EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH This page intentionally left blank EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Competencies for Analysis and Applications T E N TH E D I TI O N L R Gay Late of Florida International University Geoffrey E Mills Southern Oregon University Peter Airasian Boston College Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Vice President and Editorial Director: Jeffery W Johnston Vice President and Publisher: Kevin Davis Development Editor: Christie Robb Editorial Assistant: Lauren Carlson Vice President, Director of Marketing: Margaret Waples Marketing Manager: Joanna Sabella Senior Managing Editor: Pamela D Bennett Senior Project Manager: Mary M Irvin Senior Operations Supervisor: Matt Ottenweller Senior Art Director: Diane Lorenzo Cover Designer: Jason Moore Cover Art: SuperStock Photo Researcher: Lori Whitley Permissions Administrator: Rebecca Savage Project Coordination and Composition: S4Carlisle Publishing Services Printer/Binder: Edwards Brothers Cover Printer: Lehigh-Phoenix Color Corp Text font: 10/12 ITC Garamond Std Credits and acknowledgments for material borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on appropriate page within text Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book However, the Internet and information posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet addresses listed in this textbook will change Photo Credit: Photo Credits: p 2, © Universal/courtesy Everett Collection; p 60, © Warner Bros./courtesy Everett Collection; p 78, © Columbia Pictures/courtesy Everett Collection; p 110, © TM & Copyright © 20th Century Fox Film Corp All rights reserved/courtesy Everett Collection; p 128, © Buena Vista Pictures/courtesy Everett Collection; p 148, PARAMOUNT PICTURES/Photo: Mary Evans/Ronald Grant/Everett Collection; p 182, Patrick McElhenney/ © FX/courtesy Everett Collection; p 202, © Buena Vista Pictures/courtesy Everett Collection; p 226, © DreamWorks/courtesy Everett Collection; p 248, © Walt Disney Co./courtesy Everett Collection; p 292, © Warner Bros Pictures/courtesy Everett Collection; p 318, © TM & Copyright © 20th Century Fox All rights reserved/courtesy Everett Collection; p 340, © Warner Bros./courtesy Everett Collection; p 380, © Paramount Pictures/courtesy Everett Collection; p 398, © Warner Bros./courtesy Everett Collection; p 420, © TM & Copyright © 20th Century Fox All rights reserved/courtesy Everett Collection; p 442, Photo: Frank Masi/© Warner Bros./courtesy Everett Collection; p 464, Photo: Alex Bailey/© Warner Bros./courtesy Everett Collection; p 480, © Warner Bros./courtesy Everett Collection; p 506, Photo: Patrick Ecclesine/© Fox Television/courtesy Everett Collection; p 530, Photo: Mary Evans/ Ronald Grant/Everett Collection; p 554, courtesy Everett Collection Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gay, L R Educational research : competencies for analysis and applications/L.R Gay, Geoffrey E Mills; Peter Airasian.—10th ed p cm ISBN-13: 978-0-13-261317-0 ISBN-10: 0-13-261317-4 Education—Research I Mills, Geoffrey E II Airasian, Peter W III Title LB1028.G37 2012 370.72—dc22 2011013065 10 ISBN 10: 0-13-261317-4 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-261317-0 Preface NEW TO THIS EDITION Like the ninth edition, the tenth edition reflects a combination of both unsolicited and solicited input Positive feedback suggested aspects of the text that should not be changed—the writing style and the focus on ethical practice, for example Those aspects remain However, we wanted to provide something unique for the readers of the tenth edition, so we created the new Digital Research Tools for the 21st Century feature This recurring feature introduces novel tools and methods researchers can use to make the process of doing research easier or more efficient, such as using speech recognition programs to save time transcribing interviews (Chapter 15), using flip cameras and Skype to collect qualitative data (Chapter 14), and using management programs to organize citations (Chapter 21) In addition, we have included summary tables at the beginning of all the methods chapters that outline all of the important characteristics of the method, such as steps in the process and potential challenges associated with it In addition, users requested an update of some of the journal articles contained in the text so you will see new articles used in Chapters and 22 Content changes reflect the inclusion of new topics and the expansion or clarification of existing topics There are many improvements in this edition, and we describe the more significant highlights here: ■ ■ ■ A new section has been added to Chapter called “The Continuum of Research Philosophies” that addresses the context, history, and philosophy behind research and how it connects to current research practices In Chapter 1, the discussion of ethical guidelines for qualitative researchers has been updated and expanded to help qualitative researchers prepare for potential ethical dilemmas encountered in conducting intimate, field-based research Chapter includes a new section and figure on conceptualizing research questions that provides researchers with improved guidelines ■ ■ for identifying a research problem and understanding the relationships between problem identification, hypothesis writing, and the development of research questions Chapter has undergone significant revision because of the way technology has affected the literature review process Changes include a Digital Research Tools feature on Google Book and Google Scholar, a new section on the evaluation of Internet sources, and stepby-step directions for an ERIC EBSCO search that maximizes the power of university library consortium agreements to identify fully online journal articles The chapters on Descriptive and Inferential Statistics (12 and 13) have been updated to reflect new versions of SPSS and Excel In addition, we have added new tables and figures throughout the text Every chapter has been edited and updated References have been updated PHILOSOPHY AND PURPOSE This text is designed primarily for use in the introductory course in educational research that is a basic requirement for many graduate programs Because the topic coverage of the text is relatively comprehensive, it may be easily adapted for use in either a senior-level undergraduate course or a more advanced graduate-level course The philosophy that guided the development of the current and previous