Introduction to Health Physics FM.indd 30-03-2017 12:21:57 Notice Medicine is an ever-changing science As new research and clinical experience broaden our knowledge, changes in treatment and drug therapy are required The authors and the publisher of this work have checked with sources believed to be reliable in their efforts to provide information that is complete and generally in accord with the standards accepted at the time of publication However, in view of the possibility of human error or changes in medical sciences, neither the author nor the publisher nor any other party who has been involved in the preparation or publication of this work warrants that the information contained herein is in every respect accurate or complete, and they disclaim all responsibility for any errors or omissions or for the results obtained from use of the information contained in this work Readers are encouraged to confirm the information contained herein with other sources For example and in particular, readers are advised to check the product information sheet included in the package of each drug they plan to administer to be certain that the information contained in this work is accurate and that changes have not been made in the recommended dose or in the contraindications for administration This recommendation is of particular importance in connection with new or infrequently used drugs FM.indd 30-03-2017 12:21:57 Introduction to Health Physics Fifth Edition Thomas E Johnson, PhD Professor Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado New York Chicago San Francisco Athens London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi Singapore Sydney Toronto FM.indd 30-03-2017 12:21:58 Copyright © 2017 by McGraw-Hill Education All rights reserved Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or 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to the memory of Dr Elda E Anderson and Dr Thomas Parran To my wife, Melissa and to the memory of Dr Herman Cember “And whatever you do, in word or in deed, everything in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him.” FM.indd 30-03-2017 12:21:58 This page intentionally left blank FM.indd 30-03-2017 12:21:58 Contents Preface/xi INTRODUCTION/1 REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES/3 Mechanics/3 Relativistic Effects Review/7 Electricity/12 Energy Transfer/26 Quantum Theory/43 Summary/50 Problems/52 Suggested Readings/56 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE/57 Atomic Structure/57 The Nucleus/70 Summary/77 Problems/77 Suggested Readings/79 RADIATION SOURCES/81 Radioactivity/81 Transformation Mechanisms/81 Transformation Kinetics/95 Activity/101 Naturally Occurring Radiation/107 Serial Transformation/117 Summary/133 Problems/135 Suggested Readings/139 vii FM.indd 30-03-2017 12:21:59 viii C Chapter ontents INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER/141 Beta Particles (Beta Rays)/141 Alpha Particles/159 Gamma Rays/165 Neutrons/181 Summary/196 Problems/197 Suggested Readings/203 RADIATION DOSIMETRY/205 Units/205 External Exposure/207 Internally Deposited Radionuclides/236 External Exposure: Neutrons/270 Summary/275 Problems/276 Suggested Readings/281 BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR RADIATION SAFETY/285 Dose–Response Characteristics/286 The Physiological Basis for Internal Dosimetry/291 Radiation Effects: Deterministic/312 Radiation Effects: Stochastic/321 Radiation-Weighted Dose Units: The Sievert and The Rem/337 Summary/338 Problems/339 Suggested Readings/340 RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES/345 Organizations That Set Standards/345 Philosophy of Radiation Safety/350 ICRP Basic Radiation Safety Criteria/354 United States Nuclear Regulatory Program/423 Ecological Radiation Safety/437 Summary/440 Problems/440 Suggested Readings/442 HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION/447 FM.indd Radiation Detectors/447 Particle-Counting Instruments/448 Dose-Measuring Instruments//467 Neutron Measurements/485 30-03-2017 12:21:59 Review of Physical Principles contents ix Calibration/498 Counting Statistics/506 Summary/528 Problems/528 Suggested Readings/533 10 EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY/535 Basic Principles/535 Optimization/597 Summary/600 Problems/601 Suggested Readings/604 11 INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY/607 Internal Radiation/607 Principles of Control/608 Surface Contamination Limits/616 Waste Management/617 Assessment of Hazard/643 Optimization/652 Summary/655 Problems/656 Suggested Readings/659 12 CRITICALITY/663 Criticality Hazard/663 Nuclear Fission/663 Criticality/669 Nuclear Reactor/675 Criticality Control/679 Summary/686 Problems/686 Suggested Readings/688 13 EVALUATION OF RADIATION SAFETY MEASURES/691 FM.indd Medical Surveillance/691 Estimation of Internally Deposited Radioactivity/692 Individual Monitoring/706 Radiation and Contamination Surveys/706 Air Sampling/711 Continuous Environmental Monitoring/733 Combined Exposures/733 Source Control/735 30-03-2017 12:21:59 912 index C 14C, see Carbon-14 Cadmium ratio, 504 Calibration, 498–506 accuracy, 505–6 alpha particles, 500–501, 501t beta particles, 500, 501t gamma rays, 499–500 neutrons, 501–5, 502f, 503f, 503t Californium-252, 181, 183, 185t, 618t Canadian Atomic Energy Authority, 350 Cancer, 288, 323–332 atomic bomb survivor mortality, 324t BEIR VII risk estimate, 324t, 328, 332–35, 334t bone, 328–29 deaths due to, 351 incidence among atomic bomb survivors, 324t leukemia, 326–28, 327f lung, 329–331 microwave radiation and, 804 probability of causation, 325–26 risk estimates, 333–35 skin, 325 thyroid, 307–8, 331–32 Candela, Capacitor, 39–40 Capillaries, 295 Capsule, 310 Capture reactions, 194 Carbon, atomic weight of, 71 Carbon-14, 107–8, 134 half-life of, 108 specific activity of, 104 Index.indd 912 Cardiac angiography, 555, 568–69 Cardiac muscle, 302 Cascade impactor, 721f, 722, 722f Cataracts, 317–18 Catecholamines, 308 Cavity ionization chamber, 219–220, see also ion chamber CEDE, see Committed effective dose equivalent Cell body, 306f Cells, 293 blood, 295–96 ciliated, 298 goblet, 298 nerve, 305, 306f osteoblasts, 302 stem, 295 Center for Radiological Health and Devices (CRHD), 764 Centigray (cGy), 216 Central nervous system (CNS), 305 Cerenkov detector, 463 Cerium, 373 Cesium-137, 94, 94f, 229t ALI calculation, 360, 377, 382 compton edge, 459 DAC calculation, 406 decay scheme, 94 dose coefficient, 405t fission product, 680t, 682t, 683f gamma spectrum, 462f instrument response, 469f, 470, 481, 708f, 709t internal conversion, 94 