Through their provision of amino acids, proteins are essential to human growth, but they also have a range of structural and functional properties which have a profound impact on food quality. Proteins in food processing reviews the growing body of research on understanding protein structure and developing proteins as multifunctional ingredients for the food industry. Chapter 2 describes what we know about the common chemical and physical properties of proteins and the range of factors that influence how these properties are expressed in particular food systems. It provides a context for Part I which discusses the diverse sources of proteins, whether from milk, meat or plants. Individual chapters review the structure and properties of these groups of proteins and ways of improving their functionality as food ingredients. Part II builds on Part I by summarising the range of recent research on analysing and modifying proteins. A first group of chapters reviews ways of testing and modelling protein behaviour, understanding enzyme activity and detecting allergenic proteins. They are followed by chapters reviewing the range of techniques for extracting, purifying and modifying proteins. The book concludes by analysing the many applications of proteins as ingredients, from their use as edible films to their role in modifying textural properties and improving the nutritional quality of food.
Proteins in food processing Related titles from Woodhead's food science, technology and nutrition list: Starch in food: Structure, function and applications (ISBN 85573 731 0) Starch is both a major component of plant foods and an important ingredient for the food industry This book reviews what we know about starch structure and functionality, the growing range of starch ingredients and their use to improve the nutritional and sensory quality of food Handbook of minerals as nutritional supplements (ISBN 8493 1652 9) This handbook provides a comprehensive presentation and interprets the current status of research on various mineral supplements Yeasts in food (ISBN 85573 706 X) Yeasts play a crucial role in the sensory quality of a wide range of foods This book provides a comprehensive review of the methods for their detection, identification and analysis as well as the role of yeasts in several food products including dairy products, meat, fruit, bread and beverages Details of these books and a complete list of Woodhead's food science, technology and nutrition titles can be obtained by: · visiting our web site at www.woodhead-publishing.com · contacting Customer Services (e-mail: sales@woodhead-publishing.com; fax: +44 (0) 1223 893694; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 891358 ext 30; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge CB1 6AH, England) Selected food science and technology titles are also available in electronic form Visit our web site (www.woodhead-publishing.com) to find out more If you would like to receive information on forthcoming titles in this area, please send your address details to: Francis Dodds (address, tel and fax as above; e-mail: francisd@woodhead-publishing.com) Please confirm which subject areas you are interested in Proteins in food processing Edited by R Y Yada Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited Abington Hall, Abington Cambridge CB1 6AH England www.woodhead-publishing.com Published in North America by CRC Press LLC 2000 Corporate Blvd, NW Boca Raton FL 33431 USA First published 2004, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC ß 2004, Woodhead Publishing Limited The authors have asserted their moral rights This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials Neither the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited or CRC Press LLC for such copying Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Woodhead Publishing Limited ISBN 85573 723 X (book); 85573 837 (e-book) CRC Press ISBN 0-8493-2536-6 CRC Press order number: WP2536 The publisher's policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which have been manufactured from pulp which is processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free practices Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards Project managed by Macfarlane Production Services, Markyate, Hertfordshire (e-mail: macfarl@aol.com) Typeset by MHL Typesetting Limited, Coventry, Warwickshire Printed by TJ International Limited, Padstow, Cornwall, England Contents Contributor contact details xiii Introduction R Y Yada, University of Guelph, Canada Properties of proteins in food systems: an introduction E C Y Li-Chan, The University of British Columbia, Canada 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Chemical and physical properties of food proteins 2.3 Factors affecting properties of proteins in food systems 2.4 Structure and function of proteins: classification and relationships 2.5 Future trends 2.6 Sources of further information and advice 2.7 References Part I 12 17 20 22 22 Sources of proteins 27 The caseins P F Fox and A L Kelly, University College, Cork, Ireland 3.1 Introduction: the caseins 3.2 Heterogeneity of the caseins 3.3 Molecular properties of the caseins 3.4 The caseins as food constituents and ingredients 3.5 The casein micelle: introduction 3.6 Properties and stabilisation mechanisms of casein micelles 29 29 30 33 36 40 43 vi Contents 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 Structure models of the casein micelle Stability of casein micelles Future trends References 46 51 62 62 Whey proteins A Kilara, Arun Kilara Worldwide, USA and M N Vaghela, Nestle R & D Center, USA 4.1 Introduction: whey proteins as food ingredients 4.2 Analytical methods for determining protein content 4.3 Structure of whey proteins 4.4 Improving functionality of whey proteins in foods: physical processes and enzymatic modification 4.5 Sources of further information and advice 4.6 References 72 Muscle proteins Y L Xiong, University of Kentucky, USA 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Structure of muscle proteins and endogenous proteases 5.3 Muscle protein functionality 5.4 Prepared muscle proteins as functional ingredients 5.5 Future trends 5.6 Sources of further information and advice 5.7 References 100 Soy proteins D Fukushima, Noda Institute for