editions of this text was the conviction that an introductory research course should be more oriented toward skill and application than toward theory Thus, the purpose of this text is for students to become familiar with research mainly at a “how-to” skill and application level The authors not mystify students with theoretical and statistical jargon They strive to provide a down-to-earth approach that helps students acquire the skills and knowledge required of a competent consumer and producer of educational research The emphasis is not just on what the student knows but also on what the student can with what he or she knows It is recognized that being a v vi PREFACE “good” researcher involves more than the acquisition of skills and knowledge; in any field, important research is usually produced by those who through experience have acquired insights, intuitions, and strategies related to the research process Research of any worth, however, is rarely conducted in the absence of basic research skills and knowledge A fundamental assumption of this text is that the competencies required of a competent consumer of research overlap considerably with those required of a competent producer of research A person is in a much better position to evaluate the work of others after she or he has performed the major tasks involved in the research process ORGANIZATION AND STRATEGY The overall strategy of the text is to promote students’ attainment of a degree of expertise in research through the acquisition of knowledge and by involvement in the research process Organization In the tenth edition, Part I includes discussion of the scientific and disciplined inquiry approach and its application in education The main steps in the research process and the purpose and methods of the various approaches to research are discussed In Part I, each student selects and delineates a research problem of interest that has relevance to his or her professional area Throughout the rest of the text, the student then simulates the procedures that would be followed in conducting a study designed to investigate the problem; each chapter develops a specific skill or set of skills required for the execution of such a research study Specifically, the student learns about the application of the scientific method in education and the ethical considerations that affect the conduct of any educational research (Chapter 1), identifies a research topic and formulates hypotheses (Chapter 2), conducts a review of the related literature (Chapter 3), develops a research plan (Chapter 4), selects and defines samples (Chapter 5), and evaluates and selects measuring instruments (Chapter 6) Throughout these chapters are parallel discussions of quantitative and qualitative research constructs This organization, with increased emphasis on ethical considerations in the conduct of educational research and the skills needed to conduct a comprehensive review of related literature, allows the student to see the similarities and differences in research approaches and to understand more fully how the nature of the research question influences the selection of a research method Part II includes description and discussion of different quantitative research methods and the data collection and analysis needs of each Part III includes two chapters devoted to the statistical approaches and the analysis and interpretation of quantitative data Part IV includes qualitative research methods, differentiating between approaches and describing the collection, analysis, and interpretation of qualitative data Part V is dedicated to the discussion, application, and analysis of mixed methods research designs Part VI focuses on the design and implementation of action research and presents the dialectic action research spiral as a model for conducting such research Part VII focuses on helping the student prepare a research report, either for the completion of a degree requirement or for publication in a refereed journal Finally, in Part VIII, the student applies the skills and knowledge acquired in Parts I through VII and critiques a research report Strategy This text represents more than just a textbook to be incorporated into a course; it is a total instructional system that includes stated learning outcomes, instruction, and procedures for evaluating each outcome The instructional strategy of the system emphasizes the demonstration of skills and individualization within this structure Each chapter begins with a list of learning outcomes that describes the knowledge and skills that the student should gain from the chapter In many instances, learning outcomes may be assessed either as written exercises submitted by students or by tests, whichever the instructor prefers In most chapters, a task to be performed is described next Tasks require students to demonstrate that they can perform particular research functions Because each student works with a different research problem, each student demonstrates the competency required by a task as it applies to his or her own problem With the exception of Chapter 1, an individual chapter is directed toward the attainment of only one task (occasionally, students have a choice between a quantitative and qualitative task) PREFACE Text discussion is intended to be as simple and straightforward as possible Whenever feasible, procedures are presented as a series of steps, and concepts are explained in terms of illustrative examples In a number of cases, relatively complex topics or topics beyond the scope of the text are presented at a very elementary level, and students are directed to other sources for additional, in-depth discussion There is also a degree of intentional repetition; a number of concepts are discussed in different contexts and from different perspectives Also, at the risk of eliciting more than a few groans, an attempt has been made to sprinkle the text with touches of humor—a hallmark of this text spanning three decades—and perhaps best captured by the pictures and quotes that open each chapter Each chapter includes a detailed, often lengthy summary with headings and subheadings directly parallel to those in the chapter The summaries are designed to facilitate both the review and location of related text discussion Finally, each chapter (or part) concludes with suggested criteria for evaluating the associated task and with an example of the task produced by a former introductory educational research student Full-length articles, reprinted