secular equilibrium, 95 SEE, 361, 362t, 378, 381t specific gamma ray emission constant, 229t waste, 243, 621t whole body, 267, 703 Characteristic X-rays, 66–69, 67f, 68t, 82t, 93 iodine escape peak, 462 Charged bodies, 12–15 Charged particle equilibrium, 210 Charged particles, 12–15, 51, see also Electrons; Protons; Quarks Chelation therapy, 320 Chernobyl disaster, 331–32 Chi-square, 526–28, 527t Chlorine, isotopes of, 71 Cl-36 cross section, 272, 272t Cl-36 calibration source, 501t Choroid, 309f, 310 Chromoim-51, 229t Chromosomal breakage, 322 Chyme, 301 Cilia, 298 Ciliary “escalator,” 298 Downloaded by [ NYU School of Medicine 128.122.230.148] at [09/27/17] Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC Not to be redistributed or modified in any way without permission Bowman’s capsule, 304, 305f Bragg, Sir William Henry, 163 Bragg-Gray principle, 219–222 Bragg peak, 163 Brain, 305 Braking radiation, 153, see also Bremsstrahlung Breathing, 298 Breathing frequency (fR), 299, 848, see also Respiratory rate Bremsstrahlung, 59, 90, 135, 153–55, 196 spectrum from beta radiation, 154t X-rays, 153–55 Broad beam geometry, 544–45, 545f, 547f Bronchus, 298 Brownian motion, 63, 370 Bubble dosimeter, neutron, 496–98 Buildup factor (B), 545–46, 548f Bulk transport, 292 By-product material, 423 31-03-2017 13:54:00 index 913 Index.indd 913 Confinement control of sources, 608–12 Confirmatory monitoring, 693 Connective tissue, 295 Conservation of energy, 175 Conservation of momentum, law of, 84 Contamination surface, 709–10 surface limits, 616–17, 619t Contamination surveys, 706–11 Continuous environmental monitoring, 733, 734f Continuous wave (CW) laser, 757 Control principles, 608–16 confinement, 608–12 environmental control, 612 protective clothing, 613 respiratory protection, 614–16 Coolidge, William D., 156 Cornea, 309, 309f Corpuscular radiation, 245 Corpus luteum, 309 Correction factor for decay, 97 Cortical bone, 302, 421 Cosmic radiation, 13 Cosmic ray intensity, 117 Cosmogenic radioactivity, 107–8 Coster-Kronig effect, 69 Coulomb (C), 12–15, 51 Coulomb per kilogram (C/kg), 481 Coulomb potential, 83f Coulomb’s law, 13, 14 Coulomb’s law constant, 60, 836 Counting statistics, 506–28 chi-square, 526–28 difference between means, 515–17 distributions, 507–15 minimum detectable activity, 517–522 optimization of counting time, 522–24 weighted means, 524–25 Counting time optimization, 522–24 Count median diameter (CMD), 723–725 Cranial nerves, 305 Cretinism, 307 Critical mass, 684t Criticality, 663–690 accidental, 664 control, 663, 679–686 dosimeter, 486, 488f hematologic effects, 314 measure of, 669–675 nuclear fission, 663–68 nuclear reactor, 675–79 Crooke’s tube, 128 Cross section of absorber, 168 CT dose index (CTDI), 570–71 Cumulative activity (Ã), 252, 265–66 absorbed dose per unit, 261t–64t Downloaded by [ NYU School of Medicine 128.122.230.148] at [09/27/17] Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC Not to be redistributed or modified in any way without permission Ciliated epithelium, 298 Circuit, 39–40, 39f Circulatory system, 295–96, 295f Class D aerosols, 375, 405t Classical electromagnetic theory, 58–59 Classical theory, 58–59 Classical wave theory, 43, 44 Class W aerosols, 375, 405t Class Y aerosols, 375, 405t Clearance model of HRTM, 386 CNS syndrome, 315 Cobalt-60, 96 ALI, 431, 703t DAC, 434 decay scheme, 102f gamma-ray emission constant, 229t instrument response, 458f, 473f, 477f, 708f, 709t IRF, 703t, 704t production, 194t, 315, 486t waste, 621 Cochlea, 311 Code of Conduct in the Safety and Security of Radioactive Sources, 735 Code of Federal Regulations, 357 Coefficient of variation (CV), 511 Coherent light beam, 754 Collection efficiency, 627 Collective dose, 351 Collision dose, see First collision dose Collisions elastic, 26–28, 27f inelastic, 28–30, 29f Colon, 301–2 Color force, 70 Combined exposures, 733–34 Commercial lead sheets, 565t Commissiarat d’Energie Nucleaire, 350 Committed effective dose equivalent (CEDE), 381–82, 405, 431, 436, 647, 697, 702 Compartmental model of HRTM, 389f, 391f, 392f, 414t Compound nucleus, 183 “Compton edge” in scintillation spectrometry, 458, 459, 460, 462f Compton effect, 170, 213–14 Compton electron, 196, 458 Compton scattering, 44, 173, 174–78, 174f, 178f, 179f, 180–81, 196, 219 Computed axial tomography (CAT, CT), 569–575, 570f, 573f, 574f Concentration control, 684 Conceptus (embryo/fetus), 358 Concrete shielding, 564f, 567, 586f, 589t Conduction current, 39 Cones, in retina, 310 Confidence interval, 509t 31-03-2017 13:54:00 914 index D D, see Class D aerosols DAC, see Derived air concentration Dalton (Da), 71 Davisson and Germer experiment, 48–49 DC, see Dose coefficient Dead time, 455, 456f, see also resolving time de Broglie wavelength, 46–48, 52 Decay rate constant, 97, 99–100 Decision level (Lc), 517–18 Decontamination factor, 627 Deep dose equivalent (DDE), 346 Deep respiratory tract, 298 “Dees,” 130 Degree of control, radiological safety, 608 “Delay and decay” method, 623–24 Delayed critical condition, 677 Delayed effects, of radiation, 320–21 Delayed neutrons, 676 Delta ray, 147 Dendrites, 306, 306f Density, 887–893, 895–901, 908 Density thickness, 142–43 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 321–22, 321f Department of Energy (DOE), 350, 425, 470 surface contamination limits, 619t Department of Energy Laboratory Accreditation Program (DOELAP), 470 Depletion layer, 465 Deposition model of HRTM, 386 Derived air concentration (DAC), 406, 427–28, 428–431, 643, 644 DAC-hour, 406, 434, 643 particle size and, 428–29 Derived consideration reference levels (DCRLs), 438, 439f Derived investigation levels (DILs), 693 Dermis, 303, 304 Detection reactions, neutron, 485–88 Deterministic (nonstochastic) effects, 286–87, 312–321, 338, 353 Detriment, 332 Deuterons, 133 Diabetes insulin-dependent (Type 1), 308 non-insulin-dependent (Type 2), 308 Diamagnetic, 34 Diastole, 296 Dielectric coefficient/relative permittivity of a substance, Ke, 13–14 Dielectric heating, 794 Index.indd 914 Dielectric loss, 817 Dielectrics, 13, 14, 39–40 Difference between means, 515–17 Differential scattering coefficient, 179f Diffusion gas, 292–93, particle, 370, 370t Diffusion coefficient, neutron, 190t Digestive system, 299–302 Dioctylphthalate (DOP) particles, 610 Dipole probe with a thermocouple, 805 Direct action, radiobiology, 289–290 Dirty bomb, 735 Discharged radioactivity, ground-level distribution of, 627 Displacement current, 39–40 Distributions, 508f binomial, 507 normal, 508–10, 509f, 509t Poisson, 510–11 Divergence, laser beam, 759 DNA molecules, 