism and, 375–376 influences on leadership behavior, 371–372 performance and individual achievement, 376–377 power distance and, 374–375 research on, 370 uncertainty avoidance and, 375 Cross-cultural research, 370 on behavior differences, 372 on effects of leader behavior, 373 Cross-functional teams, 304–305 benefits and limitations of, 313–314 leadership behaviors needed in, 314–316 Cultural values collectivism, 289, 373–376 dimensions, 374 gender egalitarianism, 374, 376, 382 humane orientation, 374, 377 individualism, 289, 372, 374–376 performance orientation, 193, 374, 376–377 power distance, 257, 293, 373, 374–375, 378 uncertainty avoidance, 257, 374, 375 Culture value clusters, 378–379 D Decision acceptance, 102–103 groups, 323–324 models, 101–105 procedures, 118–119 quality, 103 support systems, 127 Decision making process disorderly nature of, 93–94 emotions and, 93 exposure and, 69 influence of intuition, 93 normative decision model, 101–105 political nature of, 93–94 routine, 95 subordinates, 98 Defensiveness, in managers, 283–284, 298 Delegation benefits from, 110–111 consequences of, 113 guidelines for, 113–117 reasons for lack of, 111–113 varieties of, 109–110 Demands on leaders, 68, 76–79 Derailed managers, 193, 206, 212–213 Descriptive theory, 39 Determinants of leader attributions, 282–283 Developing, 56–57 see also Leadership behaviors, developing subordinate skills Developmental assessment centers, 403–404 Developmental assignments, 404–405 Developmental readiness, 396, 411, 412, 418 Diffusion of knowledge, 150 Direct leadership, 25–26, 341 Discrimination, in leader selection, 382, 384, 387–388 Distributed leadership, 356–357 Diversity among taxonomies, 43 equal opportunity and, 390–391 fostering appreciation and tolerance for, 389–390 guidelines for managing, 389 team performance and member, 310 Diversity training programs, 389 Downward consultation, 98 Downward dyadic relationships, 279 Dyadic processes, 36 Dyadic relationships, 279 see also Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory E Effective leadership, 28–30, 439–440 criterion for, 28 findings about, 423–427 immediate and delayed outcomes, 29 indicators and measures of, 28 leadership positions and, 423 methods for studying, 30–31 multilevel perspective, 427–434 personality traits and skills related to, 425–426 Emotional appeals, 225 Emotional contagion, 226 Emotional intelligence, 209–211 Emotional language, 241 Emotional maturity, 192, 195, 197, 210, 216 Emotional stability, 211 Employee involvement programs see Empowerment, programs Empowering leadership, 43, 45, 92, 97, 118, 120–122, 261 Empowerment, 432–433 benefits of, 120–121 case study of the Moosewood Restaurant, 119 conditions facilitating psychological, 121 formal decision procedures and, 118–119 information sharing and, 119–120 programs, 118–120 psychological, 117–118 shared leadership responsibilities and, 119 Enabling leadership, 357 Energy level of leader, 195 Entrepreneurial behavior, 153 Environmental scanning, 358–359 Subject Index Equal opportunity, 281, 376, 384, 390–391 Ethical behavior influence of leaders on, 251 programs to promote, 269–270 in a social context, 256 values, impact on, 256 Ethical climate, 258, 263, 270 Ethical culture, 258, 270 Ethical dilemmas, 250, 252 Ethical leadership consequences, 258–259 defining, 251 dilemmas in assessing, 252–254 evaluation of, 266–268 guidelines for, 268–270 individual determinants of, 255–256 personal integrity and, 251–252 situational influences on, 256–258 vs charismatic and transformational leadership, 265–266 Ethnography, 380 Exchange relationships, 166, 276–281 Exchange tactics, 174, 175 guidelines for, 183 Executive coaching, 407–408 Executives see also Top executives competitive strategy development by, 359 constraints on, 345–346 environmental monitoring by, 358–359 Executive teams, 352–355 advantages of, 352–353 example of a study, 354–355 leadership of, 354 strategic decisions of, 353–354 Exemplification tactics, 290 Expectancy theory of motivation, 80 Expert power, 162–163, 170 agent’s knowledge and, 162 guidelines for using, 170 methods for