Runoff generation and soil erosion from different age of acaia plantation forest in truong son commune, luong son district, hoa binh province, viet nam master thesis in forest science

99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF FORESTRY  CHIN KOLYAN RUNOFF GENERATION AND SOIL EROSION FROM DIFFERENT AGE OF ACACIA PLANTATION FOREST IN TRUONG SON COMMUNE, LUONG SON DISTRICT, HOA BINH PROVINCE, VIETNAM MASTER THESIS IN FOREST SCIENCE Hanoi, 2018 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF FORESTRY  CHIN KOLYAN RUNOFF GENERATION AND SOIL EROSION FROM DIFFERENT AGE OF ACACIA PLANTATION FOREST IN TRUONG SON COMMUNE, LUONG SON DISTRICT, HOA BINH PROVINCE, VIETNAM Major: Forest Science Code: 8620201 MASTER THESIS IN FOREST SCIENCE Signature: ……………………… Supervisor: Assoc Prof Dr Bui Xuan Dung Hanoi, 2018 ii ABSTRACT Vegetation cover is the key factors that protect the soil, reduce surface runoff and soil erosion Present days, citizens are paying more attention to the industrial plantation in Vietnam, especially Acacia magium plantation as it takes part in improving the socio-economic condition To propose a solution to mitigate the impact of Acacia plantation, understanding about runoff generation and soil erosion are needed To determine the characteristic of runoff generation and soil erosion derived at the different ages of Acacia plantation forest in Luong Son headwater of Vietnam, four plots (15m2) were set up Of those, plots (up-hill and down-hill) in 1-year-old Acacia plantation and plots (up-hill and down-hill) in 5-years-old Acacia plantation The main finding includes: (1) runoff coefficient at Acacia 1year-old down and up was (0.36% - 0.46%) with the average 0.41% And Acacia 5years-old, down and up was (0.35% - 0.39%) with the average 0.37% It shows the slightly different between the locations of two years due to the different ground cover However, t-test result showed that the difference between locations in years one and year-5 are not significant (P-value = 0.31 and P-value = 0.96 respectively) T-test also indicated that there was no significant difference in term of an runoff at two different ages of Acacia plantation with (P-value = 0.95 > 0.05); (2) soil erosion is significantly different between two years of Acacia plantation (P-value = 0.004 < 0.05) Total soil erosion in year-1 and year-5 were 21.84 ton/ha/6months and 14.20 ton/ha/6months, respectively that is classified as strong erosion (level IV) base on TCVN5299:2009; (3) both runoff and soil erosion at different ages of Acacia plantation forest has strongly depended on the amount of precipitation (R2 range from 0.52-0.85, with P-value = 0.00) This suggests that the amount of runoff and soil erosion at Acacia 1-year-old was a greater amount of soil erosion because of fewer vegetation covers we need to be more concerned and apply suitable management for reducing the negative impact of Acacia plantation forest at the headwater of Vietnam i TABLE OF CONTENT ABSTRACT i TABLE OF CONTENT ii ABBREVIATIONS iv LIST OF TABLES v LIST OF FIGURES vi CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Runoff generation and soil erosion globally 2.2 Runoff generation and soil erosion in Vietnam 10 CHAPTER III: STUDY SITE AND METHODS 13 3.1 Study site 13 3.2 Methods 15 3.2.1 Plots design for an experiment 15 3.2.2 Measure runoff 19 3.2.3 Measure soil erosion 20 3.2.4 Measure precipitation 21 3.2.5 Soil moisture measuring 21 3.2.6 Measure porosity of the soil 22 3.2.7 Soil texture 23 3.2.8 Vegetation observation 25 3.2.9 Topographic survey 25 3.3 Data analysis 25 CHAPTER IV: RESULTS 26 4.1 Runoff generation at different ages of Acacia plantation 26 4.2 Soil erosion at different ages of Acacia plantation 30 4.3 The relationship among runoff, soil erosion, and precipitation 35 4.4 Suggested solution 39 ii CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION 41 5.1 Runoff generation at two different ages of Acacia plantation forest 41 5.2 Soil erosion at two different ages of Acacia plantation forest 44 CHAPTER VI: CONCLUSION 49 ACKNOWLEDGMENT 50 REFERENCES APPENDIX iii ABBREVIATIONS 1-Down Plot 1-down at Acacia 1-year-old 1-Up Plot 1-up at Acacia 1-year-old 5-Down Plot 5-down at Acacia 5-years-old 5-Up Plot 5-up at