from the educational research literature, appear at the ends of all chapters presenting research methods and serve as illustrations of “real-life” research using that methodology SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS A number of supplementary materials are available to complement the text: MyEducationLab vii in class and save instructors preparation and grading time, these assignable exercises give students opportunities to apply class content to research scenarios (Correct answers for these assignments are available to the instructor only.) Building Skills for Reading Research These exercises help students develop skills that are essential for understanding and carrying out research Study Plan A MyEducationLab Study Plan consists of multiple-choice assessments tied to learning outcomes, supported by study material A welldesigned Study Plan offers multiple opportunities to fully master required course content as identified by learning outcomes: • Learning Outcomes for each topic give students targets to shoot for as they read and study • Multiple Choice Assessments assess mastery of the content These assessments are mapped to learning outcomes, and students can take the multiple-choice posttests as many times as they want Not only these assessments provide overall scores for each outcome, but they also explain why responses to particular items are correct or incorrect • Study Material: Review, Practice, and Enrichment give students a deeper understanding of what they and not know related to topic content This material includes activities that include hints and feedback Visit www.myeducationlab.com for a demonstration of this exciting new online teaching resource The following resources are available for instructors to download at www.pearsonhighered com/educators: Prepare with the Power of Practice MyEducationLab is an online learning tool that provides contextualized interactive exercises and other resources designed to help develop the knowledge and skills researchers need All of the activities and exercises in MyEducationLab are built around essential learning outcomes The website provides opportunities to both study course content and to practice the skills needed to understand and carry out research For each topic covered in the course, students will find most or all of the following features and resources: Assignments and Activities Designed to enhance student understanding of concepts covered Online Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank and MyTest The Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank contains suggested activities, strategies for teaching each chapter, selected resources, and test items Suggestions are based on personal experience with teaching the course and conducting research In addition, the more than 700 test items represent a variety of levels of multiple-choice items New test items have been added to reflect text additions Offered along with the Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank is the Pearson MyTest, a powerful assessment viii PREFACE generation program that helps instructors easily create and print quizzes and exams Questions and tests are authored online, allowing flexibility and the ability to efficiently create and print assessments anytime, anywhere Instructors can access Pearson MyTest and their test bank files by going to www pearsonmytest.com to log in, register, or request access MyTest also enables instructors to easily convert the test bank into BlackBoard and WebCT formats Online PowerPoint Slides PowerPoint® slides include key concept summaries and other graphic aids to help students understand, organize, and remember core concepts and ideas Computer Simulation Software Simulations in Educational Psychology and Research, version 2.1 (0-13-113717-4), features five psychological/educational interactive experiments on a CDROM Exercises and readings help students explore the research concepts and procedures connected to these experiments Qualitative and quantitative designs are included Instructors should contact their local Pearson sales representatives to order a copy of these simulations ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I sincerely thank everyone who provided input for the development of this edition The following individuals made thoughtful and detailed suggestions and comments for improving the tenth edition: Anne E Cook, University of Utah; Steven Harris, Tarleton State University; Beverly M Klecker, Morehead State University; Larry R Price, Texas State University; Graham B Stead, Cleveland State University These reviewers contributed greatly to the tenth edition and their efforts are very much appreciated This edition benefited from the efforts of two editors: Kevin Davis and Paul Smith Paul Smith (Vice President/Editor-in-Chief, Pearson Teacher Education) took over the editor’s role from Kevin, and then relinquished the role when he changed jobs late in the development process Fortunately for me, Kevin was waiting in the wings to finish the development and production of the tenth edition A few words of thanks are in order here For the past 15 years I have been fortunate to work with Kevin Davis, Vice President and Publisher at Pearson Kevin gave me my textbook start in 1997 when he offered me a contract to write Action Research: A Guide for the Teacher Researcher (now in its fourth edition) Kevin has taught me a great deal about writing, and I will always be indebted to him for trusting me with stewardship of this wonderful text I am particularly thankful to Kevin for stepping in to take over the production of the text late in the process, and as usual, will benefit from his selection of a cover for the text! Also at Pearson, Christina Robb ably shepherded the manuscript through development and production, kept me from falling behind, pushed me to think critically about Digital Research Tools for the 21st Century, and helped me see the light at the end of the tunnel An author does not take on the task of a major revision of a text of this magnitude without the commitment and support of excellent editors Kevin and Christie were instrumental in the development of this edition and I sincerely thank them for their professionalism, patience, caring, and sense of humor I believe that I have made a positive contribution to this text, now my third edition, and added to the wisdom of earlier editions by L R Gay and Peter Airasian Long-time users of the text will still “hear” Lorrie