gaining, 162 specialized knowledge and technical skill, 162 Exploitation and exploration, 148 Exposure, 69, 87, 106, 116, 289, 337, 406 External attributions, 282 External constraints, 344, 349, 362, 423 External coordination, 81–84, 307–308, 315, 320 External environment, 33, 46, 148, 163, 206–207, 215, 345–346, 424, 426 External monitoring, 45, 358–359 Extreme contexts critical action organizations, 74–76 extreme events, 74–76, 79, 88, 215 high-reliability organizations, 74–75 naïve organizations, 74 trauma organizations, 74, 75, 88 Extroversion, 192, 203 F Facilitating conditions, for leadership development criteria for developmental assignments, 414 learning climate, 413 psychological empowerment, 121 self-management, 295, 417 support by boss, 412 transformational leadership, 237 Feedback, 58, 140, 297, 408–409, 415–416, 435–436 380-degree, 339, 401–402 corrective, 283–285 effects of, 400 multisource, 401–403 Field experiments, 230–231, 435–436 Flexible leadership theory, 340 Follower-centered theory, 38–39 Followers, 27 attributions and implicit theories, 287–290 characteristics of, 32 contributions of, 292–294 determinants of attributions, 287–288 guidelines for, 296–299 impression management by, 172, 290–291 leader’s competence and, 289 perception of leader intentions, 288 Followership, 292–294 G Gender and leadership female advantage theory, 383 findings in research on gender differences, 385–386 gender stereotypes, 382–384, 386, 387 glass ceiling and, 383–384 identifying causes and reducing discrimination, 387–388 leader gender research, 388 limitations of research on gender differences, 386–387 male advantage theory, 382 sex-based discrimination, 382 Gender egalitarianism, 374, 376, 383 see also Cultural values Glass ceiling, 383–384 Glass cliff, 382–384 Globalization, 316 impact of, 370 Global leadership, 200, 369, 370, 373, 380–381 GLOBE project, 373–374 Group-centered leadership, 326 Group-level theories defined, 35–38 Group maintenance behavior, 325 Group maintenance functions, 325 Group potency, 309 Group processes, 310 549 550 Subject Index H Human capital, 337–339, 342, 430, 433 Humane orientation, 374, 377 see also Cultural values Human resource management programs, 430–431 I Implicit leadership theories, 289 Impression management tactics, 45, 172, 238, 290–291 by followers, 290–291 by leaders, 291–292 Inclusion, 370, 388–390, 392, 398 Indirect leadership, 25–26 Individualism, 272, 289, 372, 374–376 see also Cultural values Influence attempts, 24, 159, 172, 173–178, 179–182, 207, 293, 298, 425–426 based on reason or emotions, 25 idealized, 235 power and, 424–425 processes in charismatic and transformational leadership, 225–226, 236–237 Influence Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ), 173 Influence tactics, 424–425 guidelines for, 182–187 outcomes, 172–173 power and, 158–159 proactive, 173–178, 179–182 types of, 171–172 Information power, 163 skills and knowledge, 430 specialization, 431 Ingratiation behavior, 290 guidelines for, 183 tactics for, 173, 176 Initiating structure see Leadership behaviors Innovation collective learning and, 433–434 flexibility and, 151 goals for individuals and teams, 153 guidelines for enhancing, 150–153 organizational learning and, 146–153 Inspirational appeals guidelines for, 184–185 tactics for making, 174–175, 179 Inspirational motivation, 236 Institutionalization of power, 165 Instrumental leadership, 80 Integrity, 171, 199, 217, 260–261, 426 ethical leadership and, 251–252, 267 Intellectance, 203 Intellectual stimulation, 235 Intelligence emotional, 209–210 social, 210–211 Internal attribution, 282, 288 Internal constraints, 344, 349, 423 Internal coordination, 307–308 Internalization, 226 Internal locus of control orientation, 195–197, 211, 282 Interpersonal skills, 207–208, 314 of derailed managers, 212–213 of effective managers, 195, 217 Intimidating behavior, 78, 213, 328 Intra-individual processes, 34–36 Intra-individual theories, 35 J Job assignments, 396, 413 Job description research, 71 Joint decision, 45, 73, 96, 101–105 K Knowledge diffusion of, 150 dissemination, 152 external