Acacia 5-years-old API7 Antecedent precipitation index for days C Carbon Cm3 Cubic centimeter df Degree of freedom FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Fig Figure GIS Geography Information System GPS Global position system Hectare N-P-K Nitrogen - Phosphorus - Potassium P-value Probability R2 Coefficient of determination RUSLE Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences USA United States of America USDA US Department of Agriculture iv LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Observation plots characteristic at the study site 17 Table 3.2 Soil texture at study site follow FAO classification 2006 17 Table 4.1 The summary result from SPSS (Appendix table1) 30 Table 4.2 The summary result from SPSS (Appendix table 1) 34 Table 4.3 Summary of correlation analysis between runoff, soil erosion, and both rainfall and soil moisture characteristics 38 Table 4.4 TCVN5299: 2009 Method for determination of soil erosion by rainfall 39 Table 5.1 Comparison the runoff coefficient with other studies (the unit for first two columns are %/6months while the rests are a %/1 year) 43 Table 5.2 Compare the soil erosion among Acacia plantation forest year-1, year-5 (ton/ha/6months) with other land types (ton/ha/year for the rest) 47 v LIST OF FIGURES Fig 2.1 Soil erosion effect by human impact in Madagascar, (Source: US news) Fig 2.2 Soil erosion by water globally (ton/ha/year) Fig 2.3 Soil erosion in Lai Chau after heavy rain in June 2018 .12 Fig 3.1 The map of the study site: a) Location of Hoa Binh province on Viet Nam map, b) Contour line map of four plots location; c) Acacia 1-year-old; d) Acacia 5years-old .14 Fig 3.2 Picture a) Contour line map shows the location of four plots, b) Model illustrates elevation, slope, and distance of plots at the study site 16 Fig 3.3 Picture plot 1-down and 1-up of Acacia 1-year-old and, plot 5-down and plot 5-up of Acacia 5-years-old planation forest at study site .16 Fig 3.4 The model of plot and experiment conducted, a) gutter, b) plastic tube, c) aluminum sheet, d) plastic container 18 Fig 3.5 A measured amount of runoff 19 Fig 3.6 Took eroded soil to dried and weighted in the Laboratory 20 Fig 3.7 US standard plastic rain gauge 21 Fig 3.8 (a) Bulk density tube, (b) took a soil sample, (c) soil sample keep in zipper plastic bag, (d) measured wet soil .23 Fig 3.9 (A) Removed fraction, (B) rock and roots, (C) soil after grind and (D)pipette 24 Fig 4.1 Runoff generation and precipitation at the study site 26 Fig 4.2 Runoff coefficient from four plots .27 Fig 4.3 Runoff accumulation and precipitation from four plots 28 Fig 4.4 Runoff generation box chat plot 29 Fig 4.5 Precipitation and soil erosion from four plots .31 Fig 4.6 Soil erosion accumulation from four plots 31 Fig 4.7 Soil erosion box chat plot 33 vi Fig 4.8 The model illustrates the result of runoff and soil erosion at two different ages of Acacia plantation forest from April to September 2018 34 Fig 4.9 Correlation between precipitation and runoff from four plots 35 Fig 4.10 Correlation between soil erosion and precipitation from four plots 36 Fig 4.11 Correlation between soil erosion and runoff from four plots 37 vii CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION Runoff and erosion are considered the main cause of soil and water resources degradation (Clement et al., 2006; Yang et al., 2003) Runoff is a process of water surface flow, other sources flow over the earth’s surface Runoff is one of the main factors that support for non-point source pollution It’s also the main cause of sediment delivery to stream and river (Braskerud, 2002) However, sometimes runoff can start before all surface depressions have been filled (Moore and Larson, 1979) Erosion is the action of the surface process of soil due to a water drop and wind, under the impact of gravity on earth (Ellison, 1945) Previous researches indicated that runoff and erosion have a close relationship with precipitation (Ramos‐ Scharrón and MacDonald, 2007) Soil erosion is a natural phenomenon but this phenomenon is becoming more serious (Hudson, 1995) It not only directly affects the agroforestry production activities but also affects the environment and the life of the downstream communities as land