Gay’s voice throughout the text, but increasingly there is an Aussie accent and sense of humor creeping its way into the pages! I wish to thank my friend and colleague Dr. Ken Kempner (Southern Oregon University) for his thoughtful work on revising the descriptive and inferential statistics chapters and feedback on other quantitative chapters in the text Finally, I want to thank my best friend and wife, Dr Donna Mills, and my son, Jonathan, for their love, support, and patience Their commitment to my work is always appreciated and never taken for granted The completion of this edition signals a new era in my life as my son Jonathan starts his college career and Donna and I consider an “empty nest.” I suggested to Jonathan that one day he may want to take over my books It is safe to say that he was less than excited by the prospect—perhaps I should try again once he completes his undergraduate degree! Geoff Mills Southern Oregon University Brief Contents Part I INTRODUCTION CHAPTER INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Part IV QUALITATIVE METHODS CHAPTER 14 QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION 381 CHAPTER 15 NARRATIVE RESEARCH 399 CHAPTER SELECTING AND DEFINING A RESEARCH TOPIC 61 CHAPTER 16 ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH 421 CHAPTER REVIEWING THE LITERATURE 79 CHAPTER 17 CASE STUDY RESEARCH 443 CHAPTER 18 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 465 CHAPTER PREPARING AND EVALUATING A RESEARCH PLAN 111 CHAPTER SELECTING A SAMPLE 129 CHAPTER SELECTING MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 149 Part II QUANTITATIVE METHODS CHAPTER SURVEY RESEARCH 183 CHAPTER CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH 203 CHAPTER CAUSAL–COMPARATIVE RESEARCH 227 CHAPTER 10 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 249 CHAPTER 11 SINGLE-SUBJECT EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 293 Part V MIXED METHODS CHAPTER 19 MIXED METHODS RESEARCH: INTEGRATING QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS 481 Part VI ACTION RESEARCH CHAPTER 20 ACTION RESEARCH 507 Part VII REPORTING RESEARCH CHAPTER 21 PREPARING A RESEARCH REPORT 531 Part VIII CRITIQUING RESEARCH Part III QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS CHAPTER 12 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 319 CHAPTER 13 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 341 CHAPTER 22 EVALUATING A RESEARCH REPORT 555 ix This page intentionally left blank Name Index A F Abdul-Tawwab, Najwa, 454–462 Agar, M H., 386, 447 Airasian, P W., 173, 174 Akos, Patrick, 565–576 American Education Research Association, 160 American Psychological Association (APA), 20, 160 Anderson, G L., 466 Atkinson, P., 425 Feldman, M A., 12 Flinders, D J., 24, 447 Fretz, R I., 429 Fueyo, V., 508 B Barlow, D H., 300 Barnes, Stacie B., 308–317 Biklen, S K., 81, 116, 117, 383–384, 395 Bogdan, R C., 81, 116, 117, 383–384, 395 Bracht, G H., 257 Bruning, Roger H., 496–505 Buckley, N K., 296 Buros Institute of Mental Measurements, 155 C Calderin, Sara Jane, 543–553 Campbell, D T., 254 Caracelli, V J., 487 Clandinin, D J., 13, 400, 403, 404, 405 Cobb, R Brian, 237–247 Cochran, William G., 132 Colvin, Carolyn, 89 Connelly, F M., 13, 400, 403, 404, 405 Conoley, J C., 171 Cook, T D., 254 Crawford, Kathleen, 436–441 Creswell, J W., 6, 15, 388, 402, 405, 406, 426, 475, 484, 486, 487, 489 Crumpler, Thomas, 436–441 D Dalrymple, A J., 12 Dauite, C., 402 Deatline-Buchman, Andria, 279–290 Denzin, N K., 426, 444 Deshler, D D., 12 Dey, I., 477 E Ellerby, Dick, 237–247 Emerson, R M., 429 G Galassi, John P., 565–576 Geertz, C., 446 Glass, G V., 101, 257 Gould, Stephen Jay, 368 Greene, J C., 487 Guba, E G., 392, 393 Gubrium, J F., 406 H Haaland, J., 335 Hammersley, M., 425, 511 Hamre, Bridget K., 7, 33–50 Hawes, Carmen Ann, 219–224 Herr, K., 466 Hersen, M., 300 Holstein, J A., 406 Huberman, A B., 444, 449 Hughes, C A., 12 I Igo, L Brent, 496–505 Impara, J C., 171 Inman, Duane, 198–201 J Jackson, P W., 509 Jitendra, Asha K., 279–290 Jones, J H., 20 Jorner, U., 335 Juenemann, Penny, 521–529 K Kellaghan, T., 17 Kemmis, S., 513 Kennedy, M M., 508, 509–510 Keyser, D., 172 Kim, Jeong-Hee, 410–419 Koerner, Mari E., 454–462 Koorland, M A., 508 Krathwohl, D R., 468, 483 635 636 NAME INDEX L LeCompte, M D., 425, 484, 485, 560 Leech, Nancy, 237–247 Lenski, Susan Davis, 436–441 Lightfoot, C., 402 Lincoln, Y S., 444 M McGaw, B., 101 McTaggart, R., 513 Madaus, G., 17 Maddox, T., 171 Malinowski, B., Marlow, Leslie, 198–201 Marshall, C., 81, 116, 117, 118 Maxwell, J A., 392 Merriam, S B., 444, 445, 446, 448, 449 Merton, R K., 447, 451 Miles, M B., 444, 449 Milgram, S., 20 Mills, G E., 14, 24, 98, 118, 119, 390, 429–430, 431–432, 445, 447, 470, 473, 510, 512, 513, 532 N National Council on Measurement in Education, 160 Nihlen, A S., 466 P Patton, M Q., 12, 13, 430, 433, 446, 448 Pelto, G H., 427 Pelto, P J., 427 Persson, R., 335 Piaget, Jean, 62 Pianta, Robert C., 7, 33–50 Plouride, Lee A., 219–224 Polkinghorne, D E., 402 Pope, Ginger G., 496–505 R Riccomini, Paul J., 496–505 Riessman, C K., 404, 407 Rossman, G., 81, 116, 117, 118 Ruhl, K L., 12 Schlosser, Linda Kramer, 89 Schram, T., 117 Schram, T H., 425 Schumaker, J B., 12 Shaw, L L., 429 Shwery, Craig, 198–201 Sleeter, Christine, 7, 51–59 Smith, L M., 23 Smith, M L., 101 Snedecor, George W., 132 Spradley, J., 427 Stallworth, Corsandra, 436–441 Stanley, J C., 254 Stringer, E T., 472, 476, 511 Stufflebeam, D., 17 Sweetland, R., 172 T Tashakkori, A., 487 Teddlie, C., 487 V Van de Walle, J A., 513 Van Maanen, J., 426 W Walberg, H J., 101 Walker, H M., 296 Wallgren, A., 335 Wallgren, B., 335 Whinnery, Keith W., 308–317 Whyte, W F., 446 Winokur, Marc A., 237–247 Wolcott, H F., 394, 423, 427, 428, 429, 432, 476, 477, 512, 539 Wolcott, J F., 117 Wolgemuth, Jennifer R., 237–247 X Xin, Yan Ping, 279–290 S Schensul, J J., 425, 484, 485, 560 Schensul, S L., 560 Y Yin, R K., 14, 444, 447, 448, 451 Subject Index A A-B design, 295 A-B-A design, 295–297 A-B-A-B design, 297 Ability variables, 230 Abstract, evaluation of, 558 Accessible, action research as, 509 Accessible population, 130 Accidental sampling, 140 Achievement tests, 155 Action in Teacher Education, Action planning, 515 Action research, 18 characteristics of, 508–510 critical, 510–511 defined, 507, 508 evaluation of, 561 example, 521–529 levels of, 511–512 performance criteria, 518–520 practical, 511, 512 process, 512–515 purpose of, 508 summary, 507–508, 516 Active