Scientific Research, Japan 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Soybean storage proteins: structure-function relationship of -conglycinin and glycinin 6.3 Soy protein as a food ingredient: physiochemical properties and physiological functions 6.4 Improving soy protein functionality 6.5 Conclusion 6.6 References 123 Proteins from oil-producing plants S D Arntfield, University of Manitoba, Canada 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Oilseed protein characteristics 7.3 Factors limiting protein utilization 7.4 Extraction and isolation of proteins 7.5 Functional properties of proteins 7.6 Improving functionality of oilseed protein 146 72 77 81 85 93 94 100 101 105 113 116 117 118 123 125 129 137 139 140 146 146 150 156 160 162 Contents 7.7 7.8 Future trends References 166 167 Cereal proteins N Guerrieri, University of Milan, Italy 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Protein function in cereals 8.3 Classification of proteins 8.4 Gluten: formation, properties and modification 8.5 Processing and modification of cereal proteins in cereal products 8.6 Future trends 8.7 References 176 Seaweed proteins J Fleurence, University of Nantes, France 9.1 Introduction: seaweed and protein content of seaweed 9.2 Composition of seaweed proteins 9.3 Algal protein digestibility 9.4 Uses of algal proteins in food 9.5 Future trends 9.6 Sources of further information and advice 9.7 References 197 Part II 10 11 vii 176 178 180 185 188 190 192 197 200 202 207 207 210 211 Analysing and modifying proteins 215 Testing protein functionality R K Owusu-Apenten, Pennsylvania State University, USA 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Protein structure: sample characteristics and commercial proteins 10.3 Testing functionality 10.4 Model foods: foaming 10.5 Model foods: emulsification and gelation 10.6 Conclusions and future trends 10.7 Sources of further information and advice 10.8 Acknowledgement 10.9 References 217 Modelling protein behaviour S Nakai, University of British Columbia, Canada 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Computational methodology 11.3 Computer-aided sequence-based functional prediction 11.4 Future trends 217 219 222 224 230 235 235 235 235 245 245 246 256 264 viii Contents 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 12 13 Further information and advice Conclusion Acknowledgement References 264 267 267 267 Factors affecting enzyme activity in foods J R Whitaker, University of California, USA 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Types of enzymes and post-harvest food quality 12.3 Parameters affecting enzyme activity 12.4 Future trends 12.5 Sources of further information and advice 12.6 References 270 Detecting proteins with allergenic potential R Krska, E Welzig and S Baumgartner, IFA-Tulln, Austria 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Methods of analysing allergenic proteins 13.3 Methods of detecting food allergens 13.4 Developing new rapid tests: dip-sticks and biosensors 13.5 Future trends 13.6 Sources of further information and advice 13.7 References 14 The extraction and purification of proteins: an introduction R E Aluko, University of Manitoba, Canada 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Factors affecting extraction 14.3 Extraction and fractionation methods 14.4 Purification techniques 14.5 Future trends 14.6 References 15 The use of genetic engineering to modify protein functionality: molecular design of hen egg white lysozyme using genetic engineering A Kato, Yamaguchi University, Japan 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Lysozyme-polysaccharide conjugates 15.3 Constructing polymannosyl lysozyme using genetic engineering 15.4 Improving functional properties of lysozymes 15.5 Acknowledgement 15.6 References 270 270 275 287 289 290 292 292 294 296 314 316 317 317 323 323 324 328 332 345 346 352 352 353 355 359 368 368 Contents 16 17 Modifying seeds to produce proteins A M Nuutila and A Ritala, VTT Biotechnology, Finland 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Methods of seed modification 16.3 Application and use of modified seeds for protein production 16.4 Future trends 16.5 Sources of further information and advice 16.6 References ix 370 370 372 380 386 387 387 Processing approaches to reducing allergenicity in proteins E N C Mills, J Moreno, A Sancho and J A Jenkins, Institute of Food Research, UK and H J Wichers, Wageningen UR, The Netherlands 17.1 Introduction: food allergens 17.2 Protein allergens of animal origin 17.3 Protein allergens of plant origin 17.4 General properties of protein allergens: abundance, structural stability and epitopes 17.5 Factors affecting protein allergenicity in raw foods 17.6 Reducing protein allergenicity during food processing 17.7 Reducing protein allergenicity using enzymatic processing 17.8 Future trends: low allergen proteins 17.9 Acknowledgements 17.10 References 401 403 405 409 410 411 411 Part III Applications 419 18 421 19 Using proteins as additives in foods: an introduction H Luyten, J Vereijken and M Buecking, Wageningen UR, The Netherlands 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Rheological properties of proteins 18.3 Surfactant properties of proteins 18.4 Protein-flavour relationships 18.5 Protein structure and techno-functionality 18.6 References Edible films and coatings from proteins A Gennadios, Cardinal Health, Inc., USA 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Materials and methods used in protein film formation 19.3 Properties of protein film 19.4 Treatments used for modifying the functional properties of protein films and coatings 19.5 Commercial applications of protein films and coatings 396 396 397 399 421 423 427 430 434 437 442 442 443 446 448 451 672 Index cationic antimicrobial peptides (CAPs) 248±50 cellulases 206, 275 centrifugation 333, 334 cereal products 188±90 cereal proteins 176±96, 326 classification of proteins 180±5 future trends 190±2 gluten see gluten processing and modification of 188±90 protein function in cereals 178±9 seed modification 371, 373 cereals, classification of 176, 177 chaotropic agents 340±1, 486, 499±500 cheese 36, 54 cheese whey 73 chemical modification 16±17, 436 oilseed protein 163±4 chemical properties 4±12 factors affecting 12±17 chemical