321–22, 321f Dose, 223 absorbed, 205–7, 223, 225, 225f, 261t–64t, 275–76 beta, from surface contamination, 231–33 beta submersion, 233–35 CEDE see Committed effective dose equivalent collective, 351 commitment, 239–240 constraints, 426 deep, 346 dosimetry, 194, 808–11 doubling, 322, 323t, 335 effective, 347, 356–57 equivalent, 337 exposure-dose relationship, 215–19 first collision, 271 hot particle, 315–16 limitation system, 352–54 limits, 425–26, 426t, 553 lung, 395–96 maximum acceptable, 353 medical internal radiation dose methodology (MIRD), 244–268 optimization, 652–55 public, 430 radiation, from internally deposited emitters, 236–37 shallow, 229, 304, 346 skin, 229, 234 TEDE see Total effective dose equivalent tissue dose rate vs distance, 316t tolerance, 346 total, 239–240 tracking, 431–33 whole body, 322, 470, 821 Dose coefficient (DC), 358, 359, 404–5, 405t Downloaded by [ NYU School of Medicine 128.122.230.148] at [09/27/17] Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC Not to be redistributed or modified in any way without permission Curie (Ci), 102, 134 Cyclotron, 130–33, 131f, 135 31-03-2017 13:54:00 index 915 E Ear, 311–12, 311f Ecological radiation safety, 437–440 Effective chimney height, 634 Effective dose, 347, 356–57 Effective dose equivalent (EDE), 347 Effective elimination constant, 238, 239 Effective energy per transformation, 249, 250–51 Effective half-life, 238–39 Index.indd 915 Effective multiplication factor (keff ), 669 Effluent concentration, limits on, 429–431 Einstein, Albert, 7, 9–10, 51, 63, 370 Elastic collision, 26–28, 27f fast neutron, 271 Elastic scattering, neutron, 188–89 Electret ion chambers (EICs), 731 Electrical current, 18–19 Electrical potential, 15–18, 16f, 51 quantitative aspects of, 15–16 the volt, 15–18 Electrical properties, of human muscle and fat, 800t Electric charge, 12–15 Electric field, 19f, 21–26, 22f, 23f, 51, see also electromagnetic fields nonuniform, 24, 25f uniform, 24, 24f Electric field intensity, 22–24, 805 Electricity, 12–26 ampere, 18–19 coulomb, 12–15 electron volt, 19–21 magnetism and, 32–33, 35 volt, 15–18 Electromagnetic fields, 51, 791, 805, 809, 810f, 813t, 814t Electromagnetic radiation/ electromagnetic fields, 35, 41–43, 44, 51 Electromagnetic spectrum, 36–37, 37f, 43, 51 Electromagnetic theory, 43–52, 64–65, 128 Electromagnetic waves, 32–43, 36f, 51 Electron capture, 82t, 91, 92–93 Electronic dosimeters, 480–81, 480f Electronic equilibrium, 210, 220, 222, 223–24, 225f Electrons, 12, 13, 14, 51, 58, 77 Auger, 69, 69t, 82t, 95 bound, 63 Compton, 196, 458 gravitational force between protons and, 15 kinetic energy of, 159 mass of, 72 wave nature of, 48–49, 49f Electron spin resonance, 64, 65 Electron volt (eV), 5–6, 19–21, 51, 159 Elemental composition of tissues, 846 Elements atomic weight of, 71 periodic table of, 65–66, 837–840 Elliptical orbits, 64 Embryo, see Conceptus Emergent irradiance, 767 Emergent radiant exposures, 767 Endocrine system, 306–8 Endolympth, 311 Endosteum, 302 Downloaded by [ NYU School of Medicine 128.122.230.148] at [09/27/17] Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC Not to be redistributed or modified in any way without permission Dose commitment, 240 Dose conversion factor (DCF), 230–31, 235, 383, 427 Dose equivalent, 338 Dose-equivalent meter, 494–96 Dose-limitation system, 352–54 Dose-measuring instruments, 467–485, 468f, 469f electronic dosimeters, 480–81 film-badge dosimeters, 472–75 neutron dosimeters, 477–78 optically stimulated luminescence, 478–79 personal monitoring, 469–470 pocket dosimeters, 470–72 survey meters, 481–85 thermoluminescent dosimeters, 475–78 Dose-response characteristics, 286–291 initiating mechanisms of radiogenic effects, 289–291 Dose-response curves, 287–88, 287f, 333, 352 alternative, 328f linear, zero-threshold, 288–89 Dose response functions (DRFs), 422 Dose-response relationship, Dosimeters electronic, 480–81, 480f film-badge, 472–75, 473f, 474f neutron, 477–78, 477f optically stimulated, 478–79 optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), 478–79, 479f pocket, 470–72, 472f, 488f superheated emulsion (bubble), 496–98 thermoluminescent, 475–78, 476f Dosimetric model for bone, 416–422, 422t of HRTM, 392–96, 415f ICRP 30, 421–22 ICRP 130 skeletal, 422 Doubling dose, 322, 323t, 335 Down quarks, 70 Drinking water limits, 425t Duane-Hunt law, 158 Duastole, 296 Dusts, 609, 627 31-03-2017 13:54:00 916 index Index.indd 916 Equilibrium charged particle, 210 electronic, 210, 220, 222, 223–24, 225f secular, 117–122, 120f, 134 transient, 123–28, 126f, 134 Equilibrium wall thickness, 213 Equivalent dose (ED), 337 Ergs, 5, 50 Erythrocytes, 295–96 Even-even nuclei, 74 Even-odd nuclei, 74 Excess absolute risk (EAR), 323 Excess reactivity, 675–76 Excess relative risk (ERR), 323, 324t Excitation, 62–63, 147–153, 196 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV), 299, 300t Exponential absorption, gamma rays, 165–173 Exposure-dose relationship, 215–19 Exposure measurement air wall chamber, 211–15 dose conversion, 218 free air chamber, 209–11 Exposure unit, 207–8 Extended source, laser, 773, 774f External exposure, 276 absorbed dose measurement, 219–222 beta dose from surface contamination, 231–33 beta radiation, 228–29 beta skin contamination, 229–231 beta submersion dose, 233–35 beta volume source, 235–36 exposure-dose relationship, 215–19 exposure measurement, 209–15 kerma, 222–26 neutrons, 270–75 source strength, 226–28 X- and gamma radiation, 207–9 Extracellular fluids, 294 Extranuclear electrons, 75 Eyes, 309–11 acute radiation effects, 317–18 biomedical effects of UV radiation, 750 cataracts, 317–18 damage from lasers, 760–61 mean pupil diameter, 310t MPEs to laser beam, 764t protection from lasers, 762–64, 777–783 retinal damage thresholds, 761t structure, 309–11, 309f F F, see Type F aerosols False negatives (Type error), 518 False positives (Type error), 518 Downloaded by [ NYU School of Medicine 128.122.230.148] at [09/27/17] Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC Not to be redistributed or modified in any way without permission Energy, 5–7 binding, 29, 72–74, 73f, 77 defined, kinetic, 6, 10–11, 26–30, 50–51 mass and, 9–10, 50–51 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of, 186f nuclear, 11–12 of photon, 46, 60 potential, 6, 15–19, 19f, 50 reactive, 791 rest, 9–10 total, units of, 5–6, 19–21 work and, 5–7 Energy absorption coefficient, 181 mass, 182t, 895–901 Energy content of a quantum, 44 Energy conversion, 293–94 Energy dependence, 708, 709t Energy fluence rate, 231, 232 Energy flux, 232 Energy in an