Master thesis in economics impacts and strategic implications of environmentally related non tariff barriers on exporters from developing countries

Impacts and Strategic Implications of EnvironmentallyRelated Non-Tariff Barriers on Exporters from Developing Countries: a Study of the Chinese Organic Food Industry By Yan Yang Master of Science in International Business A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of Master of Science in International Business to Portobello College Dublin (Validated by the University of Wales) Supervisor: Maryrose Molloy 26th October 2007 Declaration This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree Signed … Date … Statement This dissertation is being submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of: ……………… (ie MA, MSc, MBA, etc) Signed … Date .… Statement This dissertation is the result of my own independent work and investigation, except where otherwise stated Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references A bibliography is appended Signed Date Statement I hereby give consent for my dissertation, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations Signed … Date … ii Abstract This thesis researched the influence of ETBs on exporters from developing countries and their corresponding strategies through a case study of the Chinese organic food industry Initially, a description of international trade and world export was developed, including their roles in the process of globalization Trade barriers generated in international trade were then explained, with the focus on NTBs, especially ETBs Lastly, the link between ETBs and market access was described and then the purpose of this study was proposed Recent literature relating to NTBs were reviewed, including types of NTBs, developing countries’ NTBs concerns, the principles of WTO involved in ETBs, and market entry considerations To gain more insight into the impact of ETBs on exporters, a case study of the Chinese organic food industry was chosen as the current research strategy to carry out a comprehensive description and qualitative analysis Background of the organic food industry was firstly introduced, and then national differences in standards, certification and accreditation systems as major ETBs for the export-oriented developing countries were fully described In order to obtain direct and true data, in-depth interviews with managers in the Chinese organic food industry were performed to measure their perceptions of the influence of organic certification as one ETB on market entry and their corresponding strategies to overcome this ETB Results showed that organic certification was a primary ETB, and definitely played a main role in making a go/no-go decision and affects export trade Based on the results, some implications were given at the end, including three aspects: managerial, governmental and WTO’s implications Finally, conclusions indicated that ETBs had exerted immense influence on exporters from developing countries and therefore managers, governments and WTO should cooperate to overcome and eliminate the impact of ETBs and thus promote free trade Keywords: Environmentally-related non-tariff barrier, International trade, Organic food, Organic certification, Market entry strategy, WTO iii Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge everyone who helped and encouraged me during the course of this work My deepest gratitude goes first and foremost to my supervisor, Ms Maryrose Molloy, senior law lecturer, who has kept giving me invaluable guidance, advice, great support, and all kinds of help Without her consistent and illuminating instruction, this thesis could not have reached its present form Her kindness is always unforgettable Next I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Dr Paul O’Leary who gave me much support during the period of my dissertation proposal I am also greatly indebted to all of my lecturers, who taught me in the past one year I also express my gratitude to the Head of School and College, academic staff and technical staff in the college for their kind support and efforts I want to give my sincere thanks to my father, Manfa Yang, my mother, Fenglian Li, my sister, Lin Yang, and my husband, Dr Fuqiang Nie Without their love, trust, understanding and support, I would never have completed this thesis I would like to extend my best wishes to their health here Finally, I also owe my sincere gratitude to my fellow classmates and friends for their invaluable assistance, encouragement and friendship