degrades rapidly in all aspects: chemistry, physics, and biology (Joseph, 2005) The characteristics of runoff and erosion will have a direct impact on soil quality, stream health and water quality In the rapid developing speed of the world, the environmental problem has emerged as one of the most important challenges that the world together must face Industrialization and agriculture activities have left behind serious impact on the natural condition Globally Soil erosion has been an environmental concern in such countries as China and those bordering the Mediterranean Sea for millennia (Morgan, 2009) The potential of soil loss estimated is about 0.38mm/year The most seriously affected region in the world in Southeast Asia It nearly 60% of present soil erosions are induced by human activity, global warming, the increasing trend of precipitation and population (Yang et al., 2003) Erosion happens quite frequently in Asia, Africa and South America with the soil mass from 30 to 40 tons per hectare for every year (Barrow, 1991) In Cambodia, the degradation of soil and water quality will lead to REFERENCES Altieri, M.A., 1999 The ecological role of biodiversity in agroecosystems, in: Invertebrate Biodiversity as Bioindicators of Sustainable Landscapes Elsevier, pp 19–31 Ananda, J., Herath, G., 2003 Soil erosion in developing countries: a socioeconomic appraisal J Environ Manage 68, 343–353 Barbier, E.B., Bishop, J.T., 1995 Economic values and incentives affecting soil and water conservation in developing countries J Soil Water Conserv 50, 133– 137 Barrow, C.J., 1991 Land degradation: development and breakdown of terrestrial environments Cambridge University Press Bauters, T., Steenhuis, T., DiCarlo, D., Nieber, J., Dekker, L., Ritsema, C., Parlange, J.-Y., Haverkamp, R., 2000 Physics of water repellent soils J Hydrol 231, 233–243 Bonell, M., 1998 SELECTED CHALLENGES IN RUNOFF GENERATION RESEARCH IN FORESTS FROM THE HILLSLOPE TO HEADWATER DRAINAGE BASIN SCALE JAWRA J Am Water Resour Assoc 34, 765–785 Braskerud, B., 2002 Factors affecting phosphorus retention in small constructed wetlands treating agricultural non-point source pollution Ecol Eng 19, 41– 61 Bruijnzeel, L.A., 2004 Hydrological functions of tropical forests: not seeing the soil for the trees? Agric Ecosyst Environ 104, 185–228 Bui, D.T., Pradhan, B., Lofman, O., Revhaug, I., Dick, O.B., 2012 Landslide susceptibility mapping at Hoa Binh province (Vietnam) using an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system and GIS Comput Geosci 45, 199–211 Bui Xuan Dung, D.V.Q., 2017 Applying universal soil loss equation (USLE) to estimation soil erosion at Lam son headwater catchment J For Sci Technology Castella, J.-C., Boissau, S., Thanh, N.H., Novosad, P., 2006 Impact of forestland allocation on land use in a mountainous province of Vietnam Land Use Policy 23, 147–160 Cerdà, A., 1998 The influence of geomorphological position and vegetation cover on the erosional and hydrological processes on a Mediterranean hillslope Hydrol Process 12, 661–671 Chaplot, V., Le Bissonnais, Y., 2000 Field measurements of interrill erosion under different slopes and plot sizes Earth Surf Process Landf J Br Geomorphol Res Group 25, 145–153 Chappell, N.A., Douglas, I., Hanapi, J.M., Tych, W., 2004 Sources of suspended sediment within a tropical catchment recovering from selective logging Hydrol Process 18, 685–701 Chorley, R.J., 1969 Water, earth, and man A synthesis of hydrology, geomorphology, and socio-economic geography Water Earth Man Synth Hydrol Geomorphol Socio-Econ Geogr Clement, F., Amezaga, J.M., Orange, D., Tran Duc, T., Large, A.R., Calder, I.R., 2006 Reforestation policies and upland allocation in Northern Vietnam: an institutional approach for understanding farmer strategies and land use change Presented at the Proceedings of the international symposium towards sustainable livelihoods and ecosystems in mountainous regions, pp 7–9 Cong, N , Hoa, D.T.T., Trang, P.T , Thu, V.T.H., Lan, T.N., 2018 Evaluating effects of Acacia plantation forest on overland flow and soil erosion in Luong Son headwater of Vietnam (Report) Davie, D.K., Lant, C.L., 1994 The effect of CRP enrollment on sediment loads in two southern Illinois streams J Soil Water Conserv 