acquisition of, 147–148 sharing of, 97, 149–150, 152, 276 L Laissez-faire leadership, 236 Lateral consultation, 98 Lateral interdependence, 72–73, 82 Leader-centered theory, 38–39 Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory antecedents and consequences, 281 benefits to leader, 276 determinants and consequences of, 278–280 evaluation of, 280–281 high-quality exchange relationship, 276, 282 low-quality exchange relationship, 277, 282 negative effects of extreme differentiation, 281 research, 278 subordinate ratings of, 278 Leader selection, 118, 160 Leadership achievement-orientated, 201–202 across levels and subunits, 343–344 authentic, 259, 261, 263–265 definitions of, 22–27 direct, 25–26 by example, 243, 266 flexible, 340 follower contributions, 292–294 indirect, 25–26 laissez-faire, 236 management vs., 26 in meetings, 326–329 in self-managed teams, 319–320 shared leadership, 23–24, 356–357 Subject Index substitutes for, 67, 294 transactional, 235–237 transformational, 45, 237 Leadership behaviors, 308, 423–424 change-oriented behaviors, 44–45 charismatic leadership, 45, 224–226 clarification of roles and objectives, 47–49 consideration, 43–44 cultural influences on, 371–372 developing subordinate skills, 56–59 at different levels of abstraction, 43 different ways of situations affect, 66–67 diverse taxonomies of, 42–43 external, 45–46 external leadership behaviors, 45–46, 215 external monitoring, 45 followers contributions, 292–294 in groups, 425, 432 guidelines for action planning, 47 for improving external coordination and adaptation, 307–308 initiating structure, 43–44 inspirational leadership, 45 instrumental leadership, 44 leadership substitutes theory, 80 monitoring operations and performance, 49–52 networking, 45 participative leadership, 45 planning of work activities, 46–47 providing praise and recognition, 59–62 recognition ceremony, 59–62 relationship-oriented, 43–44, 54–62 representing, 45 responsibility for developing subordinates, 56–59 short-term planning of work activities, 46–47 supportive leadership, 54–56 task oriented and relations oriented behaviors, 43–44 taxonomies, 43 transformational leadership, 45, 235–236 visionary leadership, 45 Leadership development see also Facilitating conditions, for leadership development criteria for developmental assignments, 414 executive coaching for, 407–408 facilitating conditions for, 411–414 learning climate, 413 multisource feedback for, 401–403 for the organization, 416–417 personal growth programs, 410–411 psychological empowerment, 121 self-help activities for, 295, 417 support by boss, 412–413 systems perspective on, 414–417 transformational leadership, 237 Leadership effectiveness see Effective leadership Leadership research methods see Research methods Leadership substitutes theory, 80, 85 Leadership theories behavior approach, 33 descriptive vs prescriptive theory, 39 dyadic, 36 group-level, 35–37 intra-individual, 34–36 key variables, 32 leader-centered vs follower-centered theory, 38–39 level of conceptualization for, 34–38 multi-level, 38 organizational-level, 35, 37 power-influence approach defined, 33 situational approach defined, 33 substitutes for leadership, 80 trait approach defined, 31–32 transforming leadership, 259, 265 universal vs contingency theory, 39 values-based approach, 34 Leadership training programs, 396–398 design of, 397–398 desirable features, 397 effects of, 398 types, 396–397 Leader substitutes theory, 38 Leader traits achievement motivation, 201–202 Big Five personality traits, 203–205 on derailed managers, 212–213 emotional maturity and stability, 197–198 energy level and stress tolerance, 195 integrity, 199 locus of control orientation, 196–197 narcissism, 200–201 need for affiliation, 202–203 personalized power orientation, 198–199 related to leadership effectiveness, 195 self-confidence and, 195–196 types of, 193–194 Leading meetings, guidelines for, 326–329 Leading up, 77 Learning ability, 211 collective, 146–150, 240, 262, 310, 320, 322, 336, 433–434, 439 from experience, 203, 310, 322, 398–400, 405, 415 organization, 149–150 Learning climate, 