electromagnetic wave, 42 Energy levels, 68f Energy loss, mechanisms of, 147–159 Energy Policy Act of 2005, 423 Energy pump, laser, 755, 755f Energy Reorganization Act, 424 Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), 425 Energy response curves, instrument, 468f, 469f, 496f Energy transfer, 26–43 alpha particles, 162–64 elastic collision, 26–28 electromagnetic waves, 32–40 impedance, 40–43 inelastic collision, 28–30 waves, 31–32 Environment continuous monitoring, 733, 734f current guidance on, 440t ecological radiation safety, 437–440 effluents released into, 429–431 protection system, in ICRP 130, 438f, 439t Environmental control, 612 Environmental monitoring, continuous, 733, 734f Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 349, 350, 354, 424 hazardous waste definition, 621 radioactivity limits for drinking water, 425t Environmental radon measurements, 730 Epidermis, 303, 304 Epinephrine, 308 Epithelial tissue, 294 Epithermal neutrons, 187 31-03-2017 13:54:00 index 917 Index.indd 917 Fume hood, 608–11, 609f Fumes, 609 Functional residual capacity (FRC), 299 g Gain, antenna, 788 Gamma emitters, 241–44, 241f, 243t Gamma-emitting isotopes, 241–44 Gamma radiation, 85 Gamma-radiation exposure level, 226–27 Gamma rays, 37, 43, 45, 75, 93, 133, 165–181, 196 attenuation of, 165, 165f, 166f calibration, 499–500 exponential absorption, 165–173 emission, 82t , 88, 89–90, 228 interaction mechanisms, 173–181 specific gamma-ray emission, 226–28 Gaseous radioactivity, 407–12 Gases, 403–4 collection of, 712–14 dispersion from continuous source, 633–640 dispersion of gas from continuous source, 634f, 636f, 637f solubility in water, 409t treatment methods, 625, 626t, 627 Gas-filled particle counters, 449–454, 449f Gas multiplication, 452f Gastrointestinal tract, 412–16 Gauss, 34 Gaussian plume, straight-line trajectory model, 633–39, 634f Geiger counter survey meter, 707–8, 708f Geiger-Muëller (GM) counter, 25, 141, 142f, 452–54, 453f quenching, 454 General public, exposure of, 358–59 Genes, 321 Genetic effects, of radiation, 321–23, 323t, 804 Genetic risk estimates, 335 Geometric mean, 366 Geometric standard deviation (GSD), 366, 723 Geometry control of criticality, 684 Geometry factor (g), 242–43, 243t Geometry factor for cylinders, 242, 243t Gestation period, 318–19 GI syndrome, 301, 315 Glomerulus, 304 Glove box, 611f Glow curve, 476–77, 476f Glucagon, 308 Glucocorticoids, 308 Goblet cells, 298 Gold, isotopes of, 71 Gold-198, 229t Downloaded by [ NYU School of Medicine 128.122.230.148] at [09/27/17] Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC Not to be redistributed or modified in any way without permission Fan location, 609f Far field, 791–92, 791f Far UV, 749 Fast diffusion lengths, 190–91, 190t, 595 Fast fission factor, 670 Fast neutrons, 185, 187, 190, 191–92, 197, 271–73 dose-equivalent meter, 494–96 Hurst counter, 492–94 Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 812 Federal Laser Product Performance Standard (FLPPS), 764 Federal Radiation Council (FRC), 424 Female reprodutive system, 309 Fermi age, 190 Ferric ferrocyanide, 320 Ferromagnetic, 34 Fetal period, 318–19 Film-badge dosimeters, 472–75, 473f, 474f Filter media, 712 Filter model of HRTM, 387f Filters, 610 collection efficiency, 712t decontamination factor, 627 HEPA, 610 high-efficiency, 627, 630t–31t First collision dose, neutron, 271 Fissile material, 485, 686 Fission, see Nuclear fission Fission neutrons, energy distribution of, 183f Fission product inventory, 678–79 Fission products, 117, 667–68, 680t–82t, 683f Fission rates, spontaneous, 664t Fluence rate, 467 Fluorescent radiation, 67–68 Fluorine-18, 229t Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG), 576 Flux density, 34 Foil reactions, threshold, 487t Foil reactions with thermal neutrons, 486t Follicle-stimulating hormone, 307 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 753 Force, 4–5 nuclear, 70 Four-factor formula, neutron life cycle, 669–675 Four-stage cascade impactor, 721f, 722 Fovea centralis, 310 Fractional mass loss, 12 Fraunhofer region, 792 Free air chamber, 209–11, 210f Free H radicals, 290–91 Free-space wavelengths, 36 Frequency, 31–32 Fresnel region, 791 Fuel cycle, radioactive wastes from, 621t Full-energy peak, 462f Full width at half maximum (FHWM), 462 31-03-2017 13:54:01 918 index Human alimentary tract model (HATM), 416, 417f Human respiratory tract model (HRTM), 383–404, 414t ICRP 66 vs ICRP 130, 413t ICRP 130 revised, 411–12, 412t, 414f Hurst counter, 492–94, 494f Hydrogen, 59, 194, 485 ionization potential of, 62 spectrum of, 59 Hydrostatic pressure, 292, 292f “Hypersensitive” individuals, 353 Hyperthyroidism, 307 Hypothalamus, 307 Hypothyroidism, 307 h i H-3 sampling, see Tritium Half-life, 95–99, 95f, 97f, 134 effective, 238–39 Half value layer (HVL), 172–73 Hanford Laboratories, 332 Haversian canal, 302 Hazard assessment, 643–652 Health physicist choice for survey instrument, 707–8 defined, responsibilities of, role in utilizing radiation sources, scientific and engineering aspects, skills needed by, Health physics instrument, choice for survey, 707–8 Health physics instrumentation, see Instrumentation Health Protection Agency, 350 Hearing, 311–12 Heart, 296 Heat of vaporization of water, 20 Heisenberg, Werner, 49–50 Helium-3, 485 Hemopoiesis, 295 Hemopoietic syndrome, 312, 314–15 Henry’s law, 408 HEPA filters, 610 High-level liquid waste, 622–23, 622f High-level radioactive waste (HLW), 619–620 High-purity germanium (HPGe), 460 Homeostasis, 312 Hood, 611 Hood protection factor (HPF), 611 Hormones, 306–7, 308 Hot particles, 315–16 HPGe, 460 ICRP, see International Commission on Radiological Protection ICRP basic radiation safety criteria, 354–422 airborne radioactivity, 365–66 annual limit on intake, 359–365 conceptus (embryo/fetus), 358 dose coefficient, 359, 404–5 dosimetric model for bone, 416–422 effective dose, 356–57 exposure of individuals in general public, 358–59 gaseous radioactivity, 407–12 gastrointestinal tract, 412–16 ICRP 26/60/103/130 dose limits, 355t inhaled radioactive particles, 371–73 lung models, 373–77 medical exposure, 358 occupational exposure, 355 particle-size distribution, 366–67 population exposure, 359 ICRP methodology, 416–420 ICRP 26, 347, 355t effective dose, 356 medical exposure, 358 occupational exposure, 355 tissue weighting factors, 356t ICRP 30, 359 dosmetric model, 421–22 inhalation ALI, 377–383 lung model, 373–77, 374f, 375f, 376f methodology, 268–270, 276, 426–28 ICRP 60 recommendations, 355 inhalation ALI, 383 tissue weighting factors, 356t ICRP 66 human respiratory tract