49, 407–412 De Baets, S., Poesen, J., Knapen, A., Barberá, G.G., Navarro, J., 2007 Root characteristics of representative Mediterranean plant species and their erosion-reducing potential during concentrated runoff Plant Soil 294, 169– 183 Descroix, L., Viramontes, D., Vauclin, M., Barrios, J.G., Esteves, M., 2001a Influence of soil surface features and vegetation on runoff and erosion in the Western Sierra Madre (Durango, Northwest Mexico) Catena 43, 115–135 Descroix, L., Viramontes, D., Vauclin, M., Barrios, J.G., Esteves, M., 2001b Influence of soil surface features and vegetation on runoff and erosion in the Western Sierra Madre (Durango, Northwest Mexico) Catena 43, 115–135 Dien, T., 1996 Sloping Land Agriculture: Challenges and Potentials Doran, J., Skelton, D., 1982 Acacia mangium seed collections for international provenance trials For Genet Resour Inf FAO 47–53 Dung B.X, M , Gomi ., 2011 Effect of forest thinning on overland flow generation on hillslopes covered by Japanese cypress Ecohydrology 4, pp 367–378 Edwards, W., Owens, L., 1991 Large storm effects on total soil erosion J Soil Water Conserv 46, 75–78 Ellis, T.W., Leguedois, S., Hairsine, P.B., Tongway, D.J., 2006 Capture of overland flow by a tree belt on a pastured hillslope in south-eastern Australia Soil Res 44, 117–125 Ellison, W., 1945 Some effects of raindrops and surface‐flow on soil erosion and infiltration Eos Trans Am Geophys Union 26, 415–429 Ellison, W., 1944 Studies of raindrop erosion Agric Eng 25, 131–136 Fox, D., Bryan, R., Price, A., 1997 The influence of slope angle on final infiltration rate for interrill conditions Geoderma 80, 181–194 Gabet, E.J., Dunne, T., 2003 Sediment detachment by rain power Water Resour Res 39, ESG-1 Gomi, T., Sidle, R.C., Noguchi, S., Negishi, J.N., Nik, A.R., Sasaki, S., 2006 Sediment and wood accumulations in humid tropical headwater streams: effects of logging and riparian buffers For Ecol Manag 224, 166–175 Gomi, T., Sidle, R.C., Ueno, M., Miyata, S., Kosugi, K., 2008 Characteristics of overland flow generation on steep forested hillslopes of central Japan J Hydrol 361, 275–290 Ha, H.A.P., Huon, S., des Tureaux, T.H., Orange, D., Jouquet, P., Valentin, C., De Rouw, A., Duc, T.T., 2012 Impact of fodder cover on runoff and soil erosion at plot scale in a cultivated catchment of North Vietnam Geoderma 177, 8– 17 Hack, J.T., Goodlett, J.C., 1960 Geomorphology and forest ecology of a mountain region in the central Appalachians (No 2330–7102) United States Government Printing Office Hården, P.-O., Sundborg, Å., 1992 The lower Mekong basin suspended sediment transport and sedimentation problems AB Hydroconsult Hoa Binh forest company, 2016 Introduction Hoa Binh forest company [WWW Document] URL http://www.vinaforhoabinh.com/aboutus.asp (accessed 9.11.18) Horton, R.E., 1933 The role of infiltration in the hydrologic cycle Eos Trans Am Geophys Union 14, 446–460 Huang, C., Gascuel-Odoux, C., Cros-Cayot, S., 2002 Hillslope topographic and hydrologic effects on overland flow and erosion Catena 46, 177–188 Hudson, N., 2015 Soil conservation: fully revised and updated New India Publishing Agency Hudson, N., 1995 Soil Conservation BT Batsford Limited ISBN 0-8138-2372-2, London Imeson, A.C., Vis, M., 1982 A survey of soil erosion processes in tropical forest ecosystems on volcanic ash soils in the Central Andean Cordillera, Colombia Geogr Ann Ser Phys Geogr 64, 181–198 Jahn, R., Blume, H., Asio, V., Spaargaren, O., Schad, P., 2006 Guidelines for soil description FAO Jain, S.K., Kumar, S., Varghese, J., 2001 Estimation of soil erosion for a Himalayan watershed using GIS technique Water Resour Manag 15, 41– 54 Joel, A., Messing, I., Seguel, O., Casanova, M., 2002 Measurement of surface water runoff from plots of two different sizes Hydrol Process 16, 1467– 1478 Joseph, B., 2005 Environmental studies Tata McGraw-Hill Education Jouquet, P., Janeau, J.