stability 455 chemical treatments 450±1 chlorogenic acid (CGA) 150, 153 chlorophyllase 275 cholesterol 132±3 Chondrus crispus 197±213 passim chroma (saturation) 639, 640, 641 chromato-focusing see isoelectric focusing chromatography 299, 332±3 see also under individual techniques chromophores 643 chromoproteins 207 churning out 228 chymosin 35, 45, 53, 287 CIE colour space 637±9, 640, 641 circular dichroism (CD) 20, 127±9 classification cereal proteins 180±5 modelling protein behaviour 245, 246±50 of proteins by structure or function 17±20 cleaning 523 cluster analysis (CA) 247, 249 coalescence 428 coatings see films and coatings coenzymes 282 co-extrusion systems 451 cofactors 280±2 coffee whiteners 231±2, 432±3, 641 Coffi 451 cold gelation (cold-set gelation) 87±8, 109, 476, 479 collagen 103, 114±16, 472 casings 445, 451 edible films 451 collapsible gels 479 collisional dissociation 496±7 colloidal calcium phosphate (CCP) 42, 44, 47±8, 469, 470 acidication and 51±2 rennet coagulation 54 colour 631±68 absorption characteristics 643±8 browning reactions 648±54 as a functional property of proteins 631±9 future trends 662 improving protein functionality in controlling 654±6 maintaining colour quality 656±62 perception and measurement 636±9 properties contributing to appearance and 631±6 role of proteins in food colour 639±54 scattering properties 639±43 colour difference 639, 641 colour enhancers 532 colour spaces 631±2, 633, 637±9 attributes of 639, 640, 641 commercial proteins 219±21 structure 222 comminuted meat products 232 competitive inhibitors 282±3 complex mixed gels 477, 479 composite films 444, 450 conalbumin 471 concentrated milk 56±7 concentration enzyme concentration effect 279±80, 281 substrate concentration effect 277, 280, 281 and viscosity 424±5 condensed tannins 153±4 conditioning 523±4 conformation 434±5 conformational changes 428, 434±5 conformational epitopes 294 conjugated proteins 18 constitutive promoters 372 control systems 553±4 cookies 188 cooling 61 copolymer gels (emulsion gels) 234±5, 477, 478 correlation 245 Index cost 456, 608±9 economic viability of extrusion processing system 549±54 cottage cheese 639±41 cottonseed 327, 530 coupled networks (complex gels) 477, 479 covalent bonding 10±11, 607 covalent crosslinking 607 cow's milk see milk cow's milk protein allergy (CMPA) 565±6 crackers 188 creaming 428 creams 36 critical concentration 424±5 cross-linking 437 masking of epitopes 410 transglutaminase-catalysed 449, 477, 622±5 treatments for modifying functional properties of films 448±51 cross-reactive allergy syndromes 401, 402 cross-reactivity 304 cryodestabilisation 61 cultivars 148 soybean 130, 131, 137±9 cured meats 655±6, 661 Cy-dye technology 489, 490 cyctatin 114 cystatin 250, 251, 254±5, 266 cysteine 125, 127, 431 cysteine proteases 400 cystine 125, 127 cytochromes 646±8 dairy proteins see milk proteins dairy products 36±40 see also cheese; milk dark firm and dry (DFD) meat 646 data mining (DM) 245, 264 antimicrobial activity of lactoferricin 258±9 QSAR and 256 strategy in post±genome era 260±1 databases 19, 21 deamidation 436 defatted soy flour 519, 523±6 partially defatted 528±9 defatting 324±5 dehulling 150, 156, 523 demineralized whey powder 72, 73 denaturation 16, 540 reversibility of 359±60, 361 dental caries 578±9 673 desalting 339±40 detergents 340±1 dialysis 339±40 die and knife assembly 541, 542±3 dietary restrictions 455±6 differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) 222, 359±60, 361 digestibility of algal proteins 202±6 digital imaging 489±90 dilution technique 158±9 dimensionality reduction 266 dip-stick immunoassay 314±15 direct competitive ELISA 306 direct screw pressing 544±5 disproportionation 428 dissimilarity 265 dissociating agents 57±60 disulphide bonds 32 DNA shuffling 288 dopa quinone 649 double immunodiffusion 304±5 dry extruders 545 dryers moisture uniformity 552±3 operational costs 552 drying cast solutions 445 method and algal protein digestibility 204 soybeans 523 dual binding model of casein micelle 49±50 economic viability 549±54 edible films and coatings see films and coatings Edman sequencing 313±14 EDTA 328 efficiency of enzymes 276±9, 288±9 egg allergens 398 dehydration of 654 proteins and their gels 470±2 yolk 327 see also lysozyme ELAST/EAST inhibition 304 elastin 103 electromagnetic spectrum 631±2 electron microscopy (EM) 46 electron transport scheme 647±8 electrospray ionisation (ESI) 314, 495±6 ESI-mass spectrometry 21 nano LC-ESI tandem mass spectrometry 498 674 Index electrostatic interactions 10, 11 ELISAs 305±12, 313 commercially available test kits 305±6, 310±11 embryo 177 emulsification improving emulsifying properties of lysozymes 360±3 lysozyme-polysaccharide conjugates 354 model foods 230±5 muscle proteins 105, 106, 109±10 properties of oilseed proteins 161 soy proteins 126±7 whey proteins 75±6, 91±2 emulsification capacity (EC) test 232±3 emulsifying activity index (EAI) 620, 621 emulsion gels (copolymer gels) 234±5, 477, 478 emulsions meat emulsions 232±4 proteins as additives 427±30 endogenous proteases 104±5 endomysium 103 endopeptidase 165 endoplasmic reticulum (ER) 178, 378 endosperm 177±8 enriched protein products 323±4, 326 `entanglement' model 185±6 enthalpy 10, 11±12 entrapment 607 entropy 10, 11±12 enzymatic browning reactions 648±50, 658 enzymatic maceration 205±6 enzymatic modification 17, 436±7 oilseed proteins 164±5 seeds 377 whey proteins 90±3 enzymatic treatments films and coatings 448±9 reducing protein allergenicity 409±10 enzyme chips 287 enzyme-induced gelation 477 enzyme-treated whey protein isolate (EWPI) 620±2 enzymes 270±91, 371 cereal proteins 179 deficiencies 272, 274 definition 270±1 efficiency 276±9, 288±9 enzyme concentration effect 279±80 expression in seeds 382±4 future trends 287±9 immobilised see immobilised enzymes industrial 272, 274, 382±4 oilseed protein solubility 158 parameters affecting activity 275±86 postharvest food quality 275 purity 289 specificity 276±9 stability 287±8 types of 271±4 epichlorohydrin 451 epitopes 294 and allergenicity 402±3 masking 410 removal of 409±10 Escherichia coli (E coli) 7, 352, 363, 365 essential fatty acids 562±4 esterases 275 ethanol 57±8 ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH) 447 Euclidian distance (D) 247, 265 Evolus 