participant observer, 427–428 Additive design, 295 Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), 319 Affective characteristic, defined, 154 Affective tests, 156–159 Alternating treatments design, 299–300 Alternative assessment, 154 Ambiguity, 429 American Educational Research Association (AERA), 164 American Psychological Association (APA), 19, 164 American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA), Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), 233, 264, 360–361 Analysis of variance, 234 analysis of covariance, 360–361 multifactor, 360 multiple comparisons, 358–360 simple, 357–358 Anonymity, 21 ANOVA (simple/one-way analysis of variance), 357–360 Antecedents, 472–473 APA manual, 534 A posteriori, 358 Appendixes of qualitative research plan, 121 of report, 538 Applied research, 16–18 A priori, 358 Aptitude tests, 155–156 Archival documents, 389 Area of focus, in action research, 513–514 Artifacts, 390–391 Artificial category, 365 Assessment, defined, 154 Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD), 91 Assumptions, 115 Attenuation, 212 Attitudes, 156 Attitude scales, 156–158 Attrition, 256 Audiotape, 390 Audit trail, 393 Authentic assessment, 154 Authoritative, action research as, 509 Autobiographical writing, 407 Available population, 130 B Bar graphs, 334–335 Baseline measures, 301 Baseline stability, 301–302 Basic research, 16, 17 Bias, 159 Bimodal set, 324 Biographical writing, 407 Biserial, 211 Blogs, 64, 391 Body, of report, 536–538 Buckley Amendment, 21 Budget, research plan and, 116 Buros Institute of Mental Measurements, 155 C California Achievement Test, 155 California Psychological Inventory, 159 637 638 SUBJECT INDEX “Can Instructional and Emotional Support in the FirstGrade Classroom Make a Difference for Children at Risk of School Failure?” (Hamre and Pianta), 7, 33–50 Canonical analysis, 214–215 Case study, 12, 13 Case study research, 14 causal models, 451 characteristics of, 445–446 conducting and analyzing multiple case studies, 449–451 data collection techniques, 448–449 defined, 443, 444 design of, 446–448 evaluation of, 561 example, 454–462 purpose of, 444–453 scatterplots, 450 site-ordered descriptive matrix, 449 site-ordered effects matrix, 450–451 site-ordered predictor-outcome matrix, 450 summary, 443–444, 452–53 time-ordered meta matrix, 450 unordered meta-matrix, 449, 450 when to use, 445 Categorical variables, 151 Causal-comparative research, 10–11 control procedures, 232–233 data analysis and interpretation, 233–234 defined, 228 design, 231–232 evaluation of, 559 example, 237–247 process, 231–234 purpose of, 228–231 summary, 227–228, 235–36 Causal models, 451 Causal variables, 251 Cause, 153 Ceiling effect, 357 Center for the Study of Testing, Evaluation, and Educational Policy (CSTEEP), 91 Changing criterion design, 296 Child Development, Chi square, 234, 364–367 Classification in data analysis, 468 guidelines for, 18–19 Clinical replication, 302 Closed-ended items, on surveys, 186 Cluster, 135 Cluster sampling, 135–137, 138 Coding procedures, for data analysis, 320–321 Coefficient of determination, 214 Coefficient of stability, 165 Cognitive characteristic, defined, 154 Cognitive tests, 155–156 Cohort surveys, 185 Columbia Mental Maturity Scale (CMMS), 156 Common variance, 207–208 “Comparing Longitudinal Academic Achievement of Full-Day and Half-Day Kindergarten Students,” (Wolgemuth et al.), 237–247 Compensation rivalry, 261 Computer databases, 85–90 Concept maps, 472 Conclusion evaluation of, 558 of report, 538 Concurrent validity, 162 Confidence limits, 343 Confidentiality, 21, 23–24 Confirmability, 392 Confounded, 262 Consequences, 472–473 Consequential validity, 161, 164 Construct, 150 Construct validity, 161, 163–164 Content validity, 161 Control, defined, 252–253 Control group, 252 Control variable, 273 Convenience sampling, 140–141 Correlation, 10 Correlational research, 9–10 defined, 204 evaluation of, 558 example, 219–224 interpretation problems, 215 other analyses, 214–215 prediction studies, 212–214 process of, 205–209 purpose of, 204–205 relationship studies, 209–212 summary, 203–204, 216–18 Correlation coefficient, 10 Correlation ratio (eta), 211 Counterbalanced designs, 271–272 Credibility, 392, 477 Criterion, 163, 212 Criterion-referenced scoring, 155 Criterion-related validity, 161, 162–163 Criterion sampling, 143 Criterion variables, 153, 251 Critical action research, 510–511 Critical ethnography, 426 Cronbach’s Alpha, 167–168 Cross-sectional surveys, 184–185 Cross-validation, 213 Culture, 423 Curvilinear relation, 211 SUBJECT INDEX D Data in causal-comparative research, 233–234 collecting, analyzing, and interpreting, 514–515 collection methods, 154 collection techniques used by researchers, 448–449 in correlational research process, 206–209 defined, 150 for descriptive statistics, 320–321 graphing, 334–335 interpreting, 154–155 in prediction studies, 213–214 in relationship studies, 209–212 for single-subject experimental research, 300 Data analysis coding an interview, 470–472 concept maps, 472–473 data collection and, 466–467 defined, 465 ensuring credibility in, 477 interpretation, 476–477 in mixed methods designs, 486, 487 purpose of, 465–466 in qualitative research, 467–468 strategies, 468–475 Databases, 85–90 Data collection interviewing, 386–388 observation, 381–386 questionnaires, 388–389 records examination, 389–391 of report, 537 Data mining, 367–368 Data saturation, 143 Deception, 22 Deductive hypothesis, 71 Deductive reasoning, 4–5 Degrees of freedom, 349–350 Dependent variables, 10, 152–153, 251 Descriptions, in data analysis, 468 Descriptive activities, 514 Descriptive case study, 446 Descriptive statistics defined, 319 frequencies, 322–323 graphing data, 334–335 language of statistics, 320 mean, 323, 324–325 measures of central tendency, 323 measures of relationship, 332–334 measures of relative position, 329–332 measures of variability, 325 median, 323–325 mode, 324–325 normal curve, 326–329 639 overview, 319–320 quartile deviation, 325 range, 325 scoring procedures, 320 standard deviation, 326 tabulation and coding procedures, 320–321 variance, 325–326 Descriptive validity, 392 Design, of research plan, 114 Developing Educational Standards, 91 “Developing Teacher Epistemological Sophistication about Multicultural Curriculum,” (Sleeter), 7, 51–59 Diagnostic test, 155 Diagonal cells, 333 Differential Aptitude Tests, 156 Differential selection of participants, internal validity and, 255, 256 Directional