during study periods iv Table of Contents Declaration ii Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v List of Tables vii List of Figures viii List of Abbreviations ix Chapter I Introduction 1.1 International trade and globalization 1.2 Benefits of international free trade 1.3 Reasons for trade barriers 1.4 Creation of free trade mechanisms 1.5 Dominance of the NTBs in international trade 1.6 Purpose of the thesis 10 Chapter II Literature review 11 2.1 Definition of NTBs 11 2.2 Types of NTBs 12 2.3 Developing countries’ NTB concerns 13 2.4 Environmentally-related NTBs 14 2.5 Treatment of NTBs in international agreements 15 2.6 PPMs 19 2.7 Reponses to NTBs 21 2.7.1 WTO dispute settlement 22 2.7.2 International negotiations 23 2.7.3 Management responses 24 2.8 Market entry considerations 24 Chapter III Research Methodology 27 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 Research Approach 27 3.3 Research strategy 28 3.4 Case Selection 30 3.5 Data Collection Methods 31 3.6 Data analysis 32 Chapter IV Case Study 34 4.1 Status of the Organic Food Industry 34 4.1.1 Organic Agriculture 34 4.1.2 Global Organic Food Market 35 4.1.3 European Organic Food Market 36 4.1.4 Organic Food in China 38 4.2 ETB in the Organic Food Industry 39 v 4.2.1 Trade Barriers in the Organic Food Industry 39 4.2.2 ETB in the Organic Food Industry — Organic Certification 39 4.2.3 Regulations for Importing Organic Production 40 4.2.4 Status of Organic Certification in the EU 42 4.2.5 Organic Certification in China 43 4.4 Interview Results 44 4.4.1 Company and personal data 44 4.4.2 Interview results 46 Chapter V Implications 49 5.1 Managerial Implications 49 5.2 Governmental implications 52 5.3 WTO’s implications 56 Chapter VI Conclusion and future research 60 References 63 Appendix A 70 Appendix B 71 Appendix C 74 Appendix D 75 vi List of Tables Page Table Relevant situations for different researches 28 Table Sources of evidence in case research: strengths and weaknesses 31 Table Sampling strategies for selecting informants 32 Table Global organic food market value 35 Table Europe organic food market value 37 Table Basic information of companies 45 vii List of Figures Page Figure Comparison of Growth of World Exports, World Production and World GDP Figure Changes in global trade flows Figure Classification of market entry modes 25 Figure Factors affecting the foreign market entry mode decision 26 Figure Scientific approach for conducting a case study research 29 Figure Global organic food market value, 2002-2006 35 Figure Global organic food market segmentation: % share, by value, 2006 36 Figure Europe organic food market value, 2002-2006 37 Figure The value of trade in exports of the Chinese organic products 38 Figure 10 The EU organic-farming certification procedure 43 viii List of Abbreviations ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations CAGR Compound Annual Growth Rate CBI Centre for the Promotion of Imports from Developing Countries CNAB China National Accreditation Board CTA Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation CTE Committee on Trade and Environment DS Dispute Settlement DSB Dispute Settlement Body DSU Dispute Settlement Understanding EEC European Economic Community EFTA European Free Trade Association ETB Environmentally-related non-tariff Barriers EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FRCO Registered Foreign Certification Organisation FTA Free Trade Agreement GATS General Agreement on Trade in Services GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GDP Gross Domestic Product ICTSD International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development IFOAM International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements IIED International Institute for Environment and Development ILEAP International Lawyers and Economists against Poverty IMF International Monetary Fund INTAL Institute for the Integration of Latin America and the Caribbean ISO International Organization for Standardization ITC International Trade Center ITD Integration, Trade and Hemispheric Issues Division JAS Japan Agricultural Standard LEAD Livestock, Environment and Development Virtual Centre MAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries MOFCOM Ministry of Commerce of People’s Republic of China ix NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement NAMA Non-Agricultural Market Access NOP National Organic Program Npr-PPMs Non-product-related PPMs NTB Non-Tariff Barrier NTM Non-Tariff Measure OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development