591 exopeptidase 165 expanders 524±5 Expert Protein Analysis System (ExPASy) 502±3 extensive hydrolysis 436, 618±19 extraction 323±51 allergenic proteins 296±9, 300±3 extraction and fractionation methods 328±32 factors affecting 324±7 future trends 345±6 integrated extraction and purification process 345±6 objectives 323±4 oil-producing plant proteins 148±9, 153, 156±60 proteomics and 485±90 purification techniques see purification extrusion 538±54 economic viability 549±54 vs extrusion-expelling 543±9 film formation by 445±6 methodology 540±3 principles of 539±40 extrusion cooked meat analogues 519, 534±6 extrusion cooked meat extenders 518 extrusion-expelling 543±9 extrusion stabilisers 532±3 fat-binding properties 161 Index fatty acids 444 essential 562±4 fermentation 204±5 fermentation-produced chymosin 53 fermented milks 36 fibre 150, 520±1 fibrinogen 116 fibrous soy protein 536±7 filled emulsions (emulsion gels) 234±5, 477, 478 films and coatings 166, 442±67 commercial applications 451±4 future trends 454±6 materials and methods 443±6 properties of protein film 446±8 treatments used for modifying functional properties 448±51 fish 398 fish aquaculture 207±8 Fisherman salad 207 fixed costs 549±50 flaking 524 flash desolventiser 524 flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) 647 flavin mononucleotide (FMN) 647 flavoproteins 646±8 flavour 15 extrusion and control of 540 immobilised enzymes 614±15 protein-flavour relationships 422, 430±3 flaxseed 147, 150 flexible macromolecular gels 426±7, 468±9 fluorescence analysis 222 fluorescence spectroscopy 20 fluorescent dyes 489±90, 491 foam fractionation 334, 345 foam stability (FS) 225±6 foaming 427±30 immobilised enzymes 620, 621 model foods 225±30 properties of oilseed proteins 161±2 whey proteins 75, 92 foaming capacity (FC) 225±6 food allergens see allergenicity food colour see colour food intolerances 396 food proteome 483±4 see also proteomics food quality 275 food systems 165, 421±2, 429±30 formaldehyde 450±1 formed meat analogues 518 675 Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) analysis 20, 222 fractionation 324, 328±32 caseins 37±8, 39 free radical scavengers 654 free water 110±11 freezing 61 fresh meat colour triangle 654±5 fresh produce 453±4, 661±2 friabilin 182 frozen surimi 473 functional foods 190±1 functional ingredients 190±1 prepared muscle proteins as 113±16 functional motifs 259±60 functionality 12±17 classes of 421±3 classification of proteins by 17±18 colour as a functional property 631±9 genetic engineering and modifying see genetic engineering improving with immobilised enzymes see immobilised enzymes structure-functionality relationship 17±20, 218±19, 434±7 techno-functionality see technofunctionality see also under individual types of proteins functionality testing 217±44 classes of tests 223 emulsification and gelation 230±5 foaming 225±30 protein structure 219±22 rationale for testing 223 research 224 structure-functionality paradox 218±19 utility testing 224 fusion constructs 378, 384 galactomannan 354 galactosyl transferase 83±4 -conglycinin 125 gel filtration (size exclusion chromatography) 333, 334, 335±6 gel structure model of casein micelle 49, 50 gelatin 107, 115±16, 221, 472 capsules 452 gelation 425±7 cold 87±8, 109, 476, 479 functionality testing 230±5 immobilised enzymes 620±1, 622 muscle proteins 105, 106±9 676 Index oilseed proteins 162 soy proteins 126±7 whey proteins 76±7, 86, 89±90, 91 gels 468±82 food proteins and their gels 469±74 future trends 479 mechanisms of formation 474±7 mixed gels 477±9 properties and process variables 471 gene farming 288 genetic engineering 352±69, 437 and enzyme activity 288, 288±9 enzymes 377 improving functional properties of lysozymes 359±67 low-allergen plant foods 404±5 lysozyme-polysaccharide conjugates 353±5 of plants 372 polymannosyl lysozyme 355±9 seed modification 372±80 soy proteins 139 whey proteins 93±4 genetic polymorphism 31±2 genetics 403±4 Gensweet IGI 610 germination 148, 178±9 germination-specific promoters 387 glass transition temperature 427 gliadins 182±3, 186 globulins 18, 147, 370, 399±400, 474 cereal proteins 180, 181±2 extraction 330±1 glucoamylase 287, 611±12 glucosides 154±5 glucosinolates 150, 154±5 glutamic acid 200±2 glutaraldehyde 450±1 glutathione dehydrogenase 179 glutelins 18, 147, 180, 370 gluten 185±7, 191±2, 221, 380, 529±30 modification 186±7 structure 185±6 Gluten Home Test kit 315 glutenins 183±5 maturation of LMW glutenins 178 seed modification 380±2 glycerol 444 glycinin 474 physicochemical properties 126±7 structure 125±6 structure-function relationship of -conglycinin and 125±9 see also soy proteins glycomacropeptide 327, 570 glycosides 154±5 glycosylation caseins 31 lysozymes 355±7 seed modification 384±6 gossypol 150, 155, 530 gradient elution 338, 339 granulocytes 573 grey mould bacterium 365, 366 grease resistance 448 green laver 207 Halal foods 555 handling practices 148 Hansch analysis 245 hard gelatin capsules 452 health claim for soy-based products 124, 518 heat coagulation time (HCT) 55±6 heat curing 448 heat inactivation 275, 276 enzyme indicators of 287 heat-induced gelation 475 heat stability lysozyme 354±5, 358, 359±60, 361 soy proteins 126 heat treatment and allergenicity 294±5 changes in micelles on heating milk 55±7 enhancing functionality of whey proteins 86±7 gluten modification 186±7 modification of allergens 406±8 helical structures heme 643±6 modified 647, 648 hen egg see egg; lysozyme heterogeneity of caseins 30±3 heterologous biopolymers 449 heterologous proteins 377±8 hexane 156 Heyn's products 652 hidden allergens 294 high-fructose corn syrup 609±10 high moisture meat analogue 537±8 high molecular weight (HMW) subunits of glutenin 183±5, 380±2 high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) 78, 79, 80, 333 high pressure gelation 475±6 high-pressure (HP) processing 408 milk 60±1 Index hirudin 384, 385 homogeneous mixing 540 homology similarity analysis (HSA) 246, 257, 261 to improve RCG efficiency 266±7 homology similarity search (HSS) 246, 259±60, 261, 262 horseradish peroxidase 448±9 hue 639, 640, 641 Hughes press 486 humanisation of bovine milk 579 Hunter colour space 637±9, 641 hydrodynamic properties see rheological properties hydrogen bonds 10, 11±12 hydrogen peroxide 532 hydrolases 