hypothesis, 71 Direct replication, 302 Discriminant function analysis, 214 Discussion, evaluation of, 558 Discussion section, of report, 538 Dissertation Abstracts, 89–90 Dissertations, formatting, 534–538 Dragon Dictate 2.0, 407 Dummy variable, 363 E Ecological validity, 253 Educational Associations and Organizations, 93 Educational research approaches to, 6–9 classification by method, 9–14 classification by purpose, 16–18 classification guidelines, 18–19 defined, ethics of, 19–27 examples, 33–59 qualitative process, 15–16 summary, 28–31 Educational Research Service (ERS), 172 Educational Testing Services, 172 Education Full Text, 82, 89 Education Resource Organizations Directory, 93 Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), 82, 85, 86, 87–89 Effect, 153 “Effect of Interactive Multimedia on the Achievement of 10th-Grade Biology Students,” (Calderin), 543–553 Effect size, 101 “Effects of Functional Mobility Skills Training for Young Students with Physical Disabilities,” (Barnes and Whinnery), 308–317 640 SUBJECT INDEX “Effects of Mathematical Word Problem-Solving Instruction ” (Xin, Jitendra, and Deatline-Buchman), 279–290 Effect variables, 251 Eighteenth Mental Measurements Yearbook, 170 Electronic mailing lists, for research topic, 63 Email interviews, 388 EndNote, 535 Environmental variables, 253 Equality of voice, in researcher-participant relationship, 403 Equivalence, 166–167 Equivalent-forms reliability, 166 ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation, 172 Error, defined, 343 eSurveyspro, 194 Eta coefficient, 211, 212 Ethics considerations of qualitative researcher, 119 of educational research, 19–27 Ethnographic case study, 426 Ethnographic research, 13–14 characteristics of, 425 defined, 421, 423 evaluation of, 560 example, 436–441 process, 423–425 purpose of, 423 summary, 421–422, 434–435 techniques for, 426–433 types of, 426 Ethnograph v6, 475 Ethnography, 12, 13, 423, 426 Ethnomethodology, 12, 13 Ethology, 12, 13 Evaluation of reports abstract or summary, 558 action research, 561 case study research, 561 causal-comparative research, 559 correlational research, 558–559 discussion, 558 ethnographic research, 560 example, 565–576 experimental research, 559 general criteria, 555–558 introduction, 556–557 method, 557 mixed methods research, 561 narrative research, 560 overview, 555 performance criteria, 564 qualitative research, 559–560 results, 557–558 single-subject research, 559 survey research, 558 type-specific criteria, 558–561 Evaluation research, 17 Evaluative validity, 392 Experimental group, 252 Experimental research, 11–12 defined, 250 evaluation of, 559 example, 279–290 for groups, 262–274 purpose of, 250–253 summary, 249–250, 275–278 validity threats, 253–262 Experimental study, of report, 537 Experimental variables, 153, 251 Experimenter bias effect, 260 Experimenter effects, external validity and, 258, 260–261 Explanatory activities, 514 Explanatory mixed methods design, 485 Exploratory mixed methods design, 484 Ex post facto research, 228 External validity, 253–254, 257–262, 300–301, 560 F Facebook, 64 Face validity, 161 Factor analysis, 215, 368 Factorial analysis of variance, 233 Factorial designs, 272–743 Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (1974), 21 Family-related variables, 230 Feedback, 394 Field notes, 382–386, 429–431 Findings, displaying, 473 Focus groups, 388 Follow-up surveys, 185 Format, of research report, 533–534 “For Whom the School Bell Tolls,” (Kim), 410–419 F ratio, 358 Freidman test, 369 Frequencies, 322–323 Frequency polygon, 335 G “Gender and Race as Variables in Psychosocial Adjustment to Middle and High School,” (Akos and Galassi), 565–576 Generalizability, 11, 130, 395 Generalization, 4–5 Google, 92 Grading on the curve, 155 Graduate Record Examination (GRE), 162 SUBJECT INDEX Grounded theory, 12, 13 Group designs, vs single-subject designs, 294–995 Group experimental designs control of extraneous variables, 262–264 counterbalanced designs, 271–272 factorial, 272–274 nonequivalent control group design, 270 one-group pretest-posttest design, 265–266 posttest-only control group design, 269 pretest-posttest control group design, 267–269 single-variable, 264–272 Solomon four-group design, 269–270 static-group comparison, 266–267 time-series design, 271 Grouping variable, 10, 229 Guiding hypothesis, 73 Guttman scales, 157–158 H Haphazard sampling, 140 Hawthorne effect, 261 Headnotes, 430 Heuristic case study, 446 Historical research, 12, 13 History, internal validity and, 254, 255 Holtzman Inkblot Technique, 160 Homogeneous groups, comparing, 233, 263 Homogenous sampling, 143 “How Should Middle-School Students with LD Approach Online Note Taking?” (Igo, Riccomimi, Bruning, and Pope), 496–505 Human Subjects Review Committee (HSRC), 20, 22 HyperRESEARCH 3.0.2, 475 Hypothesis characteristics of, 71 deductive, 71 defined, 5, 69–70 directional, 71 evaluation of, 557 guiding, 73 inductive, 71 nondirectional, 71 null, 72 in qualitative studies, 73–74 in quantitative studies, 70–71 in report, 536–537 stating, 72–73 testing, 73 types of, 71–72 Hypothesis testing, 344 I Independent samples, 351–352 Independent variables, 152–153, 251 641 Inductive hypothesis, 71 Inductive reasoning, 4–5 Inferential statistics analysis of variance, 357–361 chi square, 364–367 data mining, 367–368 defined, 341 degrees of freedom, 349–350 example, 375–379 factor analysis, 368 hypothesis testing, 344 multiple regression, 361–364 overview, 341–342 parametric and nonparametric statistical tests, 350– 351, 368, 369 performance criteria, 374 standard error, 342–344 Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), 368 tests of significance, 344–345, 350–361 t test, 351–357 two-tailed and one-tailed tests, 345–347 Type I and Type II errors, 347–349 Informed consent, 21, 23 Insight, for action research, 513–514 Institutional Review Board (IRB), 20, 116 Instrumentation, internal validity and, 255 Instruments for data collection, 151 in research plan, 113–114 terminology, 154 Intensity sampling, 143 Interact, 253 Interest inventories, 158 Interests, 156 Interjudge reliability, 168 Internal consistency reliability, 166, 167–168 Internal validity, 253, 254–257 evaluation of, 560 threats to, 301–302 Internal variables, 151, 152 International Reading Association (IRA), 93 Internet, 90–91 Interpretation of results, of report, 537 Interpretive validity, 392 Intervening variable, 214 Interviewing, for data collection, 386–388 Interviews, 186, 468, 470–472 