413 Legitimate authority, 131, 159, 168, 177, 235 Legitimate power, 159–160, 289 acceptance of authority and, 160 compliance with, 160 guidelines for using, 168 influence processes, 159 manager’s scope of authority and, 160 Legitimating tactics, 174, 177, 183 Level of conceptualization, 34–35 551 552 Subject Index Levels of analysis, 37, 436 Locus of control orientation, 195–197, 211 LPC contingency model, 79 M Management as an authority relationship, 26–27 leadership vs., 26–27 level of, 70–71, 212–214 Managerial motivation, 198 Managerial roles constraints and demands, 67, 68, 84 in crisis situations and noncrisis situations, 73–74 external dependencies and, 72–73 level of management and, 70 relationships and, 68 situational determinants, 70–76 size of organizational unit and, 71–72 work pattern and, 69 Managerial skills conceptual, 206–207 interpersonal, 207–208 situational relevance of skills, 211–215 technical, 205–206 Managerial traits achievement orientation, 201–202, 211 affiliation need, 202 attributes included in trait approach, 31–32, 192 Big Five personality traits, 203–205 emotional maturity and stability, 197 energy level and stress tolerance, 195 internal locus of control, 196–197 narcissism, 200–201 personal integrity, 199 power motivation, 198 self-confidence, 195–196 Managerial work crisis situations and, 73–74 decision processes in, 93 job description research on, 71 lateral interdependence and, 72–73 and levels of management, 70–71 management guidelines for, 76–79 Mediating variables, 67, 81 Mental models, 151 Mentoring programs, 406–407 Mission statement, 142 Monitoring operations and performance see Leadership behaviors Moral intensity, 256, 257 Multi-level explanatory processes, 427–434 theories, 38 Multi-level theories, 38 Multiple-linkage model, 81–84 long-term behaviors and group performance, 84 mediating variables, 81 short-term actions for improving weak performance, 83 short-term behaviors and group performance, 83–84 situational variables influencing mediating variables, 81–83 Multiple stakeholders, 253–254 Multisource feedback programs, 401–403 Mutual trust, 27, 36, 43, 81, 103, 113, 240, 278, 308–309, 337, 353, 424–426, 429, 439 N Narcissism, 200–201 Narcissistic Personality Inventory, 200 Needs of leaders see also Leader traits for achievement, 111, 201, 204 for affiliation, 202, 216 for esteem, 216 for independence, 216 for power, 198–199, 202, 204, 216 Negative charismatics, 227–228 Networking, process of, 45, 230 Neutralizer(s), 80 Nominal group technique, 328 Normative decision model, 101–105, 397 causal relationships, 104 decision acceptance, 102 decision procedures in, 101 decision quality, 103 decision rules, 103–104 effect of participation on decision quality, 103 simplified version, 105 situational variables in, 103 Vroom-Jago model, 103 Vroom-Yetton model, 101–103 O Open-mindedness, 211 Openness to learning, 203 Organizational change approaches to implementing, 132–136 guidelines for implementing, 136–141 influence of vision, 141–146 managerial skills, 215 process, 128–130 reasons for accepting/rejecting, 130–132 types, 127–128 Organizational culture challenges in changing, 348 functions of, 346 leader influence on, 347–348 performance of an organization and, 347 Organizational cynicism about change, 132 Subject Index Organizational diagnosis, 132 Organizational learning approach for diffusing new knowledge, 148–149 distinction between exploration and exploitation, 148 external acquisition of knowledge, 147–148 guidelines for enhancing, 150–153 internal creation of knowledge, 147 learning organization, 149–150 Organizational memory, 153 Organizational performance, determinants of adaptation to environment, 336 competitive strategy, 338 efficiency, 336–337 human resources, 337 improvement programs, 338–340 leader influence, 340–341 management systems, 338–340 process reliability, 337 structural forms, 338–340 top executive influence, 343–346 Organizations charismatic leaders and, 234 executive teams in, 352–355 learning, 149–150 performance determinants, 336–340 transferability of skills across, 214 P Participation