model, 383–404, 413t clearance model, 386 deposition model, 386 dosmetric model, 392, 394 mechanical transfer, 387–88 Downloaded by [ NYU School of Medicine 128.122.230.148] at [09/27/17] Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC Not to be redistributed or modified in any way without permission Index.indd 918 Gonadotrophic hormones, 306 Gonads, 308 acute affects, 317 Good geometry, 165 Grab sample (Kusnetz method), radon, 715, 732 Gradient wind, 635 Gravitational force, 14–15, 368f Gravitational settling, 370t, 371 Gray (Gy), 205–6 Greater-than-class-C (GTCC) wastes, 620 Ground-level concentration of a gas, 627 Growth hormone (somatotropin), 307 Grubbe, Emile, 345 Gypsum wallboard, 562, 563f, 564–67 31-03-2017 13:54:01 index 919 Index.indd 919 Internally deposited radionuclides, 236–270, 276 effective half-life, 238–39 gamma emitters, 241–44 ICRP methodology, 268–270 medical internal radiation dose (MIRD) methodology, 244–268 radiation dose from internally deposited emitters, 236–37 total dose, 239–240 Internal radiation exposure, 607 hazard assessment, 643–652 principles of control, 608–16 safety, 607–62 International Association on Occupational Health, 352 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 347–48 basic safety standards, 469 source control, 735 waste classification, 619 International Commission on Illumination (CIE), 779 International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), 748 International Commission on Radiological Protection, 50 International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), 254, 325, 346–47, 747 dose limits, 553 methodology, 268–270, 276 personal monitoring recommendations, 469 International Commission on Radiological Units and Measurements (ICRU), 50, 348–49 International Electrochemical Commission (IEC), 448 International Labor Organization (ILO), 348, 812 International Non-Ionizing Radiation Committee (INIRC), 747–48 International Organization for Standardization, 349 International Radiation Protection Association (IRPA), 747 Inverse square law, 499 Inversion, atmospheric, 633 Investigation level (IL), 692, 693 In-vitro bioassay, 693–702 In-vivo bioassay, 702–5 Involuntary muscles, 302 Involuntary nervous system, 305 Iodine, 307, 320 Iodine-125, 229t Iodine-131, 229t Iodine-131 transformation, 89–90, 90f Iodine sampling, 713–14 Ion current chambers, 481–85, 481f Ionic transport, 293f Ionization, 62–63, 147–153, 196 specific, 148–151, 149f, 149t, 196 Downloaded by [ NYU School of Medicine 128.122.230.148] at [09/27/17] Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC Not to be redistributed or modified in any way without permission particle dissolution, 391–92 physiological model, 386 ICRP 103 dose limits, 355t radiation weighting factors, 336 tissue weighting factors, 356t ICRP 130 human alimentary tract model (HATM), 416, 417f revised human respiratory tract model, 411–12, 412t, 413t, 414f skeletal dosimetric model, 422 Immersion monitoring, 715 Impact parameter, 162 Impedance, 40–43 Impulse, 27 Indirect action, radiobiology, 290–91 Indium-192, 229t Individual monitoring, 469–470, 706 Individual threshold dose, 353f Inelastic collision, 28–30, 29f Inelastic scattering, 188 Inertials, aerosols, 609 Infinitesimal energy increment, 16 Infrared radiation, 36, 43, 757, 761, 801 Inhalation ALI, 422, see also annual limit on intake ICRP 30 criteria, 377–383 ICRP 60 criteria, 383 Inhaled radioactive particles, 371–73 In situ radioactive decay, 238 Inspiratory capacity, 299, 300t Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV), 298, 300t Instrumentation, 447–534 calibration, 498–506 counting statistics, 506–28 dose-measuring instruments, 467–485 neutron measurements, 485–498 particle-counting instruments, 448–467 radiation detectors, 447–48 radiation effects used, 448t Insulin-dependent diabetes, 308 Intake retention fraction (IRF), 695 Interaction mechanisms, photon combined effects, 180–81 Compton scattering, 174–78 pair production, 173–74 photoelectric absorption, 178–180 Intermediate field (RF), 791 Intermediate neutrons, 187 Internal conversion coefficient (α), 94 Internal conversion emission, 82t, 93–95 Internal dosimetry, physiological basis for, 291–312 Internal emitters, radiation dose from, 236–37 Internally deposited radioactivity, estimation of, 692–705 31-03-2017 13:54:01 920 index j Joint Coordinating Committee for Radiation Effects Research, 286 Joule (J), 5, 34, 50 Joule of work, Joule per kilogram, 50 Joules per tesla, 65 k K capture, 91, 92–93, see also electron capture Keratin, 303–4 Kerma (K), 222–26, 225f, see also Absorbed dose, see also Air Kerma Kidney, 304, 305f Kinetic energy, 6, 10–11, 50–51 of Auger electron, 69 Index.indd 920 in elastic collision, 26–28 of electron, 10–11, 159 in inelastic collision, 28–30 Newtonian expression for, 162 Krypton, 365, 407, 411 Kr-85, 234 Kr-90, 117 laser, 765 quench gas, 454 treatment method, 626 Kusnetz method, radon, 732, 732t l Lanthanides, 66 Lapel samplers, aerosol, 711 Lapse rate, 632, 632f, 633 Large intestine, 301–2, 416 Laser radiation, 43 Lasers, 754–785, 754f, 757f biological effects, 760–62 classes, 766t direct viewing, 767–773 labeling requirements, 767t lasing action, 756–57 manner of operation, 757–58 operation, 756 protection guides and standards, 762–64 protective eyewear, 777–783 reflections, 773–76 regulatory requirements, 764–773 safety features, 767t safety measures, 783–85 transverse electromagnetic modes, 758–760 types, 755t Lasing action, 756–57 Laundering contaminated protective equipment, 613 Law of conservation of momentum, 84, 175 LD50 dose, 287, 288, 289, 312 Lead, 114, 134 Lead sheet, 562, 565t, 567 Leak testing of sealed sources, 710–11 Lens, 309f, 310 Leukemia, 324t, 326–28, 327f, 440 Leukocytes, 295–96 Light infrared, 43 ultraviolet, 36, 43 velocity of, visible, 36, 43 Linear, zero-threshold model (LNT model), 288–89, 333–34 Linear accelerator, 128–130, 129f, 135 Linear attenuation coefficient, 166, 167t, 168–69, 181 Linear energy transfer, 151–52 Downloaded by [ NYU School of Medicine 128.122.230.148] at [09/27/17] Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC Not to be redistributed or modified in any way without permission Ionization chamber, 209–15, 210f, 212f, 214f, 219–220 counter, 450, 450f disadvantages of, 451 Ionization current, 481–85, 483f region, 450 Ionization potential, 62, 63, 148, 162 Ionizing collisions, 147, 148, 465 Ionizing particle, range of, 196 Ionizing radiation, 43, 196 Ion pair, 62 Iris, 309f Iron-59, 229t Irradiance, 767, 772f Islets of Langerhans, 308 ISO 9000 series, 349 ISO 14000 series, 349 