272±3 hydrolysed vegetable protein (HVP) 436 hydrolysis 17, 436±7 extensive 436, 618±19 limited 190, 619±22 oilseed proteins 164±5 whey proteins 90±3 hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC) 334, 340±1 hydrophobic interactions 10, 11±12 hydrophobic peptide-fused lysozymes 363±5 H5 363±5, 365±7 hydrophobicity caseins 33, 35 efficiency of enzymes 279 hydroxyproline 431 hypertension 579 hypocholesterolemic effect 132±3, 134±5 hypotensive peptides 566±7 hypotensive properties 579±89 ice creams 36, 226, 227±8 Ichihime soybean cultivar 138 identity preservation 547 illuminants 636, 637 image analysis software 489±90 imino acids immobilised enzymes 607±30 flavours and speciality products 613±15 future trends 625 modification of carbohydrates 609±13 modification of lipids 615±17 modification of proteins 618±25 immunoblotting 304 immunochemical assays 299, 305±12 immunoelectrophoresis 296±8 677 immunofluorescence assay 312 immunoglobulins (Igs) 84±5, 561 immunoglobulin E (IgE) 396±7 immunological methods 299±312 immunomodulatory peptides 566±73, 590 immunoturbidimetric methods 78±81 in-container dairy products 36 in vitro immunomodulation studies 567±71 in vivo immunomodulation studies 567, 571±2 indigenous proteinases 32±3 indirect competitive ELISA 306 indolyl glucosinolates 154, 155 industrial enzymes 272, 274, 382±4 infant formulas 406 infrared spectroscopy 20 inhibitors, enzyme 282±3 integrated isolation and purification process 345±6 inteins 21 interactions molecular forces 10±12, 426 with other food constituents 14±15 interestification milk fat 615±17 oils 617 interfacial rheological functionality 13, 422, 427±30, 623±4 see also under individual properties introns 379 ion additions 86 ion exchange chromatography (IEC) 334, 336±40 ionic-induced gelation 476 ionisable groups 284 iron 577±8 irradiation 449±50, 662 isoallergens 293 isoelectric focusing (chromato-focusing) (IEF) 296, 334, 344, 486±7 2D-IEF/SDS-PAGE 296, 487±91 isoelectric point 52, 149, 329 isoelectric precipitation 29±30, 331±2 isoflavones 136, 137, 140 isolation procedures see extraction isomaltulose 612±13 isomerases 272±3 isotonic buffer 486 isopropanol 156±7 isotope-coded affinity technology (ICAT) reagent 501±2 isotope effects 21 isracidin 572 678 Index Japan 123, 124 -casein C-terminal region 45±6, 48±9 hydrolysis by proteolytic enzymes 52±5 immunomodulatory properties 568±9, 570 stabilisation of casein micelles 44±6 kamaboko 473±4 kernel (caryopsis) 176±8 ketoses 651±2 kinetically induced gels 478±9 Kosher foods 555 Kubelka-Monk analysis 642 Kunitz soybean cultivar 137±8 Kyu-kei 305 soybean cultivar 138 L-amino acids 613±14 labelling 294, 456 labile allergenic proteins 294±5 labour costs 550±2 lactobacilli 587 Lactobacillus helveticus fermented milk 586 lactoferricin (Lf) 561, 563, 569, 571, 573 and its derivatives 258±9 lactose 72±3, 86 lactose hydrolysis 611 Laminaria digitata (kombu) 197±213 passim Laminaria japonica (kombu Breton) 197±213 passim lateral flow devices 314±15 latex-fruit allergy syndrome 401 lauric acid 453 lecithin 533 lectin 136, 137 legumes 371 legumin-like globulins 399±400 leu-enkephalin 384, 385 ligases 272±3 light absorption, transmission and reflection 632±4 illuminant spectra 636, 637 scattering see scattering of light lightness 639, 640, 641 limited hydrolysis (proteolysis) 190, 619±22 Lina Blue-A 207 Lineweaver-Burk reciprocal method 280, 281 lipases 179, 275, 276, 287 interestification of milk fat 615±17 lipid-binding proteins 181±2 lipid oxidation 656 lipid-protein Maillard pathway 652±3 lipids 15 composite films 450 modification of 615±17 removal and whey proteins 86 lipocalins 293 lipoxygenases 179, 275, 276, 547±8, 650 liquid chromatography (LC) HPLC 78, 79, 80, 333 multi-dimensional LC analysis 500±1 nano LC-ESI tandem mass spectrometry 498 `loop and train' model 185 low allergen foods 403±5 genetics and breeding for 403±4 plant foods produced by genetic modification 404±5 low allergen proteins 410±11 low molecular weight (LMW) glutenins subunit 183±5 luminoimmunoassay (LIA) 312 lyases 272±3 lysine 430 lysozyme 229, 352±69, 398, 453, 471 constructing polymannosyl lysozyme 355±9 improving functional properties 359±67 modelling protein behaviour 259±60, 261, 262, 263 lysozyme-polysaccharide conjugates 353±5 macrophages 572±3 magnesium 577±8 magnetic affinity support (MAS) 346 Mahalanobis distance 247, 265 Maillard reactions 353, 455, 506, 651±4 Maillard adducts and allergenicity 407±8 maintenance/wear costs 550±2 major allergens 293±4 mammary-derived growth inhibitor (MDGI) 565 MASCOT 493±4, 501 mass spectrometry (MS) 484±5, 490±503 bioinformatics, proteomics and 502±3 multi-dimensional LC analysis 500±1 quantitation 501±2 master packaging systems 659 matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation (MALDI) mass spectrometry 21, 314 Index MALDI-TOF 492±4, 504, 506 meat coatings 451, 452 colour 643±6, 654±6, 656±8, 658±61, 662 cured 655±6, 661 fresh 654±5 myoglobin pigments 654±6 oilseed proteins in meat products 166 see also muscle proteins meat analogues 518, 519, 555±6 high moisture 537±8 structured meat analogues 519, 534±6 meat emulsions 232±4 meat extenders 518, 534, 535, 555±6 melanins 649 melanoidins 652 membrane chromatography (MC) 343±4 membrane filtration 333 metal chelators 328 methanol-ammonia-hexane treatment 157 metmyoglobin 654±5 micellar casein 37 micelle isolate 331 micelles 40, 469, 560 see also caseins Michaelis±Menten behaviour 277, 280 microcapsules, gelatin 452 microchip techniques 315±16 microfiltration (MF) 37, 86 Mie scattering 636, 642 milk 36 changes in micelles on heating 55±7 cooling and freezing 61 cow's milk as food allergen 397 effects of dissociating agents or alcohols 57±60 high-pressure treatment 60±1 humanisation of bovine milk 579 rennet coagulation of 52±5 treatment with transglutaminase 61±2 see also caseins; milk proteins; whey proteins milk fat, interestification of 615±17 milk-fat globule membrane (MFGM) 562 milk powders 36 milk proteins 599±606 bioactive peptides derived from 566±73 caseins see caseins future trends 590±1 general nutritional role 562±6 hypotensive properties 579±89 mineral-binding properties of peptides 566±7, 573±9 679 multifunctional properties of peptides 588, 590 types of 559±62 whey proteins see whey proteins mineral