benefits of, 97–99 development of skills relevant to, 98 guidelines to encourage, 107–109, 328 objectives for using, 98 types of, 95–96 Participative leadership, 45 effects of, 99–100 guidelines for, 105–109 normative decision model, 101–105 objectives for participants, 98 potential benefits, 97–99 power distance and, 374 types, 95–96 Passive management by exception, 235–236 Path-goal theory, 79–80 Performance deficiencies, guidelines for correcting, 283–287 Performance determinants, 133, 351 leader influence, 340–344 of team, 305–310 Performance orientation, 193, 216, 374, 376–377 see also Cultural values Performance strategies, 306, 310–311, 315 Personal appeals, 174, 176–177, 180–181, 183 Personal growth programs, 410–411 Personal identification, 161 Personal integrity, 171, 199, 217, 260–261, 426 ethical leadership and, 251–252, 266 Personality traits and effective leadership, 194–205 achievement motivation, 201–202 achievement orientation, 201–202 “Big Five,” 203–205 emotional stability and maturity, 197 energy level and stress tolerance, 195 exchange relationship and, 278 narcissism, 200–201 need for affiliation, 202 personal integrity, 199 power motivation, 198 self-confidence, 195–196 Personalized power, orientation, 198–200 Planned change, 128, 134, 135, 155 developmental change, 128 transformational change, 128 transitional change, 128 Planning action, 46–47, 115, 138, 186, 202 contingency, 46 informal and adaptive, 94 operational, 46 short-term, 46–47 of work activities, 46–47 Political skill(s), 208–209, 211, 218, 234, 314, 386 Political tactics, 172 Positive charismatics, 227–228 Potency, 309, 432 Power of agent over target person, 158 coercive, 161 concept of, 158 consequences of, 165–167 expert, 162–163 guidelines for using, 167–171 influence behavior and, 178–179 see also Influence tactics information, 163 institutionalization of, 165 legitimate, 159–160, 167, 289 personal, 159 political, 166 position, 159 referent, 161–162 reward, 160–161 social exchange theory, 164 sources of, 158–163 strategic contingencies theory, 164–165 Power distance, 257, 293, 373–375, 378 see also Cultural values Power-influence approach defined, 33 Power motivation see Leader traits Prescriptive theory defined, 39 Pressure tactics, 174, 177 553 554 Subject Index Proactive influence tactics, 171–172, 173–182 apprising, 174–175 coalition partners and, 180 coalition tactics, 174, 177 collaboration, 174, 175–178 consultation, 174, 175 effectiveness, 179–182 exchange tactics, 173, 175 ingratiation, 173, 176 inspirational appeals, 174, 175 legitimating tactics, 174, 177–178 personal appeals, 174, 176–177 pressure tactics, 174, 177 rational persuasion, 173–174 to resist influence attempts, 182 Problem solving delegation, effect of, 114 guidelines for, 52, 283–287 participation, effect of, 102 role of leaders in, 268, 433–434 traits and skills for, 193–194, 195, 206–207, 425 Procedural justice, 98, 262 Process analysis sessions, 320 Procrastination, 78 Profiles of Organizational Influence Strategies (POIS), 173 Project management skills, 314 Project objectives, 143 Proprietary knowledge, 153 Psychological empowerment, 117–118 defining elements, 117 Pygmalion effect, 242 R Rational persuasion, 173–174 guidelines for, 182–183 Reactive influence tactics, guidelines for, 78 Reason, influence based on, 25 Reasoning, deductive, 206 Recognizing, 59–62 entrepreneurial behavior, 153 guidelines for, 60–62 Referent power, 161–162 guidelines for using, 171 strongest form of, 161 Reflective planning, guidelines for, 79 Relational attributions, 283 Relational leadership see Leadership theories Relationship-oriented leadership behavior see Leadership behaviors Relationships, patterns of, 68, 206 see also Dyadic relationships cooperative relationships, 197, 205, 206, 207–210, 213 networking, 45 Requests for transfer, 28 Research methods, 30–31, 33, 44, 50, 85, 88, 173, 192, 194, 230, 271, 295, 317, 318, 349, 382, 422, 434, 438 case studies, 30, 52, 101, 129–130, 230, 349 critical incidents, 435 descriptive studies, 56, 93, 234, 349–350, 423 experimental research, 113, 382 field