-L., Pisano, A., Sy, H.T., Orange, D., Minh, L.T.N., Valentin, C., 2012 Influence of earthworms and termites on runoff and erosion in a tropical steep slope fallow in Vietnam: a rainfall simulation experiment Appl Soil Ecol 61, 161–168 Kelin, C., Chun, L., 1999 The wetlands of Mekong basin in China Presented at the Proc Workshop Wetlands, Awareness, Local People and the Ramsar Convention in the Mekong River Basin, pp 19–22 Lal, R., 2004 Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security science 304, 1623–1627 Lal, R., 1998 Soil erosion impact on agronomic productivity and environment quality Crit Rev Plant Sci 17, 319–464 Lesschen, J., Cammeraat, L., Nieman, T., 2008 Erosion and terrace failure due to agricultural land abandonment in a semi‐arid environment Earth Surf Process Landf J Br Geomorphol Res Group 33, 1574–1584 Ligdi, E.E., Morgan, R., 1995 Contour grass strips: a laboratory simulation of their role in soil erosion control Soil Technol 8, 109–117 Linh, N.M., 2017 Runoff generation and soil erosion from forest road in the headwater of Vietnam (Thesis) VNUF MacDonald, L.H., Sampson, R.W., Anderson, D.M., 2001 Runoff and road erosion at the plot and road segment scales, St John, US Virgin Islands Earth Surf Process Landf J Br Geomorphol Res Group 26, 251–272 Maglinao, A., Leslie, R., 2001 Soil erosion management research in Asian catchments: methodological approaches and initial results Mah, M., Douglas, L., Ringrose-Voase, A., 1992 Effects of crust development and surface slope on erosion by rainfall Soil Sci 154, 37–43 Malmer, A., 1996 Hydrological effects and nutrient losses of forest plantation establishment on tropical rainforest land in Sabah, Malaysia J Hydrol 174, 129–148 Mandal, U.K., Sharma, K., Prasad, J., Reddy, B.S., Narsimlu, B., Saikia, U., Adake, R.V., Yadaiah, P., Masane, R.N., Venkanna, K., 2012 Nutrient losses by runoff and sediment from an agricultural field in semi-arid tropical India Indian J Dryland Agric Res Dev 27, 1–9 McDowell, R., Sharpley, A., 2002 Effect of plot scale and an upslope phosphorus source on phosphorus loss in overland flow Soil Use Manag 18, 112–119 McGrath, D.A., Smith, C.K., Gholz, H.L., de Assis Oliveira, F., 2001 Effects of land-use change on soil nutrient dynamics in Amazonia Ecosystems 4, 625– 645 Mihara, Y., 1951 Raindrop and soil erosion (in Japanese with English summary) Bull Natl Inst Agric Sci A 1, 1–59 Miyata, S., Kosugi, K., Gomi, T., Mizuyama, T., 2009 Effects of forest floor coverage on overland flow and soil erosion on hillslopes in Japanese cypress plantation forests Water Resour Res 45 Mohamadi, M.A., Kavian, A., 2015 Effects of rainfall patterns on runoff and soil erosion in field plots Int Soil Water Conserv Res 3, 273–281 Mohammad, A.G., Adam, M.A., 2010 The impact of vegetative cover type on runoff and soil erosion under different land uses Catena 81, 97–103 Moore, I., Larson, C., 1979 Estimating micro-relief surface storage from point data Trans ASAE 22, 1073–1077 Morgan, R.P.C., 2009 Soil erosion and conservation John Wiley & Sons Nachtergaele, F., Petri, M., Biancalani, R., Van Lynden, G., Van Velthuizen, H., Bloise, M., 2010 Global land degradation information system (GLADIS) Beta Version Inf Database Land Degrad Assess Glob Level Land Degrad Assess Drylands Tech Rep 17 Nanko, K., Mizugaki, S., Onda, Y., 2008 Estimation of soil splash detachment rates on the forest floor of an unmanaged Japanese cypress plantation based on field measurements of throughfall drop sizes and velocities Catena 72, 348– 361 National standard, 2009 TCVN5299: 2009, National standard for determination soil quality and soil erosion by rain Negi, G., Rikhari, H., Garkoti, S., 1998 The hydrology of three high‐altitude forests in Central Himalaya, India: a reconnaissance study Hydrol Process 12, 343–350 Ngo, T.S., Nguyen, D.B., Rajendra, P.S., 2015 Effect of land use change on runoff and sediment yield in Da River Basin of Hoa Binh province, Northwest Vietnam J Mt Sci 12, 1051–1064 Nguyen Trong Ha, 1996 “Identification of erosion factors and the ability to predict soil erosion on sloping land” PhD thesis, Water Resour Univ Hanoi Oldemal, R.L, 1994 The global extent of soil degradation In: Greenland, D.J., Szabolcs, I (Eds.), Soil Resilience and Sustainable Land Use Wallingford, United Kingdom,pp 99–118 [WWW Document] URL (accessed 9.8.18) Orange, D., Podwojewski, P., Toan, T.D., Van Rinh, P., Phai, D.D., Phuong, N.D., 2007 Impact of land-use on bed load transported by rivers in the Dong Cao Watershed, North Vietnam International Water Management Institute Parsons, A., Stone, P., 