ISO 14001, 349 ISO 14031, 349 Isobaric transitions, 81, 82t, 86–93 beta emission, 86–90, 88f orbital electron capture, 92–93 positron emission, 90–92 ISO/IEC 80000, Isokinetic sampling, 717–18 Isomeric transitions, 82, 88, 93–95 gamma rays, 93 internal conversion, 93–95 Isotopes, 71, 77 gamma-emitting, 241–44 of oxygen, 71 stable, 75–76 Isotropic scattering, 271 Isthmus, 307 IUPAC notation, 68t 31-03-2017 13:54:01 index 921 m M, see Type M aerosols Machine sources of radiation, 128–133 cyclotron, 130–33, 131f, 135 linear accelerator, 128–130, 129f, 135 X-ray tube, 128, 129f, 135 Macroscopic cross section, 168 Macula lutea, 310 Magic numbers, 74–75 Magnetic field, 33f, 35, 64–65, 75, 791, 801, 805, 810, 813, 814 Magnetic field strength, 35–36 Magnetic flux, 34 Magnetic flux density, 34–35, 36 Magnetic moments, 65, 75 Magnetic quantum number, 64 Magnetic resonance imaging, 75 Magnetism, 32–33, 35 Index.indd 921 Magnitude, electromagnetic field, 51 force, 16 Male reproductive system, 308–9 Mammography, 555 Mass, 71 atomic mass unit, 71–72 of electron, 12, 72 energy and, 9–10, 50–51 gravitational, 14 law of conservation of, loss in, in energy transformations, 12 of neutron, 72 of nucleus, 74, 77 of photon, 47 of proton, 12, 72 of a resting electron, 19–20 vs weight, 14 Mass absorption coefficient, 182t, 218, 895–901 Mass attenuation coefficient, 166, 169, 170, 887–892 Mass control, 683 Mass defect, 72 Mass energy-absorption coefficient, 182t, 895–901 Mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD), 369, 722 Mass median diameter (MMD), 369, 723 Mass stopping power, 151, 164, 903–7 relative, 152–53 Master gland, 306 Material densities, 907 Matter waves, 46–49 Maximum acceptable dose (MAD), 353 Maximum allowable concentration (MAC), 352 Maximum allowable total dose, 535 Maximum credible accident, 647–650 Maximum permissible concentrations (MPCs), 373, 418, 419, 424 Maximum photon energy (hc/λ minimum), 158 Maxwell, James Clerk, 35, 39 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of energy, 186f, 323, 489 Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetic radiation, 128 Mean free path gas molecules, 370 neutron, 190 photon (1/μattenuation), 546 Mean life, 8, 9, 100 Mean pupil diameter, 310t Mean residence time, 266–67 Measurement from different reference frames, 7–9 systems of, 3–4, 50 units of, 3–5 Mechanical transfer, of particles in the lung, 387–391 Medical exposure, 358 Medical imaging room layout, 559f, 560f Downloaded by [ NYU School of Medicine 128.122.230.148] at [09/27/17] Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC Not to be redistributed or modified in any way without permission Line source, 538–541, 539f Liquid drop model, 74 Liquid waste high-level, 622–23 intermediate- and low-level, 623–25 Lithium-6, 477 Liver, 300–301, 308 Logarithmic energy decrement, 189 Logical positivism, 43–44 Log-normal distribution, of particles, 366–67, 367f Long counter, 491–92, 491f Loss in mass, 12 Loss tangent, 38, 39, 794 Loss tangent/degree of lossiness of a dielectric material, 39 Lossy dielectrics, 38, 817 Lower limit of detection (LLD), 517, 520–22, 520f Low-level radioactive waste (LLW), 613, 619–620 Low-level Radioactive Waste Policy Act of 1980, 620 LUDEP program, 396 Luminous paint, 328 Luminous transmission, 779 Lung, 297–98 aeration of, 300t airborn radioactivity and, 366 calculation of radiation dose to, 395–96 retention of particles in, 372–73, 372f volumes, 300f Lung cancer, 329–331, 330t Lung capacities, 298–99 Lung models, 373–77, 374f, 375f, 376f Luteinizing hormone, 307 Luteotrophic hormone, 307 Lyman series, 59 31-03-2017 13:54:01 922 index n NALI, see Nonstochastic annual limit of intake Nanometer (nm), 45 Nasopharyngeal (NP) region, 297, 375f National agencies, 349–350 Index.indd 922 National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP), 223, 423, 748 NCRP 147 methodology, 554–56 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 470 National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program (NVLAP), 470 Natural airborne radioactivity, 728–730 Natural and accelerator-produced radioactive materials (NARM), 424 Naturally occurring radiation, 107–17, 423 background radiation, 116–17 cosmogenic radioactivity, 107–8 primordial radioactivity, 109–16 from space, 107 Naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM), 107–17, 423 NCRP 147 methodology, 554–56, see also National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements Near field (RF), 791 Near UV, 749 Negatron, 86, 90, 134, see also beta particle Neon, 59 Nephrons, 304, 305f Neptunium series, 110t, 112, 114 Nervous system, 305–6 Nervous tissue, 295 Neurons, 305, 306, 306f Neurotransmitters, 306 Neutrino, 88, 91, 93 Neutrons, 13, 51, 70 1/v law, 192 absorption, 192–94, 193f activation, 194–96, 485 as fundamental particles, 58 auto-integral dose, 275 average energy, 186 calibration, 501–5, 502f, 503f, 503t classification, 185–87 counter, 494f, 495f, 496f, 497f cross section, 187–88 delayed, 676 detection reactions, 485–88 dose equivalent, 492, 493t dosimeters, 477–78, 477f, 492–498 dosimetry, 492–98 energy distribution, 184f external exposure, 270–75 fast, 185, 187, 190, 191–92, 197, 271–73 Fermi age of, 190 fission, 183f foil reactions, 486t, 487t interaction, 187–196 intermediate, 187 magnetic moment of, 75 Downloaded by [ NYU School of Medicine 128.122.230.148] at [09/27/17] Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC Not to be redistributed or modified in any way without permission Medical internal radiation dose methodology (MIRD), 244–268, 276 Medical surveillance, 691–92 Melanoma, 750, 761 Membrane filters, 706 Mental retardation, among atomic bomb survivors, 319t Mercury-203, 229t transformation, 88, 89f Mercury vapor, 59 Metabolism, 293–94 Microscopic cross section, 168 Microwave heating, 794 Microwaves, 36, 785–817 antennas, 787–794, 788f band designations, 786t biological effects, 799–805 communications, 787 dosimetry, 808–11 measurements, 805–8 multiple sources, 816–17 penetration depth, 797–99, 799t safety guides and standards, 811–16 sources, 787 thermal effects, 794–97 threshold limit values, 814t Milliroentgen (mR), 208, see also Roentgen Mineralocorticoids, 308 Miners, 329–330, 330t Miner’s disease, 329 Minimum detectable activity (MDA), 517–522 Minimum visible lesions (MVL), 761 Minute volume, 299, 300t MIRD system, 244, see also Medical internal radiation dose Mists, aerosol, 609 Mixed waste, 621–22 Momentum of photon, 46 relativistic, Monazite, 117 Monte Carlo methods, 244–45, 258, 347 Most probable energy, neutron, 186 Mouth, 301 Muller, Herman