OFDC Organic Food Development Center OFPA Organic Foods Production Act PPMs Process and Production Methods Pr-PPMs Product–related PPMs RCO Registered Certification Organisation RECIEL Review of European Community and International Environmental Law SCM Subsidies and countervailing measures SEPA State Environmental Protection Administration SPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures TBT Technical Barriers to Trade TRAINS Trade Analysis and Information System TRIPS Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights US United stated USDA United States Department of Agriculture USTR United States Trade Representative UNCTAD United Nations Commission on Trade and Development WTO World Trade Organization x CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH including improving product quality, developing their own international branding, governmental negotiation to eliminate the impact of organic certification on organic exports, cooperating with international certifiers, and developing group certification to reduce the costs of certification In addition, there were some market entry strategies usually adopted by organic exporters on basis of their own conditions to overcome trade barriers, such as direct exporting, and joint ventures etc Based on fully considering these results from the case study, this paper also gave some recommendations to overcome the impact of ETBs on the exporters from developing countries The first and most important implication from this study was that high-level managers, governments and the WTO need to cooperate and make great efforts to overcome ETBs for international free trade In order to successfully export their products to the host countries with some ETBs, it is necessary for highlevel managers to improve product quality under green product and environmental banners, to produce specialist traditional products and build an international brand reputation, to expand transnational operation, to cooperate with international certifiers and develop group certification, to introduce green packaging, to be familiar with regulations, to collect relevant information and grasp the latest trend of ETBs, and to increase technological content of products Governments of developing countries should set up professional fora and information advisory centres, exert the role of Import and Export Chamber of Commerce and Industry Associations, promote agricultural environmental protection, promote environmental standards and certification systems, strengthen international certification work, participate in international negotiation on standards and regulations of ETBs, insist on right principles and actively fight, promote cleaner production through policy guidance, and accelerate the development of professional marketing channels Lastly, the WTO should exert its coordination and supervision roles, modify the existing WTO principles, and improve the WTO Dispute Settlement mechanism to prevent the misuse of international environmental standards for protectionism In conclusion, in the era of globalization, international free trade is the main direction for international communities, which is an unavoidable historical trend Unfortunately, it is also true that countries have exerted some trade tariffs for various different reasons, which deeply restricts or distorts international trade This study 61 CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH successfully revealed that ETBs had been playing a crucial role in international trade, especially for the exporters from the developing countries Based on the fact that ETBs may increase when the environmental protection and other considerations are dominant, this study insisted on that all sides involved in international trade should make mutual efforts to eliminate and overcome these tariffs and obtain a win-win outcome However, this study also had its limitations because of the author’s limited knowledge Firstly, in order to study the influence of ETBs on exporters from developing countries, this study did not investigate many industries like manufacturing and service industries involved in export trade, and only focuses on a specific industry, i.e organic industry, so further research should be conducted on more industries to obtain more abundant data Secondly, this study only chose the EU as the study sample, which was limited, so further study should include more countries or regions that have exerted ETBs and whose policies of ETBs have affected exporters from