2006 Effects of intra-storm variations in rainfall intensity on interrill runoff and erosion Catena 67, 68–78 Pham Van Dien, 2006 “water retention of some vegetation cover in the peaceful hydropower reservoir” Pimentel, D., Kounang, N., 1998 Ecology of soil erosion in ecosystems Ecosystems 1, 416–426 Podwojewski, P., Orange, D., Jouquet, P., Valentin, C., Janeau, J., Tran, D.T., 2008 Land-use impacts on surface runoff and soil detachment within agricultural sloping lands in Northern Vietnam Catena 74, 109–118 Poesen, J., 1984 The influence of slope angle on infiltration rate and Hortonian overland flow Z Für Geomorpholgie Suppl Band 49, 117–131 Quansah, C., 1981 The effect of soil type, slope, rain intensity and their interactions on splash detachment and transport J Soil Sci 32, 215–224 Ramos‐Scharrón, C.E., MacDonald, L.H., 2007 Runoff and suspended sediment yields from an unpaved road segment, St John, US Virgin Islands Hydrol Process 21, 35–50 Roose, E., 1988 Soil and water conservation lessons from steep-slope farming in French-speaking countries of Africa Sein, C.C., Mitlöhner, R., 2011 Acacia mangium Willd: ecology and silviculture in Vietnam CIFOR Sharma, E., Rai, S., Sharma, R., 2001 Soil, water and nutrient conservation in mountain farming systems: Case-study from the Sikkim Himalaya J Environ Manage 61, 123–135 Sharma, K., Singh, H., Pareek, O., 1983 Rainwater infiltration into a bare loamy sand Hydrol Sci J 28, 417–424 Shinohara, Y., Misumi, Y., Kubota, T., Nanko, K., 2019 Characteristics of soil erosion in a moso-bamboo forest of western Japan: Comparison with a broadleaved forest and a coniferous forest Catena 172, 451–460 Tran K, Le Thai B, 1999 Land environment (report on actual land environment in Vietnam) Vietnam Natl Univ Hanoi Vietnam p 21 Tuan, V.D., Hilger, T., MacDonald, L., Clemens, G., Shiraishi, E., Vien, T.D., Stahr, K., Cadisch, G., 2014 Mitigation potential of soil conservation in maize cropping on steep slopes Field Crops Res 156, 91–102 Valentin, C., Agus, F., Alamban, R., Boosaner, A., Bricquet, J.-P., Chaplot, V., De Guzman, T., De Rouw, A., Janeau, J.-L., Orange, D., 2008 Runoff and sediment losses from 27 upland catchments in Southeast Asia: Impact of rapid land use changes and conservation practices Agric Ecosyst Environ 128, 225–238 Van De, N., Douglas, I., McMorrow, J., Lindley, S., THUY BINH, D.K.N., Van, T.T., Thanh, L.H., Tho, N., 2008 Erosion and nutrient loss on sloping land under intense cultivation in southern Vietnam Geogr Res 46, 4–16 Van Dijk, A., Bruijnzeel, L., Rosewell, C., 2002 Rainfall intensity–kinetic energy relationships: a critical literature appraisal J Hydrol 261, 1–23 van Keulen, H., Hessel, R., Ritsema, C., Roetter, R., Phien, T., 2013 Influence of paddy rice terraces on soil erosion of a small watershed in a hilly area of Northern Vietnam Paddy Water Environ 11, 285–298 Vinh TQ, Minh HT, 2009 Application of GIS to form LS factor map in soil erosion research at Tam Nong district, Phu Tho province Sci J Dev Ha Noi Univ Agric 667–674 Wagenbrenner, J., MacDonald, L., Rough, D., 2006 Effectiveness of three post‐fire rehabilitation treatments in the Colorado Front Range Hydrol Process 20, 2989–3006 Walling, D., Kleo, A., 1979 Sediment yields of rivers in areas of low precipitation: a global view Proc Hydrol Areas Low Precip Wells, W., 1981 II (1982) Hydrology of Mediterranean-type ecosystems: A summary and synthesis Presented at the Symposium on Dynamics and Management of Mediterranean-Type Ecosystems (Conrad CE and WC Oechel, technical coordinators), pp 21–26 Wilcox, B.P., Breshears, D.D., Allen, C.D., 2003 Ecohydrology of a resource‐ conserving semiarid woodland: Effects of scale and disturbance Ecol Monogr 73, 223–239 Xiem NT, Phien Thai, 1999 Vietnam mountainous soil, degradation and restoration Ha Noi Agric Publ Co 74 – 126 Xu, X., 2006 Research review of the relationship between vegetation and soil loss Acta Ecol Sin 26, 3137–3143 Yang, D., Kanae, S., Oki, T., Koike, T., Musiake, K., 2003 Global potential soil erosion with reference to land use and climate changes Hydrol Process 17, 2913–2928 Zheng, F.