binding peptides 566±7, 573±9 minerals 86 milk protein carriers 562±4 supplementation by CPPs 577±8 minor allergens 293±4 minor milk proteins 561±2 miraculin 433 mixed gels 477±9 mixing, homogeneous 540 mobility, molecular 427 model foods 223, 224, 225±35 emulsification and gelation 230±5 foaming 225±30 model systems 223, 235 modelling protein behaviour 245±69 computational methodology 246±56 computer-aided sequence-based functional prediction 256±63 future trends 264 modified atmosphere packaging 658±62 modori 114, 116, 473 moisture uniformity 552±3 molecular flexibility 12 molecular forces 10±12, 426 molecular mass 435 molecular mobility 427 molten globule 16 monellin 433 monoclonal antibodies 299±304 monoisotopic peptide peaks 493±4, 504 monolayer water 11 monomeric proteins 182±3 monosodium glutamate 613 MS-FIT 493±4 MUDPIT technique 500±1 multi-angle light scattering (MAL) 222 multidimensional LC analysis 500±1 multifunctional bioactive peptides 588, 590 multiple reaction ion monitoring (MRM) method 502 multivariate regression techniques 21 muscle proteins 100±22 endogenous proteases 104±5 functionality 105±13 future trends 116±17 prepared muscle proteins as functional ingredients 113±16 structure 101±3 myofibrillar proteins 101±3 680 Index gelation 107±9 partial extraction 112±13 myoglobin 102, 643, 644, 645 pigments of cured meats 655±6 pigments of fresh meats 654±5 myosin 9, 102, 103, 107±8, 110 myosin gels 107, 472±3 myrosinase-binding proteins 149 nano LC-ESI mass spectrometry 498 natural killer (NK) cells 573 net protein utilisation (NPU) 562, 563 nicotianamine 137 nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) 647 nisin 453 nitrogen 660 nitrogen solubility index (NSI) 519±20 nitrosylhemochrome 656 nitrosylmyoglobin 655 non-bovine caseins 35 non-competitive inhibitors 282±3 noncovalent interactions 10±12 non-enzymatic browning see Maillard reactions nonlinear signal analysis 246, 264 non-lymphoid cells 572±3 nonpolar residues 15 non-protein nitrogen (NPN) 29 non-specific lipid transfer proteins (nsLTPs) 400 novel processing 408 novel products 191 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy 314 nutraceuticals 384±6 nutrition 208±9 general role of milk proteins 562±6 reevaluation of nutritive value of soy protein 130±2 seaweed proteins 208±9 nutritional functionality 422 nuts 399±400, 453±4 off-flavours 430 soy proteins 136±7 off-gel electrophoresis 344±5 `ogonori' (Gracilaria verrucosa) 210 oils barrier properties 448 interestification 617 raw material for texturised soy protein 520 oilseed proteins 146±75, 325±6 characteristics 146±50 extraction 148±9, 153, 156±60 factors limiting protein utilisation 150±5 functional properties 160±2 future trends 166±7 improving functionality 162±5 see also soy proteins oleosins 148, 384 oligomannosyl lysozymes 355±9, 360, 362 operational stability 609 opioid peptides 566±7 optical rotatory dispersion (ORD) 127±9 optimisation 245, 252±5 Osborne classification 18, 180 Ouchterlony technique 304±5 ovalbumin 398, 471 over-fitting 265±6 ovomucin 229 ovomucoid 398 ovotransferrin 398 oxalic acid 152 oxidoreductases 271±3 oxygen barrier properties 447 modified atmosphere packaging 659, 660 oxygen permeability (OP) 447 oxygen scavengers 659 oxygen transmission rate (OTR) 659 oxymyoglobin 643, 644, 645, 654, 655, 656 paddlefish 114 pale soft and exudative (PSE) pork 643, 646 Palmaria palmata (dulse) 197±213 passim pancreatin 203 papain 287 partially defatted soy flour 528±9 particle gels 426±7, 468±9 particle size, and light scattering 635±6 parvalbumin 398 pasta 189±90 pasteurised milk 36 patatin 407 peach juice 406 peanuts 531 allergens 399±400, 404, 405, 407, 409 peas 326 texturised pea protein 531, 532 pectic enzymes 275 Index pectinases 158, 287 pentosanases 275 pentosans 188 pepsin 203, 283±4 peptidases 179 peptide fragments, physiologically active 134±6 peptides algal 209 immunomodulatory peptides from milk 567±73 milk protein-derived bioactive peptides 38±40, 566±73 mineral-binding properties of milk peptides 573±9 proteomics 483, 491±511 percentage elongation at break (E) 446±7 perception, colour 636±9 perimysium 103 periodic secondary structures 8±9 peroxidase (POD) 179, 275, 276, 283±4, 287, 477, 650 horseradish peroxidase 448±9 petroleum ether extract 520 pH effect of acidification on casein micelles 51±2 enzyme activity 283±4, 285 heat stability of milk and 55±6 and texturised soy protein 533 phagocytosis-stimulating effects 134, 135 pharmaceutical proteins 384±6 phase-separated gels 478, 479 phenolases 648±9 phenolic compounds 152±3, 325 phenylalanine 614 phosphates 111±13 phosphodiesterase 615 phosphorylation 31 phosvitin 327 phycocyanin 207 phycoerythrin 209±10 physical modifications 436 physical processes algal protein digestibility 204 improving functionality of whey proteins 86±90 physical properties 4±12 physical stability 455 physiological functionality 422 physiologically active peptide fragments 134±6 phytate 151±2, 325±6 phytic acid 136, 137, 151±2 681 phytin 179 phytocystatins 151 phytosterol 137 Pichia pastoris 364, 367 pigment concentration 644 plant breeding see breeding plant-produced antibodies 386 plant proteins allergens 399±401 extraction 485±6 see also cereal proteins; oilseed proteins; soy proteins plant viruses 379±80 plasma protein 116 plasmin 32 plasticisers 443±4 pleated sheet structures pollen-fruit/vegetable allergy syndrome 401 polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) 78, 79, 80, 334 SDS-PAGE 80, 296, 300±3, 334, 486±7 2D-IEF/SDS-PAGE 296, 487±91 polyclonal antibodies 299 polymannosyl lysozyme constructing 355±9 improving functional properties of lysozymes 359±67 polymer gels 426±7, 468±9 polymer solution chemistry 222 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) 292±3, 312±13 polymeric proteins 183±5 polyphenol oxidase 179, 275, 477 polyphosphates 109 polyproline II structure polysaccharides algal protein digestibility 203±4 composite films 450 lysozyme-polysaccharide conjugates 353±5 role in stabilisation of emulsions 360±2 polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) 447 Porphyra tenera 197±213 passim Porphyra yezoensis 197±213 passim post-harvest storage 405 potato proteins 326 powders 641 powdery mildew disease 365±6, 367 precipitation 158±9, 576 preconditioner 541 prediction 