Intraclass, 211 Intrajudge reliability, 168 Introduction evaluation of, 556–557 of report, 536 of research plan, 117–118 Iowa Test of Basic Skills, 155 Item validity, 161 642 SUBJECT INDEX J John Henry effect, 261 Journal publications, writing for, 538–539 Journals, 389–390 Judgment sampling, 141 K Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, 156 Kendall’s tau, 211 Key Math Diagnostic Inventory of Essential Mathematics Test, 155 Key questions, 472 Keywords, 82, 84 Kruskal-Wallis test, 369 Kuder Preference Record-Vocational, 158 Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR-20), 167–168 L “Let’s Talk: Discussion in a Biology Classroom,” (Juenemann), 521–529 Letter writing, 406 Library searches, for research topic, 63, 83–85 Likert scales, 157 LimeSurvey, 194 Limitations, 115 Linear relation, 211 Literature review analyzing, organizing, and reporting, 99–100 annotating sources, 96–99 conducting, 81 evaluating sources, 93–95 examples, 106–108 identifying keywords, 82 identifying sources, 82–93 meta-analysis, 100–101 performance criteria, 105 purpose and scope, 79–81 qualitative research and, 81 in report, 536 summary, 102–104 Longitudinal surveys, 185 Lying with statistics, 324 M Main body, of report, 536–538 Malleable variable, 320 Manipulated variables, 153 Manipulation of the treatments, 251 Mann-Whitney U test, 369 Maps, 390 Matching, 232–233, 263 Maturation, internal validity and, 255 McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities, 156 Mean, 234, 323, 324–325, 344 Measurement, defined, 154 Measurement scales, 151 Measures of central tendency, 323 Measures of relationship, 332 Measures of relative position, 329–332 Measures of variability, 325 Measuring instruments affective tests, 156–159 characteristics of, 153–155 cognitive tests, 155 constructs, 150 projective tests, 159–160 reliability of, 164–169 summary, 176–78 test administration, 174–175 test construction, 173–174 test selection, 169–173 validity of, 160 variables, 150–153 Median, 323–325 Median test, 369 Memoing, in data analysis, 468 Mental Measurements Yearbook (MMY), 155, 158, 170, 171 Meta-analysis, 100–101 Method section, of report, 537 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 159 Mixed methods research data analysis in, 486, 487 defined, 481, 483 evaluating, 489, 561 examples, 493–505 identifying studies using, 488–489 overview, 483 performance criteria, 492 purpose of, 483–484 QUAL-quan model, 484–485, 486, 487 QUAN-qual model, 485, 486, 487 QUAN-QUAL model, 486, 487 summary, 481–482, 490 Mode, 324–325 Mooney Problem Checklist, 159 Mortality, internal validity and, 255, 256–257 Multi-element baseline design, 299 Multi-element manipulative design, 299 Multifactor analysis of variance, 360 Multimodal set, 324 Multiple-baseline designs, 297–299 Multiple prediction equation, 213 Multiple regression, 361–364 Multiple regression equation, 213 Multiple schedule design, 299 SUBJECT INDEX Multiple-treatment interference, external validity and, 258–259 Multistage sampling, 136 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, 159 643 Null hypothesis, 72, 344 NVivo 9.0, 475 O N Narrative research, 13 analysis of, 402 autobiographical and biographical writing, 407 characteristics of, 404 defined, 399, 400–401 evaluation of, 560 examining materials, 406 example, 410–419 letter writing, 406 oral history, 406 process, 402–404 purpose of, 400–401 restorying, 405–406 storytelling, 406 summary, 399–400, 408 techniques, 404–407 types of, 401–402 writing, 407 National Board on Educational Testing and Public Policy (NBETPP), 172 National Center for Education Statistics, 91 National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 19 National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), 93 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), 93 National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME), 164 National Education Association (NEA), 93 National Research Act (1974), 19 National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), 93 Next-step studies, 65 No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), 319 Nominal variables, 151 Nondirectional hypothesis, 71 Nonequivalent control group design, 270 Nonindependent samples, 355 Nonparametric statistical tests, 369 Nonparametric tests, 350–357 Nonparticipant observation, 382 Nonprobability sampling, 140 Nonrandom sampling, 140 Normal curve, for statistics, 326–329 Norm-referenced scoring, 154–155, 330 Novelty effect, 261–262 Observation, 4–5 for data collection, 381–386 Off-diagonal cells, 333 One-group pretest-posttest design, 265–266 One-shot case study, 265 One-tailed tests, 345–347 One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), 357–360 Operational definitions, 70–71 Oral history, 406 Ordinal variables, 151–152 Organismic variables, 229–230 Organizational review, 472 Otis-Lennon School Ability Test, 156 Outcome, 153 Outlines, 99–100, 533 P Pairwise matching, 232–233 Panel surveys, 185 Parametric statistical tests, 368, 369 Parametric tests, 350–361 “Parental Involvement and Its Influence on the Reading Achievement of 6th Grade Students,” (Hawes and Plouride), 219–224 Participant effects, 261 Participant observation, 382, 427–429 Participant variables, 253 Particularistic case study, 445–446 Passive observer, 428–429 Path analysis, 215, 361 Pearson product correlation, 369 Pearson r, 210, 211, 332–334 Percentile ranks, 155, 330 Performance assessment, 154 Personal experiences, for research topic, 62 Personality, 156 Personality Adjective Checklist, 159 Personality inventories, 158–159 Personality variables, 230 Persuasive, action research as, 509 Phenomenology, 12, 13 Phi coefficient, 210, 211 Pie charts, 335 Pilot study, 121 Placebo effect, 261 Point biserial, 211 Population, defined, 113, 130–131 Population parameter, 329 Posttest, 153 Posttest-only control group design, 269 644 SUBJECT INDEX Posttest variables, 251 Power, in significance test, 361 Practical action research, 511, 512 Prediction studies, 212–214 evaluation of, 559 Predictive validity, 162–163 Predictor, 163, 212 Preexperimental group designs, 264, 265–267 Preliminary pages, for report, 535–536 “Preparing Preservice Teachers in a Diverse World,” (Lenski, Crawford, Crumpler, and Stallworth), 436–441 Pretest-posttest control group designs, 267, 269 Pretest sensitization, 255 Pretest-treatment interaction, external validity and, 257–258 Primary sources, 83 Privileged, active observer, 428 Probability sampling, 131 Procedure section, of report, 537 