experiments, 230–231 implicit measures, 30 laboratory experiments, 33, 85, 101, 167, 230–231, 278, 435 level of analysis, 436 methodological issues, 437–438 qualitative research methods, 357, 434–435 quantitative research methods, 434–435 social network research, 30, 45, 71, 355 survey research, 30, 60, 113, 173, 290, 380, 434, 436 Resistance, 169, 172, 181, 373 to change, 130–132, 186, 297, 343, 424 to influence attempts, 181 Return on development investment (RODI), 395–396 Reward power, 160–161 authority relationship and, 160 guidelines for using, 168–169 source of, 161 tangible benefits and, 160 target person’s perception of, 160 upward, 161 Rituals, 139, 226, 309, 321, 330, 339, 348, 429 Role-centered approach, to change, 127 Role clarity, 81, 306 Role expectations, 76, 306, 423 clarifying, 47–49 in crisis situations, 74 gender and, 376, 383, 386 for leaders, 67, 289 Role interdependence, 86, 304, 431 Role modeling, 237, 243 S Scenarios, 173, 207, 363 Scope of authority, 159–160 Self-awareness, 215 authentic leadership and, 263–265 emotional, 209–210 emotional maturity and, 197 enhancement of, 217 Self concepts, 193 Self-confidence, 49, 78, 99, 185, 195, 201, 231, 238, 293, 320, 399, 426 building subordinate, 114, 116, 286 and change process, 129 defined, 195 Subject Index leadership effectiveness and, 195–196 strategies to build, 294–295 supporting behavior for improving, 55–56 Self-determination, 117–118 Self-development, 35, 57, 217, 263, 299, 396, 413, 417, 418 Self-efficacy, 226, 238, 431–432 Self-esteem, 193, 204 Self-fulfillment, 117 Self-help activities, 415 Self identities, 193 Self-improvement, 197 Self-leadership, 294 Self-managed work teams, 317–320 Self-management effects of, 295 strategies, 294 things to encourage and facilitate, 295 Self-monitoring, 210 Self-objectivity, 197 Self-promotion, 290 Self-reported career achievements, 211 Self-serving bias of subordinates, 282 Self-talk, as cognitive strategy, 294 Servant leadership, 260–262 Shared leadership, 356–357 Shared mental models, 306, 310 Short-term planning, of work activities, 46 Simple request, 178, 179, 181 Simulations, 408–409 Situational approach, 32 Situational moderator variable, 67, 80, 211 Skills of leaders, 193, 430 ability to learn from experience, 215 behavioral flexibility, 215 cognitive, 314 cognitive complexity, 215 conceptual, 206–207 cultural sensitivity, 215 empathy, 215 interpersonal, 207–208, 314 oral communication ability, 207 political, 314 project management, 314 required for leading cross-functional project teams, 314 self-awareness, 215 situational relevance, 211–215 systems thinking, 215 team performance and, 306 technical, 205–206 Social capital, 337 Social exchange theory, 164 Social identification, 225–226, 238, 429 Social identities, 193 Social intelligence, 210–211 Socialized power orientation, 198, 201, 228, 255, 425–426 Social perceptiveness, 210 Social skills see Interpersonal skills Spiritual leadership, 262–263, 271 Stakeholders involvement in developing vision, 144–146 multiple, 253–254 Strategic contingencies theory, 164–165 Strategic decisions, 84, 94, 115, 212, 240, 243, 343–344, 350–354, 363, 414, 424–425, 429 Strategic fitness process (SFP), 134, 135 Strategic human resource management, 337, 339, 340, 363, 369 Strategic leadership effects of CEO leadership, 349–351 by executive teams, 353–354 guidelines for, 360–363 situations affecting, 344–346 Strategic objectives, 142 Strategic planning, 358–359, 361 Strategy formulation, 359, 363 Stress associated with change, 130 guidelines for coping, 139–140 interpersonal, 214 tolerance of, 195 Subgroups fault lines, 311 identity-based subgroups, 311 knowledge-based subgroups, 311, 330 resource-based subgroups, 311 Subordinate, 27 Substitutes for leadership, 81 Succession planning, 339, 405, 414–416, 430 Succession research, 349 Supportive leadership, 54–56 guidelines, 55–56 impact on subordinates, 55 stress and, 55 Surgency, 203 Symbolic action, 225–226, 243 Symbolic changes, 138–139, 154 Symbols, 139, 146, 160, 225, 226, 236, 241, 309, 330, 346, 348, 413, 428 Systems dynamics, 135–136 Systems perspective, on