250±2 682 Index computer-aided sequence-based functional prediction 256±63 preliminary meal treatments 157 presoaking 162 primary structure 7±8, 313±14 principal component analysis (PCA) 247, 248±9 principal component similarity (PCS) 245, 247±50, 251, 257, 259, 261 production costs 549±52 prolamins 18, 180±1, 370±1, 399 promoters germination-specific 387 seed-specific 372±3, 374±5 pronase 203 properties of proteins 2±26 chemical and physical properties 4±12 factors affecting in food systems 12±17 future trends 20±1 structure and function of classification and relationships 17±20 see also functionality; structure prosthetic groups 282 protease inhibitors 137, 328 proteases 179, 275, 436±7 endogenous in muscle proteins 104±5 removal of epitopes 409±10 protein concentrates 324 protein digestibility (PD) 562, 563 protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) 132, 562, 563 protein dispersibility index (PDI) 519±20, 547±8 protein efficiency ratio (PER) 562, 563 protein expression enhancement of in seeds 378±80 expression of modified proteins in seeds 380±2 protein gels see gels protein isolates 324 protein-lipid films 444, 450 protein powders 641 protein sequence analysis 256±64 proteinaceous materials 443 proteinase inhibitors 150±1 proteinases, indigenous 32±3 proteinate 331 proteins biological functions in humans 270, 271 content in foods and beverages 2, definition functional properties see functionality properties of see properties of proteins structure see structure proteolysis (hydrolysis of peptide bond) see hydrolysis proteolytic enzymes 158 hydrolysis of -casein 52±5 proteome 483±4 proteomics 483±516 impact of food processing on soy protein 503±11 mass spectrometry 490±503 protein separation techniques 485±90 proteose-peptones 85, 92 Psylium husk 406 purification 325, 332±45 affinity chromatography 341±3 basic rules 334±5 foam fractionation 345 future trends 345±6 HIC 340±1 IEC 336±40 IEF 344 integrated extraction and purification process 345±6 membrane chromatography 343±4 objectives 323±4 off-gel electrophoresis 344±5 RPC 341 SEC 335±6 purindolin (Pin) 182 purity of enzymes 289 Qq-TOF 497±8 quadrupole ion trap 494±5, 496±7 quality, food 275 quantitative structure±activity relationships (QSAR) 18±20, 245±69 computational methodology 246±56 computer-aided sequence-based functional prediction 256±63 and data mining 256 future trends 264 quaternary structure quinic acid 153 QT2 wild soybean line 138 radioimmunoassay (RIA) 312 Raman spectroscopy 20 random-centroid optimisation (RCO) 245, 252±4 rapeseed/canola 147, 149, 152±3, 154±5, 156, 530 rapeseed trypsin inhibitor (RTI) 151 rapid assays 314±16, 317 Index RAST (radioallergosorbent test) 304 raw materials costs 550±2 factors affecting extraction 324±6 nature of 325±6 source 324±5 texturised vegetable protein 519±31 Rayleigh scattering 635, 642 RCG (RCO for genetics) 245, 254±5, 257, 261 HSA to improve efficiency of 266±7 recombinant allergens 316 recombinant DNA technology 289 recurrence quantification analysis (RQA) 246, 264 redness index 639, 641 reduced lactose whey powder 72, 73 reducing agents 328 reference materials 316 reflection of light 632±4 reformed micelles 58 regression ANN 250±2, 257 regulatory restrictions 455±6 relief food programmes 556 rennet casein manufacture 72 rennet coagulation of milk 52±5 rennet gels 469 resolution 333 reticulin 103 reverse-phase chromatography (RPC) 334, 341 reverse turns reversibility of denaturation 359±60, 361 rheological measurements 233±4 rheological properties 13, 422, 423±7, 623±4 see also under individual properties rice 404, 408, 409 RNA, hydrolysis of 615 rocket immunoelectrophoresis (RIE) 299 rosemary 657 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 352±3, 355, 364, 367 safflower 147, 150 salt bridges 11 salt solutions 157±8 salts 14 extraction of proteins 330±2 see also under individual names sample characteristics 219±21 sample preparation 295±6 sandwich ELISA 305, 306 saponins 136, 137 683 sarcoplasmic proteins 101±3, 107 sashimi 207 saturation (chroma) 639, 640, 641 sausages 232 scaling-up films and coatings 454±5 scattering of light 634±6 properties of proteins 639±43 SCOP 18 screw and barrel configuration 541±2 SDS see sodium dodecyl sulphate seafood 398±9 search engines 493±4 seasonal variation 200 seaweed proteins 197±213 algal protein digestibility 202±6 composition 200±2 future trends 207±10 seaweed consumption 197±8 uses of algal proteins in foods 207 secondary structure 8±9, 373±6 sedimentation 428 seed modification 370±95 application and use of modified seeds 380±6 future trends 386±7 methods 372±80 seed-specific promoters 372±3, 374±5 seeds 399±400 segments vs entire sequences 266 selective isolation 163 semi-diluted region 425 sensorial functionality 422, 430±3 sensory properties of films 454 sequence-based functional prediction 256±64 sequence PCS (SPCS) 245±6, 257±61 sequences vs segments 266 sequencing of amino acids 494±9, 504, 507 sequential epitopes 294 SEQUEST 501 serine proteinase inhibitors 151 sesame 531 7S globulin 125 shaping 540 shear modulus 426 shell-fish 398±9 side chains 4, similarity 265 simple proteins 18 simplex optimisation 254 sinapic acid 152 size exclusion chromatography (SEC) (gel filtration) 333, 334, 335±6 684 Index skimming 444 soaking 162 sodium alginate 533 sodium ascorbate 658 sodium caseinate 641 sodium chloride 157±8, 533 water-holding by muscle proteins 111±13 sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) 58±60, 332, 451 SDS-CE 80±1 SDS-PAGE 80, 296, 300±3, 334, 486±7 2D-IEF/SDS-PAGE 296, 487±91 softgels 452 solubilisation of oilseed proteins 157±8 solubility 422, 424 oilseed proteins 161 properties and extraction of protein 326±7 whey proteins 74, 90±1 soluble protein fraction 159±60, 163, 165 solvent casting 444±5, 455 solvent extraction 520, 544 solvent precipitation 576 sorbitol 444 sour milk 581±6 soy cotyledon 488, 503±4 soy flakes 524, 526 soy flour defatted 519, 523±6 partially defatted 528±9 soy grits 526±7 soy protein concentrates 527±8 soy protein isolates 528 soy-protein-lipid films 444 soy proteins 123±45 allergenicity 137, 138, 399±400, 404±5 consumption 123±4 films 446 flavour 433 as a food ingredient 129±37 health claim 124, 518 impact of food processing 503±11 improving functionality 137±9 physicochemical