developing countries Also some market strategies like foreign direct investment adopted by some firms to overcome the impact of ETBs should be studied in future, because these strategies will exert more important role in the export trade under a mass of ETBs and other tariffs 62 References Alexandrides, C G and Bowers, B L (2005), “Market Entry Strategies: Choosing a 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TotalAgricultureMiningManufacturing 1950-63 7.4 3.7 8.5 10.1 7.7 4.5 7.2 8.6 5.2 2.9 4.8 1964 11.8 6.9 11.8 15.0 10.9 5.4 8.8 14.9 9.1 4.8 8.6 1965 8.3 4.3 7.1 10.9 6.6 5.1 3.2 7.4 5.6 0.0 3.9 1966 9.2 4.1 9.8 10.8 7.7 3.7 6.2 10.3 6.6 3.4 5.1 1967 5.2 -0.2 5.7 7.7 5.7 2.4 10.3 4.7 4.9 3.3 2.4 1968 11.0 4.1 14.2 14.9 10.8 5.7 12.0 17.9 5.9 3.2 7.1 1969 14.2 6.9 9.2 16.5 12.2 5.4 6.0 16.5 5.6 0.0 2.2 1970 14.6 10.6 13.6 15.4 8.7 3.1 12.4 8.7 5.3 3.1 7.5 11.7 7.4 11.3 13.7 7.0 2.0 1.0 9.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 1971 1972 18.3 20.3 14.1 19.4 8.4 6.9 6.9 10.1 4.8 0.0 2.9 1973 38.4 45.5 47.4 34.1 12.1 0.9 10.2 14.2 8.2 4.9 6.5 1974 44.9 21.7 122.9 31.3 5.4 -4.5 -1.7 8.8 2.5 1.9 1.8 1.0 -4.0 8.8 -7.3 1.0 -12.0 -4.0 -1.6 3.6 -6.0 1975 4.3 1976 13.1 10.5 16.3 12.8 11.8 7.5 6.8 12.6 6.7 0.9 8.3 1977 13.7 13.5 10.6 14.7 4.2 3.5 2.7 5.0 3.9 2.6 3.4 1978 15.8 13.3 3.7 21.6 4.7 6.8 5.3 5.9 4.5 3.4 0.8 27.0 24.4 47.0 21.3 5.2 4.8 5.9 5.0 3.6 0.8 8.9 1979 1980 22.6 13.8 41.8 15.9 2.9 6.8 -6.3 5.9 -0.7 0.9 -2.6 1981 -1.2 -1.9 -3.2 -0.7 -0.6 5.0 -9.9 4.0 0.1 3.6 -7.9 1982 -6.4 -7.5 -10.6 -3.6 -2.2 -2.0 -5.8 -2.1 -1.0 3.2 -6.9 1983 -2.0 -1.4 -8.0 0.5 2.7 0.2 -0.9 5.1 2.2 0.1 -0.9 5.3 -0.9 8.1 8.5 2.8 4.8 10.8 6.5 5.3 3.8 1984 5.9 1985 -0.3 -5.7 -3.2 3.8 2.6 -1.2 -1.2 4.8 2.8 2.4 -1.1 1986 9.4 11.1 -23.8 20.3 4.0 -1.7 9.1 4.1 2.8 1.8 3.0 1987 17.5 14.9 11.0 19.7 5.5 5.6 1.7 6.3 3.5 1.0 1.3 1988 13.7 13.1 0.9 16.1 8.5 2.7 5.6 9.5 4.9 1.7 5.3 4.3 15.5 6.9 6.4 3.1 4.4 7.8 3.5 3.4 4.5 1989 7.8 1990 12.9 4.7 15.3 14.7 3.8 1.0 3.2 6.1 1.3 2.5 1.0 1991 1.5 0.8 -6.2 3.3 3.7 3.3 3.4 3.6 -0.4 0.4 -0.5 1992 6.7 7.1 -0.9 8.0 4.8 6.0 4.4 4.7 0.1 2.3 0.8 1993 -0.2 -4.1 -3.5 0.0 4.2 1.0 3.7 4.1 -0.1 0.6 2.0 13.6 15.8 5.1 15.6 9.2 8.7 6.8 11.1 2.8 2.9 1.6 1994 1995 19.3 17.3 15.5 20.0 7.3 4.4 4.1 9.0 4.6 2.1 2.2 1996 4.6 2.9 13.6 3.5 5.1 4.4 3.4 5.3 3.5 4.3 2.7 1997 3.4 -1.3 2.7 4.6 10.0 5.7 7.4 11.0 4.9 2.4 3.3 1998 -1.3 -4.7 -20.5 2.3 4.8 1.7 2.9 4.8 2.2 1.6 1.1 1999 3.9 -3.7 15.6 3.3 4.6 1.0 -0.5 5.1 3.1 3.3 -1.3 2000 12.8 0.9 47.9 10.1 10.4 3.6 4.5 13.0 5.2 1.9 3.7 2001 -4.1 0.1 -9.3 -3.8 -0.6 1.5 -0.7 -1.2 -0.8 1.5 -0.1 2002 4.8 6.1 -0.5 5.4 3.5 3.7 0.6 4.0 1.3 1.8 0.1 2003 16.9 16.3 24.1 15.8 5.2 3.4 5.8 5.1 4.3 2.7 3.6 2004 21.6 15.3 33.1 20.5 9.5 3.7 5.5 10.9 3.9 4.2 4.2 2005 13.4 8.1 36.2 9.9 6.0 5.6 2.4 6.9 2.6 0.5 1.2 a Includes unspecified products Note: See the Technical Notes for the estimation of world aggregates of merchandise exports, production and GDP 6.6 10.0 9.1 8.3 5.1 7.3 8.0 5.3 5.0 6.7 9.8 3.3 -3.9 8.2 4.5 5.1 4.1 0.7 0.2 -1.4 3.1 7.2 3.4 3.1 4.4 5.7 3.4 1.0 -0.6 -0.5 -0.6 2.9 5.5 3.5 5.7 2.4 3.6 6.2 -1.4 1.4 4.8 3.8 3.3 Source: WTO, 2006 70 4.7 7.2 4.1 6.5 3.7 5.9 6.7 5.1 4.4 5.6 6.9 2.1 1.4 5.1 4.2 4.6 4.0 2.9 2.0 0.8 2.9 4.6 3.5 3.4 3.7 4.5 3.8 2.5 0.8 1.1 0.9 2.2 2.3 3.3 3.4 2.1 2.9 3.8 1.5 1.9 2.7 3.9 3.3 Appendix B Appendix Table 2: UNCTAD classification of trade control measures Code 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 2100 2200 2300 2400 3100 3200 3300 3400 3410 3420 3430 3500 3510 3520 3530 4100 4110 4120 4130 4170 4200 4300 4500 4600 5100 5200 6100 6110 6120 6130 6140 6141 6142 6143 6150 6160 6170 Category of Measure Tariff measures Para-tariff measures Price control measures Financial measures Automatic licensing measures Quantity control measures Type Statutory customs duties MFN duties GATT ceiling duties Tariff quota duties Seasonal duties Temporary reduced duties Temporary increased duties Preferential duties under trade agreements Customs surcharges Additional charges Internal taxes and charges levied on imports Decreed customs valuation Administrative price fixing Voluntary export price restraint Variable charges Anti-dumping measures Anti-dumping investigations Anti-dumping duties Anti-dumping price undertakings Countervailing measures Countervailing investigations Countervailing duties Countervailing undertakings Advance payment requirements Advance import deposits Cash margin requirement Advance payment of customs duties Refundable deposits for sensitive product categories Multiple exchange rates Restrictive