J., 322 Multichannel analyzer (MCA), 460, 461f Multiplication factor, 669–675 Muons, 13 Muscular system, 302–4 Myxedema, 307 31-03-2017 13:54:01 index 923 Index.indd 923 personal monitoring recommendations, 470 waste management regulations, 618 Nuclear safety, 663, 684, 685t Nuclear spectroscopy, 460–63, 461f Nuclear stability, 75–76 curve, 76f Nucleons, 73–75 Nucleus, 57, 77 atomic mass unit, 71–72 binding energy, 72–74, 73f compound, 183 diameter of, 77 isotopes, 71 mass of, 74, 77 neutron and nuclear force, 70 nuclear models, 74–75 nuclear stability, 75–76, 76f quarks, 70 o Occupancy factor (T), 553, 554t Occupational exposure, 355 Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 350, 753, 764, 812 Odd-odd nuclei, 74 Oersted, Christian, 32–33 Ohm’s law, 40–41 Oklo reactor, 107 One-over-v law, 192 Oocytes, 309 Optical density (OD), 777, 780f Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dosimeters, 478–79, 479f Optic disk, 310 Optic nerve, 309f Optimization of radiation dose, 652–55 of radiation protection, 597–600, 598f Orbital angular momentum, 65 Orbital electron capture, 92–93, 133 Organ of Corti, 311–12 Organogenesis, 318 Organ systems, 294–312 circulatory system, 295–96, 295f endocrine system, 306–8 muscular system, 302–4 nervous system, 305–6 reproductive system, 308–9 respiratory system, 296–302, 297f sensory organs and tissues, 309–12 urinary system, 304, 305f OSL, see Optically Stimulated Luminescence Osmosis, 292–93, 292f Osteogenic tissue, 302 Outermost electron shell, 66 Downloaded by [ NYU School of Medicine 128.122.230.148] at [09/27/17] Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC Not to be redistributed or modified in any way without permission mass of, 72 measurements, 485–498 production, 181–85, 184f, 589–590 proportional counter, 488–492 scattering, 188–192 shielding against, 593–97 sources, 185t thermal, 185–86, 190, 191–92, 194, 197, 273–75, 486t Neutron-sensitive TLD, 478 Neutron-to-proton ratio, 75 alpha emission, 83 beta emission, 86 nuclear stability, 81 positron emission, 90 radioactivity, 81 Newton (N), 4–5, 14 Newton’s second law of motion, 4–5, 14–15 NIMBY (Not In My Back Yard), 349 Nitrogen, 194 Nominal hazard zone (NHZ), 773 Nominal ocular hazard distance (NOHD), 772–73 Non-insulin-dependent diabetes, 308 Nonionizing radiation (NIR), 43, 747–825 lasers, 754–785 microwaves, 785–817 radiofrequency radiation, 785–817 safety principles, 817–820 units, 748, 749t UV light, 749–754 Nonstochastic annual limit of intake (NALI), 360, 363, 364, see also Annual limit of intake Nonstochastic effects, 286–87, 312–321, 338, 353 Nonuniform electric field, 24 Nonvolatile radioactivity, 624 NORM (naturally occurring radioactive material), 107–17, 423, see also Naturally occurring radioactive material and NARM Normal curve, 508, 509f, 509t n–p junction, 465 Nuclear accidents, 286 Nuclear bombing survivors, mortality experience of, 335t Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), 349 Nuclear energy levels, 75 Nuclear fission, 117, 485, 663–68, 664t Nuclear force, 70 Nuclear magnetic resonance, 75 Nuclear mass numbers, 70 Nuclear models, 74–75 liquid drop model, 74 shell model, 74–75, 76 Nuclear reactor, 675–79 Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 5, 50, 336, 349, 349–350, 425–26, 470, 618, 701 agreement states, 426 dose constraints, 426 dose limits, 425–26, 426t 31-03-2017 13:54:01 924 index P Pair production, 173–74, 174f, 197 Pancreas, 300 “Paper-clip” unit, 205 Paracelsus, 286–87 Parallel-plate ionization chamber, 210f Paramagnetic, 34 Parasympathetic nervous system, 305 Parathyroids, 308 Particle-counting instruments, 448–467 Cerenkov detector, 463 gas-filled particle counters, 449–454 nuclear spectroscopy, 460–63 resolving time, 454–56 scintillation counters, 456–460 semiconductor detector, 464–67 Particle dissolution, 391–92 Particle kinetics, 367–371 aerodynamic properties, 367–69 thermodynamic properties, 369–370 Particles, 639–640, see also Alpha particles; Beta particles; Radioactive particles gravitational settling, 639 particle size, 370t, 428–431, 720–25 particle-size distribution, 366–67 particulate matter, removal from air, 627 primary ionizing, 176, 178 Pasquill-Gifford equation, 633 Pasquill’s atmospheric stability, 636f, 636t Patient workload values (W), 555 Pauli exclusion principle, 65, 75 Penetration depth in the absorber (RF), 798 Perilymph, 311 Periodic table of elements, 65–66, 837–840 Periosteum, 302 Peripheral angiography, 555 Peristalsis, 292, 301 Permeability (µ), 33–36, 797, 801 free space, 33–34 radiofrequency shielding, 819t Permissible exposure level (PEL), 590, 719, 753 Permittivity, 13, 36, 797 free space, 37, 38 medium, 38 Per patient workload (W), 555, 555t Personal monitoring, 469–470, 706 Index.indd 924 PET, see Positron emission tomography (PET) Phagocytosis, 373 pH of blood, 304 Phosophorus-32, 236 beta energy, 88, 88f decay of radioactive, 87 Photoallergy, 751 Photodisintegration, 178–180 Photoelectric absorption, 173, 174, 178–180, 196 Photoelectric devices, 783–84, 783f Photoelectric effect, 44, 63 Photographic emulsion, 147, 148f Photometric units, 748 Photoneutron sources, 185t Photons, 7, 44–46, 46f, 756, see also Interaction mechanisms, photon energy of, 46, 60 momentum of, 46 Photonuclear reactions (photodisintegration), 178–180 Photopeak, 462, 462f Photosensitivity, 750–51 Phototoxicity, 751 Physiological activity, 291–94 Physiological model of HRTM, 386 Physiological transport, 292–93 Pions, 13 Pituitary gland, 306–7 Planck, Max, 59 Planck’s constant (h), 44, 46, 50, 52 Planck’s quantum theory, 43–50, 59, see also Bohr’s atomic model Plane source, 541–42, 541f Plasma, 295 Platelets, 295–96 Plexiglas, 143, 145–46 Plutonium, 183, 329 Pocket dosimeters, 470–72, 472f, 488f Point mutations, 289–290, 322 Point source, 536–38 Poisson distribution, 510–11 Polonium, 183 Population exposure, 359 Positron, 90–92, 134 Positron emission, 82t, 90–92 Positron emission tomography (PET), 132, 570f, 576–581, 577f Potassium, 115–16, 134 Potassium-40 (K-40), 138 Potassium-42 (K-42), 89, 89f, 229t Power density, 41–43, 792, see also Average power density Power meter, 758 Power of a statistical test, 518 Poynting vector, 42 Preimplantation, 318 Preventive conservatism principle, 352 Downloaded by [ NYU School of Medicine 128.122.230.148] at [09/27/17] Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC Not to be redistributed or modified in any way without permission Ovaries, 308 Oxygen, 71 isotopes of, 71 Oxytocin, 307 Ozone, 753 31-03-2017 13:54:01 index 925 Q QF, see Radiation weighting factors, wR