-L., 2006 Effect of Vegetation Changes on Soil Erosion on the Loess Plateau1 Pedosphere 16, 420–427 ZHOU, Z., SHANGGUAN, Z., 2005 Soil anti‐scouribility enhanced by plant roots J Integr Plant Biol 47, 676–682 Zuazo, V.D., Martínez, J.F., Raya, A.M., 2004 Impact of vegetative cover on runoff and soil erosion at hillslope scale in Lanjaron, Spain Environmentalist 24, 39–48 Zuazo, V.H.D., Pleguezuelo, C.R.R., 2009 Soil-erosion and runoff prevention by plant covers: a review, in: Sustainable Agriculture Springer, pp 785–811 APPENDIX Appendix 1: Plots descriptive statistic Plot N Minimum Maximum Sum Mean Std Deviation 1- 55 0.00 1.3 20.0 0.36 0.28 1-up 55 0.00 1.4 25.5 0.46 0.34 5- 55 0.00 1.5 22.3 0.35 0.32 5-up 55 0.00 1.1 21.1 0.39 0.27 1- 55 0.00 1.01 8.84 0.16 0.18 down Runoff coefficient (%) down down Runoff 1-up 55 0.00 1.1 10.90 0.20 0.20 (mm) 5- 55 0.00 1.4 11.11 0.17 0.27 5-up 55 0.00 0.71 9.72 0.18 0.18 1- 55 0.00 8505.58 217385.24 3952.5 2312.1 1-up 55 0.00 11352.4 298316.4 5423.9 3113.8 5- 55 0.00 6183.9 188709.03 3431.1 1790.9 55 0.00 6723.1 213115.3 3874.8 1820.2 down down Soil erosion (g/15m2) down 5-up Appendix Monitored storm event, runoff, and erosion Day Precipitation Rainfall intensity API7 (mm) (mm/h) Runoff (mm) Runoff coefficient Soil loss (g) (mm) 1-down 1-up 5-down 5-up 1-down 1-up 5-down 5-up 1-down 1-up Soil loss (mm) 5-down 5-up 1-down 1-up 5-down 5-up 22/4/2018 32.0 9.85 0.0 0.17 0.21 0.11 0.18 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.6 205.5 325.8 155.3 235.2 0.005 0.008 0.004 0.006 25/4/2018 43.5 9.00 10.7 0.28 0.32 0.20 0.23 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.5 385.7 446.6 185.0 261.6 0.010 0.011 0.005 0.007 30/4/2018 35.7 8.39 8.7 0.21 0.25 0.12 0.20 0.6 0.7 0.3 0.6 250.0 350.1 167.2 250.8 0.006 0.009 0.004 0.006 3/5/2018 28.8 11.52 11.9 0.16 0.17 0.10 0.13 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.5 180.1 220.2 145.2 210.2 0.005 0.006 0.004 0.005 5/5/2018 24.8 7.82 21.5 0.12 0.15 0.09 0.11 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.4 150.6 200.3 100.5 150.1 0.004 0.005 0.003 0.004 8/5/2018 29.0 8.69 14.0 0.14 0.16 0.11 0.12 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 156.2 199.2 150.1 170.9 0.004 0.005 0.004 0.004 12/5/2018 54.0 11.57 10.8 0.34 0.35 0.21 0.29 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.5 545.3 572.4 293.9 468.4 0.014 0.014 0.007 0.012 13/5/2018 7.3 5.80 59.8 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 16/5/2018 10.9 7.27 16.0 0.05 0.11 0.03 0.04 0.5 1.0 0.3 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 18/5/2018 42.0 13.26 15.9 0.24 0.32 0.19 0.44 0.6 0.8 0.5 1.1 344.5 466.9 240.8 329.4 0.009 0.012 0.006 0.008 19/5/2018 5.0 2.02 54.5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 21/5/2018 12.0 3.88 18.7 0.07 0.13 0.04 0.05 0.6 1.1 0.3 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 24/5/2018 5.7 5.70 12.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 26/5/2018 34.5 9.41 6.0 0.12 0.19 0.18 0.28 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.8 110.8 297.0 301.3 308.1 0.003 0.007 0.008 0.008 27/5/2018 83.6 13.19 38.3 0.30 0.41 1.27 0.51 0.4 0.5 1.5 0.6 350.3 488.4 727.5 530.2 0.009 0.012 0.018 0.013 28/5/2018 6.1 2.98 108.5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 29/5/2018 20.0 15.0 46.6 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 30/5/2018 14.5 8.70 60.4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1/6/2018 14.2 6.53 37.9 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2/6/2018 59.5 11.16 44.0 0.18 0.27 0.79 0.52 0.3 0.5 1.3 0.9 110.5 382.1 472.5 380.2 0.003 0.010 0.012 0.010 4/6/2018 54.5 40.88 41.6 0.10 0.19 0.16 0.27 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.5 80.7 160.1 110.5 215.8 0.002 0.004 0.003 0.005 6/6/2018 6.5 4.88 47.