official foreign exchange allocation Regulations concerning terms of payment for imports Transfer delays/queuing Automatic licence Import monitoring Non-automatic licensing Licence with no specific ex-ante criteria Licence for selected purchasers Licence for specific use Licence linked with local production Purchase of local goods Local content requirement Barter or counter trade Licence linked with non-official foreign exchange Licence with or replaced by special import authorization Prior authorisation for sensitive product categories 71 6180 6200 6210 6220 6230 6240 6250 6270 6280 6300 6310 6320 6330 6340 6350 6360 6370 6600 6700 7100 7200 8100 8110 8120 8130 8140 8150 8160 8200 8300 8400 8500 9100 9200 9300 9310 9320 9400 9500 Monopolistic measures Technical measures Miscellaneous measures Licence for political reasons Quotas Global quotas Bilateral quotas Seasonal quotas Quotas linked with export performance Quotas linked with the purchase of local goods Quotas for sensitive product categories Quotas for political reasons Prohibitions Total prohibition Suspension of issuance of licences Seasonal prohibition Temporary prohibition Import diversification Prohibition on the basis of origin (embargo) Prohibition for sensitive product characteristics Export restraint arrangements Enterprise-specific restrictions Single channel for imports Compulsory national services Technical regulations Product characteristic requirements Marking requirements Labelling requirements Packaging requirements Testing, inspection and quarantine requirements Information requirements Pre-shipment inspection Special customs formalities Obligation to return used products Obligation of recycling or reuse Marketable permits Public procurement Voluntary instruments Technical standards Voluntary agreements or covenants Product liability Subsidies Source: UNCTAD, 1994 72 Appendix Table 3: Major Categories of Non-Tariff Barriers Deardorff and Stern (1997) OECD (2003) Quantitative restrictions and similar specific limitations Import quotas Export limitations Licensing Voluntary export constraints Exchange and other financial controls Prohibitions Domestic content and mixing requirements Discriminatory bilateral agreements Countertrade Non-tariff charges and related policies affecting imports Variable levies Advance deposit requirement Antidumping duties Countervailing duties Border tax adjustments Government participation in trade, restrictive practices, and more general government policies Subsidies and other aids Government procurement policies State trading, government monopolies, and exclusive franchises Government industrial policy and regional development Government financed research and development and other Technology policies National systems of taxation and social insurance Macroeconomic policies Competition policies Foreign investment policies Foreign corruption policies Immigration policies Customs procedures and administrative practices Customs valuation procedures Customs classification procedures Customs clearance procedures Technical barriers to trade Health and sanitary regulations and quality standards Safety and industrial standards and regulations Packaging and labeling regulations, including trademarks Advertising and media regulations Technical measures Food safety and health requirements Sanitary and phytosanitary requirements Labeling regulations Quarantines Certification and testing requirements Customs rules and procedures Excessive documentation required Unpredictability Slow customs clearance Complex regulations Arbitrary enforcement of rules Lack of harmonization Internal taxes or charges Competition-related restrictions on market access Quantitative import restrictions Procedures and administration (general) Public procurement practices Subsidies and related government supports Investment restrictions or requirements Transport regulations or costs Restrictions of services (general) Restrictions on mobility of business people or labor Trade defense instruments Antidumping duties Countervailing duties Safeguards Local marketing regulations USTR (2006) Import policies (including quantitative restrictions, import licensing, customs barriers) Standards, testing, labeling, and certification Government procurement Export subsidies Lack of intellectual property protection Service barriers Investment barriers Anticompetitive practices with trade effects tolerated by foreign governments Trade restrictions affecting electronic commerce Others Jovanovic (1997) Gupta (1997) Government involvement