Q-switched/Q spoiled, 757 Quality factor (QF), 335–36, 336t, see also Radiation weighting factor Quantitative relationship, between dose and effect, 287–88 Quantitative relationships, 1, Quantum chromodynamics, 70 Quantum mechanical theory, 83 Quantum theory, 43–50, 52, 59 matter waves, 46–49 uncertainty principle, 49–50, 52 wave-particle dualism, 45–46, 48–49 Quarks, 13, 51, 58, 70, 75, 77 Quenching, GM counter, 454 R Rad (radiation absorbed dose), 206–7, 275 Radiation annihilation, 174, 197 background, 114, 116–17 Index.indd 925 beta, 228–29 black-body, 59 braking, 153 Cerenkov, 463 fluorescent, 67–68 gamma, 85 interaction with matter, 141–203 ionizing, 196 machine sources of, 128–133 naturally occurring, 107–17 nonionizing, 747–825 from space, 107 synchrotron, 153 Radiation absorbed dose (rad), 205–7, 275 Radiation detectors, 447–48 Radiation dose, from internally deposited emitters, 236–37 Radiation dosimetry, 205–83, see also dosimetry, dose absorbed dose, 205–7 external exposure, 207–36, 270–75 internally deposited radionuclides, 236–270 units, 205–7 Radiation effects acute, 312–18, 313t BEIR VII risk coefficient estimates, 332–35 birth defects, 318–19 cancer, 323–332 CNS syndrome, 315 delayed, 320–21 deterministic (nonstochastic), 286–87, 312–321, 338, 353 eyes, 317–18 genetic, 321–23 GI syndrome, 315 gonads, 317 hematologic effects, 314f hemopoietic syndrome, 312, 314–15 quality factor, 335–36 radiation weighting factor, 335–36 research on, 285–86 skin, 315–17 stochastic, 286, 288–89, 321–336, 338, 352–54 threshold, 287, 288t treatment of acute overexposure, 319–320 Radiation Effects Research Foundation, 285 Radiation flux (fluence rate), 467 Radiation hazards beta radiation, 90 bremsstrahlung radiation, 154 gamma rays, 93 positrons, 92 Radiation protection layers of, 624–25 optimization, 597–600, 598f Downloaded by [ NYU School of Medicine 128.122.230.148] at [09/27/17] Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC Not to be redistributed or modified in any way without permission Primary (main) bronchi, 298 Primary ionizing particles, 176, 178 Primary spermatocytes, 308 Primordial radioactivity, 109–16, 116t Principal quantum number, 64 Private health, vs public health, 350t Prompt critical condition, 677 Prompt neutrons, 677 Proportional counter, 451–52, 453f, 488–492 Protective clothing, 613, 613t Protective eyewear, 777–783 Proton recoil counter, 492 Protons, 12, 13, 14, 51 as fundamental particles, 58 gravitational force between electrons and, 15 magnetic moment of, 75 mass of, 72 Prussian blue, 320 Ptyalin, 301 Public dose limits, 430 Public health, 350–51, 350t Public Health Service Bureau of Devices and Radiological Health, 812 Public policy vis-à-vis radiation safety, Pulmonary (P) region, 297, 375f Pulmonary retention curve, 372f Pulmonary vein, 296 Pupil diameter, 310t Pylorus, 301 Pyroelectric detectors, 785 31-03-2017 13:54:01 926 index Index.indd 926 gaseous, 407–12 primordial, 109–16 specific activity, 102–6 Radiocarbon, 104, 107–8 dating, 108, see also Carbon-14 Radiofrequency (RF) radiation, 785–817 antennas, 787–794 band designations, 786t biological effects, 799–805 communications, 787 dosimetry, 808–11 multiple sources, 816–17 penetration depth, 797–99, 799t safety guides and standards, 811–16 sources, 787 thermal effects, 794–97 threshold limit values (TLV), 814t Radiogenic effects, initiating mechanisms of, 289–291 Radioisotopes buildup of, 419–420, 419f that not reach equilibrium in 50 years, 420t Radiometric unit, 207, 748, 749t Radionuclides average life of, 100 half-life of, 95–99 Radiosensitive target cells within the HRT, 399 Radiostrontium, 329 Radiotherapy machines, 581–590 Radio transmission, 35 Radio waves, 36 Radium, 85, 183, 328–29, 416–18 decay of, 99 for gamma-ray calibration, 499 half-life of, 99 Radium-226, 85–86, 86f, 98, 99, 229t Radium-dial painters, 285 Radon, 114, 121, 134, 329, 650–52 adsorption of, 713 daughter chain, 729 decay constant of, 119–120 measurement of, 730–32 working level, 330 Range of alpha, 159, 160–61 of beta, 142 Range-energy relationship, 145f alpha, 159–161 beta, 141–47, 144f, 147t Range of the ionizing particle, 196 Rare earth elements, 66 Reactive near field, (RF), 791 Reactivity, 675–78 Reactor control, 675–78 Reactor period (T), 676 Recombination region, 450 Recovery time, 455, 456f Downloaded by [ NYU School of Medicine 128.122.230.148] at [09/27/17] Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC Not to be redistributed or modified in any way without permission Radiation safety basic principles, 535–597 biological basis for, 285–343 combined exposures, 733–34 control principles, 608–16 dose-limitation system, 352–54 dose-response characteristics, 286–291 ecological, 437–440 evaluation of measures, 691–746 external, 535–606 hazard assessment, 643–652 ICRP basic safety criteria, 354–422 internal, 607–62 nonionizing, 747–825 optimization, 597–600 philosophy of, 350–54 physiological basis for internal dosimetry, 291–312 principles of, 817–820 public health and, 350–51 public policy on, shielding, 544–552 source control, 608–12, 735 standards, standard-setting organizations, 345–350 surface contamination limits, 616–17 U.S nuclear regulatory program, 423–437 UV light, 751–53 waste management, 617–643 Radiation surveys, 706–11 Radiation-weighted dose units, 337–38 Radiation weighting factors, wR, 335–36, 336t quality factor, 335–36 Radiation zones, RF, 791f Radioactive decay, 76 Radioactive gases, 114, see also Gases Radioactive particles gravitational settling, 639 inhaled, 371–73 kinetics, 367–371 particle-size distribution, 366–67 Radioactive transformation, 76, 77, 82t alpha emission, 81, 82t, 83–86, 83f beta emission, 86–90 categories of, 81–82 internal conversion, 93–95 isobaric transitions, 81, 82t, 86–93 isomeric transitions, 93–95 kinetics, 95–100 mechanisms, 81–95, 82t serial transformation, 117–133 Radioactive wastes, see Waste management Radioactivity, 81, 133–34 becquerel, 101 cosmogenic, 107–8 curie, 102 31-03-2017 13:54:01 ... persons, too numerous to mention by name, for their helpful suggestions Thomas E Johnson FM.indd 12 30-03-2017 12:21:59 Introduction Health physics, radiation protection, radiological health, ... drugs FM.indd 30-03-2017 12:21:57 Introduction to Health Physics Fifth Edition Thomas E Johnson, PhD Professor Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences Colorado State University... and health science, including epidemiology, on the other In addition to these general prerequisites, the health physicist must be technically competent in the subject matter unique to health physics