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 9/6/2018 2.5 1.50 21.5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 10/6/2018 25.5 20.68 13.2 0.02 0.02 0.15 0.10 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 11/6/2018 7.5 3.26 35.8 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 14/6/2018 5.0 4.57 9.3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 16/6/2018 19.5 7.31 8.6 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 19/6/2018 117.5 17.63 7.5 0.24 0.37 1.36 0.71 0.2 0.3 1.2 0.6 20/6/2018 2.3 1.13 123.2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 112.1 394.3 0.0 0.0 539.5 389.8 0.003 0.010 0.014 0.010 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 28/6/2018 9/7/2018 24.0 21.3 11.08 7.08 0.0 0.02 0.02 0.07 0.05 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.0 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 70.5 115.2 205.1 220.9 0.002 0.003 0.005 0.006 10/7/2018 59.5 7.93 21.3 0.09 0.17 0.33 0.50 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.8 20/7/2018 64.0 6.92 0.0 0.30 0.40 0.37 0.53 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.8 390.6 490.5 208.2 235.1 0.010 0.012 0.005 0.006 21/7/2018 44.0 7.54 64.0 0.24 0.30 0.13 0.14 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.3 285.3 400.8 96.6 100.2 0.007 0.010 0.002 0.003 22/7/2018 49.5 6.19 76.0 0.27 0.31 0.17 0.18 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.4 375.4 422.5 110.5 125.1 0.009 0.011 0.003 0.003 23/7/2018 32.5 5.27 92.8 0.17 0.21 0.11 0.15 0.5 0.7 0.0 0.5 210.6 320.6 99.1 105.0 0.005 0.008 0.002 0.003 24/7/2018 24.5 7.74 87.9 0.12 0.17 0.03 0.04 0.5 0.7 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 26/7/2018 52.5 6.85 44.8 0.29 0.32 0.18 0.21 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.4 350.7 423.1 112.2 130.0 0.009 0.011 0.003 0.003 28/7/2018 73.5 5.80 57.7 0.83 0.93 0.61 0.61 1.1 1.3 0.8 0.8 500.0 510.2 250.1 270.2 0.013 0.013 0.006 0.007 29/7/2018 81.0 7.48 108.3 1.01 1.13 0.66 0.67 1.3 1.5 0.8 0.8 530.3 585.6 251.1 271.2 0.013 0.015 0.006 0.007 13/8/2018 35.0 6.00 0.0 0.19 0.23 0.23 0.17 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.5 220.0 320.0 100.8 111.2 0.006 0.008 0.003 0.003 14/8/2018 29.0 9.67 35.0 0.13 0.18 0.18 0.11 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.4 102.0 120.0 85.7 95.1 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.002 16/8/2018 52.0 8.00 26.2 0.28 0.30 0.30 0.23 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.4 320.0 370.0 120.0 140.1 0.008 0.009 0.003 0.004 18/8/2018 22.0 8.80 37.0 0.10 0.13 0.13 0.04 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 19/8/2018 47.0 12.53 50.9 0.23 0.28 0.28 0.19 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.4 280.0 340.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 105.1 113.1 0.007 0.009 0.003 0.003 20/8/2018 31.0 5.47 80.8 0.14 0.19 0.19 0.12 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.4 108.0 120.0 86.3 96.2 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.002 22/8/2018 33.5 7.44 45.2 0.17 0.21 0.21 0.15 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.4 210.0 311.0 99.1 105.0 0.005 0.008 0.002 0.003 24/8/2018 33.0 7.33 73.8 0.16 0.21 0.21 0.17 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.5 200.0 309.0 100.0 109.5 0.005 0.008 0.003 0.003 26/8/2018 42.0 8.69 35.8 0.21 0.24 0.24 0.18 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.4 244.0 323.0 108.5 110.2 0.006 0.008 0.003 0.003 27/8/2018 44.0 5.50 64.1 0.22 0.25 0.25 0.19 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.4 251.0 325.0 103.7 112.0 0.006 0.008 0.003 0.003 28/8/2018 50.0 5.56 85.8 0.25 0.27 0.27 0.21 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 290.0 333.0 113.6 121.3 0.007 0.008 0.003 0.003 29/8/2018 55.0 5.50 97.4 0.28 0.31 0.31 0.23 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.4 325.0 380.0 120.0 130.7 0.008 0.010 0.003 0.003 30/8/2018 51.0 4.64 110.7 0.24 0.27 0.27 0.22 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 260.0 330.0 119.0 120.4 0.007 0.008 0.003 0.003 31/8/2018 21.0 7.88 112.1 0.08 0.10 0.10 0.03 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 3/9/2018 12.0 6.86 45.4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.0 ... FROM DIFFERENT AGE OF ACACIA PLANTATION FOREST IN TRUONG SON COMMUNE, LUONG SON DISTRICT, HOA BINH PROVINCE, VIETNAM Major: Forest Science Code: 8620201 MASTER THESIS IN FOREST SCIENCE Signature:... different age of Acacia plantation forest in Truong Son commune, Luong Son district, Hoa Binh Province, Vietnam Hence the objectives of this study were to: 1) To determine runoff generation at different. .. understanding about runoff generation and soil erosion are needed To determine the characteristic of runoff generation and soil erosion derived at the different ages of Acacia plantation forest in Luong