properties 129±30, 131 physiological functions 132±3 physiologically active fragments 134±6 reevaluation of nutritive value 130±2 soybean storage proteins 125±9 see also texturised soy protein soybean composition 522 global production 521, 522 minor components' physiological functions 136, 137 soybean protein gels 474 speciality products 613±15 specificity of enzymes 276±9 spot picking robots 490, 491 SPREETA immunoassay 315 spun protein isolates 518 stability casein micelles 51±62 chemical 455 enzymes 287±8 films and coatings 455 heat stability 126, 354±5, 358, 359±60, 361 mechanism of stabilisation of casein micelles 44±6 operational 609 physical 455 structural 401±2 starch hydrolysis 611±12 starch±protein interaction 187 starch-reinforced protein gels 477, 478 Statistica NN (SNN) 250±2 step-wise elution 338, 339 stereospecific substrate binding 277±9 storage, post-harvest 405 storage proteins 370 cereal 178,181±2 soy 125±9 see also oilseed proteins; seed modification; soy proteins streptavidin 623±4, 625 stromal proteins 101±3, 107 structural determination 313±14 structural stability 401±2 structural water 11 structure 219±22 classification of proteins 17±18 commercial proteins 222 levels of structural organisation 7±9 models of the casein micelle 46±51 muscle proteins 101±3 sample characteristics 219±21 structure-functionality relationship 17±20, 218±19, 434±7 whey proteins 81±5 structured meat analogues 519, 534±6 submicelle models 47±51 substrate binding sites 259, 262, 263 subsurface scattering effects 642 succinic anhydride 163, 164 succinylation 163±4 Index sugar-amine Maillard pathway 651±2, 653 sugars 521, 533 sulphinyl glucosinolates 155 sulphur 533 sulphydryl/disulphide analysis 222 sunflower 147±9, 153 supercritical fluid extrusion (SCFX) 191 supersecondary structures supervised classification 246±7 surface plasmon resonance (SPR) 315 surfactant properties 13, 422, 427±30, 623±4 see also under individual properties surimi 105, 113±14, 116 gels 473±4 sushi 207 suwari 473 sweet whey 72 sweet whey powder 72, 73 Sweetzyme T 610 syneresis 54 synzymes 288 T-cell epitopes 403 tagatose 611 tandem mass spectrometry (MS-MS) 494±9 tannins 15, 153±4 taurine 209 techno-functionality 421±41 protein±flavour relationships 430±3 protein structure and 434±7 rheological properties 423±7 surfactant properties 427±30 temperature effect on enzyme activity 284±6, 287±8 see also heat treatment tensile strength (TS) 446±7 tertiary structure 9, 314 texture enhancers 532±3 texturing 425±7 texturised soy (vegetable) protein 517±58 current practice for making 543±4 definition 517±18 economic viability of extrusion processing system 549±54 effect of additives 531±3 extrusion vs extrusion-expelling 543±9 extrusion technology 538±43 product categories 518±19 raw material characteristics 519±21 soy-based raw materials used for 521±9 685 types of 534±8 uses 554±6 wheat and other raw materials 529±31 thaumatin 433 therapeutical proteins 384±6, 387 thermal compaction 446 thermal inactivation see heat inactivation thermal stability see heat stability thermoreversible gels 468 thermo-rheological studies 234 thermoset gels 468 three-dimensional structures 127±9 time-of-flight (TOF) techniques MALDI-TOF 492±4, 504, 506 Qq-TOF 497±8 TOF-TOF 495, 498±500 titanium dioxide 532 tobacco, transgenic 365±7, 373 tocopherol 656±7 tofu 138±9, 474 Tohoku 124 soybean cultivar 138 tooth decay prevention 578±9 total binding capacity (TBC) 339, 341 trace elements 562±4 transcription terminators 379 transferases 271±3 transferrin (Tf) 561 transgenic tobacco 365±7, 373 transglutaminase (TG or TGase) 190, 437 enzyme-induced gelation 477 films and coatings 449 modification of cereal proteins 190 treatment of milk with 61±2 transglutaminase-catalysed crosslinking 449, 477, 622±5 transition region 425 transmission of light 632±4 trichloroacetic acid (TCA) 327 triple quadrupole MS 494±5, 496±8 multiple reaction ion monitoring (MRM) method 502 tristimulus values 637±9, 641 tropomyosins 398±9 trypsin 283±4, 491±2 trypsin inhibitors 151, 399 tuna 642±3 two-dimensional electrophoresis 298, 485, 486, 487±91, 501 2D-IEF/SDS-PAGE 296, 487±91 Type I tests 223, 224 see also model foods Type II tests 223 Type III tests 223, 224, 235 686 Index Tyr-Pro 586 tyrosine 431 UHT-sterilised dairy products 36 ultracentrifugation 43 ultrafiltration 43±4, 159, 333±4 Ulva lactuca 197±213 passim Ulva pertusa 197±213 passim uncompetitive inhibitors 283 Undaria pinnatifida (wakame) 197±213 passim unsupervised classification 246±50 urea 58 utilities 550±2 UV 4th derivative spectroscopy 80±1 vaccines 386 Val-Pro 586 Val-Tyr 586 van der Waals forces 10 variable costs 550, 551 vegetarian diets 555±6 vicilin-like globulins 399±400 virtual database 19 viruses, plant 379±80 viscosity 74, 424±5 visible-grain technology 191 vitamins 562±4 vitamin E 656±7 washing 204 water 444 extraction method 328±9 water-protein interactions 14, 74±5 water binding (water holding) capacities 91, 161 muscle proteins 105, 106, 110±13 role of proteins in food colour 642±3 water vapour permeability (WVP) 447 wheat 399, 529±30 wheat flour 409 whey powder 72, 73 whey protein concentrate (WPC) 72, 73, 432 whey protein isolate (WPI) 72, 73, 620±2, 623 whey proteins 29, 72±99, 327, 560±1 ACE inhibitors derived from 584±5 analytical methods for protein content 77±81 flavour-protein interaction 432±3 as food ingredients 72±7 gels 470 immunomodulatory properties 569, 571 improving functionality in foods 85±93 nutritional role 562, 563 structure 81±5 whey syrups 611 whipped topping 226±7 X-ray structure analysis 127±9, 314 xylanase 206, 382±4 xylose isomerase 287 yogurt 639±41 yuba films 444 zein 163, 329, 377 coatings 451±2 ... for example, as enzymes, hormones, transport proteins, structural proteins, contractile proteins, storage or nutrient proteins, regulatory proteins, defense proteins, etc Alternatively, proteins. .. or hydrophilic balance, acidic or basic proteins, sulfur-containing proteins, prolinerich proteins) , shape (e.g globular or fibrous), secondary structure propensity (e.g proteins with predominantly... interactions observed during dough processing and baking, protein-hydrocolloid interactions in dairy Proteins in food processing products, protein-fat interactions in comminuted meat emulsions, mayonnaise