in international trade Subsidies (production, exports, credit, R&D, cheap government services), Public Procurement, Embargoes, Tied Aid, State monopoly trading, Exchange rate restrict Customs and administrative entry procedures Customs Classification, Customs valuation, Antidumping and countervailing duties, Rules of origin, Consular formalities, Deposits, Trade licensing, Calendar of import, Administrative controls Standards Technical, Health, Environment, Testing and certification, Packing, labelling, weight Others Quotas, Tax remission rules, Variable levies, Bilateral agreements, Buy domestic campaigns, Voluntary export restrictions, Self-limitation agreements, Cartel practices, Permission to advertise, Ambiguous laws, Orderly marketing agreements Import Policy Barriers Standards, Testing, Labelling and Certification requirements Anti-dumping & Countervailing Measures Export Subsidies and Domestic Support Government procurement Services barriers Lack of adequate protection to Intellectual Property Rights Other barriers Source: Deardorff and Stern, 1997; Gupta, 1997; Jovanovic, 1997; USTR, 2006; and OECD, 2003 73 Appendix C Appendix Table 4: List of third countries whose organic agricultural products are imported into the EU Article 11(1) Procedure Argentina Australia Czech Republic Hungary Israel Switzerland Article 11(6) Procedure Belize Gabon Ghana Bolivia Bosnia Herzegovina Guatemala Guinea Brazil Guyana Bulgaria Burkina Faso Honduras Burma India Cameroon Indonesia Jamaica Canada Japan Cape Verde Chile Kenya Madagascar China Malawi Colombia Mauritius Comoros Costa Rica Mayotte Mexico Côte d’Ivoire Morocco Croatia Namibia Cuba Nepal Cyprus New Zealand Czech Republic Dominican Republic Nicaragua Egypt Pakistan El Salvador Papua-New Guinea Ecuador Paraguay Ethiopia Peru Philippines Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia Serbia Seychelles Slovakia South Africa Sri Lanka Thailand The Gambia Togo Tonga Tunisia Turkey Uganda Ukraine United States Uruguay Vanuatu Vietnam Yugoslavia Zambia Zimbabwe Source: Guillou and Scharpé, 2001 74 Appendix D The letter was sent to organic food exporters from china listed at the ITC website: My name is Yan Yang I am studying MSc in International Business in Portobello College Dublin Currently, I am conducting research of organic food companies exporting to the EU countries The goal of the study is to evaluate how environmentally-related non-tariff barriers affect managerial decision-making of exports from China to the EU and how managers develop their managerial behavior to deal with them The interview is anonymous; results of the interview will be aggregated and presented in my thesis The length of the interview is between 30-60 minutes Would you agree to answer the following questions? Summary of the interview questions: Part I: Information on the company What EU countries you export to? What types of organic products you export? What is your market entry mode to the EU countries? How many years has your company been operating? How many years have you been exporting your products to the EU? Which certification does your company obtain? Part II: Information on the environmentally related non-tariff barrier What are the major non-tariff barriers you have faced? What is the general trend in non-tariff barriers? Do you think that organic certification is the major environmentally related non-tariff barrier in the organic food industry? Do you feel that organic certification is acting as a barrier rather than a genuine requirement? Why? Do you feel that organic certification of your product should be completely done away with in the EU countries? Why? In your opinion, is the organic certification is a significant factor influencing your market entry into the EU countries? Have you stopped exporting to the EU due to intensification of the organic certification? How have you dealt with or overcome the organic certification? 75 ... reviewed, including types of NTBs, developing countries? ?? NTBs concerns, the principles of WTO involved in ETBs, and market entry considerations To gain more insight into the impact of ETBs on exporters, ... International Lawyers and Economists against Poverty IMF International Monetary Fund INTAL Institute for the Integration of Latin America and the Caribbean ISO International Organization for Standardization... discussions on economic development, in particular in relation to the developing countries (ITC, 2004) A constantly growing number of concerned consumers, mainly in the industrialized countries,