leadership development, 414–417 Systems thinking, 133, 152, 215, 314 T Target person see Influence tactics Task forces, to implement change, 137–138 Task-oriented behavior see Leadership behaviors Team(s) characteristics of, 305 cross-functional, 313–317 determinants of performance, 305–311 executive, 352–355 555 556 Subject Index Team(s) (continued ) functional work, 312 guidelines for leading, 320–323 self-managed work, 317–320 top management, 343, 345, 352–353, 357, 359, 363 virtual, 316–317 Team building, 309, 312, 320, 330 Team performance cause-effect relationships and, 310 cohesiveness and, 308 collective efficacy and, 309–310 commitment to task objectives and, 306 cooperation and, 307 external coordination and, 307–308 group processes and, 310 level of cooperation and mutual trust and, 308–309 member diversity and, 310 member skills and, 306–307 political support and, 308 resources and, 308 role clarity and, 306 Technical skills, 205–206 Time management guidelines, 77 Top executives constraints on, 344 decisions and actions, 349–350 and environment uncertainty and crises, 345–346 external monitoring responsibility, 358–359 influence on culture, 347–348 role in developing competitive strategy, 359 skill requirements of, 212 succession research, 349 survey studies, 350–351 technical skill requirements of, 212 Training programs business games and simulations, 408–410 desirable features, 397 developmental activities, 400–411 developmental assessment centers, 403–404 developmental assignments, 404–405 executive coaching, 407–408 leadership, 396–397 learning from experience, 398–400 mentoring programs, 406–407 multisource feedback programs, 401–403 personal growth programs, 410–411 Trait approach defined, 31 Trait-oriented leadership theories, 31 constraints on executives, 344 derailed managers, 212–213 evaluation, 215–216 findings in trait research, 194 guidelines for managers, 216–217 individual attributes, 192 managerial competencies, 209–211 personality traits and effective leadership, 194–205 research on leader traits and skills, 193–194 situational relevance of skills, 211–215 skills and effective leadership, 205–209 Transformational change, 128 Transformational leadership, 45 change-oriented components of, 237 comparison with charismatic leadership, 237–239 guidelines for, 241–243 influence processes, 236–237 leader behaviors, 235–236 leadership situation, 237 Transforming leadership see Leadership theories Transforming leadership theory, 259–265 Two-stage attribution model, 281–282 Type A personality, 202 U Uncertainty avoidance, 257, 374–375 see also Cultural values Universal theory defined, 39 Upward coaching, 299 Upward consultation, 99 Upward dyadic relationship, 279 V Values, 184, 192, 216 change process and, 131 cultural, 107, 128, 151, 237, 256, 270, 289, 293, 340, 346, 371–372, 374, 416 gender egalitarianism and, 382 leadership and, 374–380 psychological empowerment and, 117–118 shared, 145, 154 Values-based approach defined, 34 Values-based leadership, 259–265, 267, 271 theories, 259–265 vs charismatic and transformational leadership, 265–266 Value statement, 142 Virtual teams, 316–317 Vision appealing, 224–225 effects of, 143–144 guidelines for developing, 144–146 inspirational, 226, 236 and organizational change, 141–146 shared values and ideals, 145 stakeholders involvement in developing, 144–145 Vroom-Jago model, 103 Vroom-Yetton model, 101–104 W Women see Gender and leadership This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank ... Producer, Global Editions: Nitin Shankar Acquisitions Editor, Global Editions: Ishita Sinha Senior Project Editor, Global Editions: Daniel Luiz Manufacturing Controller, Production, Global Editions:... as one increases, others decrease For example, increasing sales and market share (e.g., by reducing price and increasing advertising) may result in lower profits Likewise, an increase in production... subordinate (e.g., by providing more benefits) may create perceptions of inequity by other subordinates Efforts to empower individual subordinates may create problems in achieving coordination