Pro-Ed Publications, 171–172 Professional journals, 172 Professional organizations, 91, 93 Projective tests, 159–160 Proportional stratified sampling, 133 Prospective causal-comparative research, 229 Psychological Abstracts, 89 PsycINFO, 89 Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 534 Purposive sampling, 141, 142 Q Qualitative research approaches to, 12–14 characteristics of, 15, 16 defined, ethical issues in, 22–23 evaluation of, 559 literature review and, 81 overview, 7–9 plan components, 116–121 process, 15–16 vs quantitative research, 8, 120 reliability in, 395 sampling in, 142–143 validity in, 391–394 Qualitative variables, 152 QUAL-quan model, 484–485, 486, 487 QUAN-qual model, 485, 486, 487 QUAN-QUAL model, 486, 487 Quantitative research approaches to, 9–12 avoiding sampling error and bias, 139–140 characteristics of, 15 defined, defining a population, 130–131 determining sample size, 138–139 overview, plan components, 112–116 vs qualitative research, 8, 120 selecting nonrandom samples, 140–141 selecting random sample, 131–138 Quantitative studies, hypotheses in, 70–71 Quantitative variables, 152 Quartile deviation, 325 Quasi-experimental designs, 264, 268, 270–272 Questionnaires, 388–389, 468 analyzing results, 194–195 constructing, 186–189 defined, 186 distributing, 191–192 follow-up activities, 192–193 pilot testing, 189 preparing a cover letter, 189–190 responses, 193–194 selecting participants, 190–191 stating the problem, 186 Quota sampling, 141 R Randomization, 262 Random purposive sampling, 143 Random sampling cluster, 135–137, 138 simple, 131–133, 138 stratified, 133–135, 138 systematic, 137–138 Range, 325 Rank difference correlation, 210, 211 Rating scales, 157 Ratio variables, 151, 152 Raw scores, 154 Reactive arrangements, external validity and, 258, 261–262 Reading, in data analysis, 468 Realist ethnography, 426 Really Simple Syndication (RSS) Feeds, 64 Reciprocity, 428–429 Recommendations, evaluation of, 558 Recording observation, 382–386 Reference section, of report, 538 Reflexivity, 393–394 RefWorks, 535 Relationship, measures of, 332 Relationship studies, 209–212, 558–559 Relative position, measures of, 329–332 Relevant, action research as, 509 Reliability coefficients, 165, 168–169 defined, 164–165 equivalence, 166 SUBJECT INDEX equivalence and stability, 166–167 evaluation of, 560 interjudge, 168 internal consistency, 166, 167–168 intrajudge, 168 Kuder-Richardson 20 and Cronbach’s Alpha, 167–168 in qualitative research, 395 scorer/rater, 166, 168 split-half, 167 stability, 165–166 standard error of measurement, 169 Reliable measurement, 301 Repeated measurement, 301 Replication, 63, 302 Representative sample, 130 Research, defined, Research and development (R&D), 17–18 Research continuum, 6–7, 17 Research hypothesis, 344 Research methods action research, 18 applied research, 16–18 basic research, 16, 17 case study research, 14 causal-comparative research, 10–11 correlational research, 9–10 ethnographic research, 13–14 evaluation research, 17 experimental research, 11–12 narrative research, 13 research and development, 17–18 single-subject research, 12 survey research, Research plan critiquing, 121 data analysis of, 115 defined, 111 examples, 125–126 performance criteria, 124 purpose of, 111–112 qualitative, components of, 116–121 quantitative, components of, 112–116 revising and improving, 121 Research reports example, 543–553 format and style, 533–534 formatting theses and dissertations, 534–538 overview, 531–532 performance criteria, 542 writing for journal publication, 538–539 writing guidelines, 532–533 Research topics characteristics of good, 65–66 developing, 64 hypothesis for, 69–74 identifying, 62–69 narrowing, 65, 66 overview, 61 sources of, 62–65 stating, 66–67 Response set, 159 Restorying, 405–406 Results, evaluation of, 557–558 Results section, of report, 537 Retrospective causal-comparative research, 229 Review of related literature, 80 See also Literature review in report, 536 Rorschach Test, 160 S Sample, defined, 12 Sample-based statistic, 329 Sampling avoiding error and bias, 139–140 cluster, 135–137, 138 convenience, 140–141 criterion, 143 defining a population, 130–131 determining sample size, 138–139, 142 example, 147 homogeneous, 143 intensity, 143 nonrandom, 140–141 performance criteria, 146 purposive, 141, 142 in qualitative research, 142–143 in quantitative research, 130–141 quota, 141 random purposive, 143 representative, 130 simple random, 131–133, 138 snowball, 143 stratified, 133–135, 138 summary, 144–145 systematic, 137–138 Sampling bias, 140 Sampling error, 139, 342 Sampling validity, 161 Scatterplots, 450 Scholastic aptitude tests, 155 School-related variables, 230 Scientific method defined, educational approach of, 5–6 limitations of, overview, 4–5 steps of, 645 646 SUBJECT INDEX Scorer/rater reliability, 166, 168 Scoring procedures, for data analysis, 320 Secondary sources, 83 Selection-maturation interaction, internal validity and, 255, 257 Selection-treatment interference, external validity and, 258, 259 Self-referenced scoring approaches, 155 Self-reflection, 513–514 Semantic differential scales, 157 Shared variance, 207 Shrinkage, 213 Significance testing See Tests of significance Simple analysis of variance (ANOVA), 357–360 Simple random sampling, 131–133, 138 Simultaneous treatment design, 299 Single-subject experimental designs, 12 A-B design, 295 A-B-A design, 295–297 A-B-A-B design, 297 alternating treatments design, 299–300 data analysis and interpretation, 300 defined, 294 evaluation of, 559 examples, 306–317 vs group designs, 294–295 multiple-baseline designs, 297–299 performance criteria, 305 replication, 302 single-variable rule, 295 summary, 293–294, 303–304 threats to validity, 300–302 Single-subject research, 12 Single-variable group designs, 264 counterbalanced designs, 271–272 nonequivalent control group design, 270 one-group pretest-posttest design, 265–266 one-shot case study, 265 overview, 264 posttest-only control group design, 269 pretest-posttest control group designs, 267, 269 Solomon four-group design, 269–270 static-group comparison, 266–267 time-series design, 271 Single-variable rule, 295 Site-ordered descriptive matrix, 449 Site-ordered effects matrix, 450–451 Site-ordered predictor-outcome matrix, 450 Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire, 159 Skewed distributions, 329 Skype, 391 Snowball sampling, 143 Solomon four-group design, 269–270 Sources annotating, 96–99 evaluating, 93–95 identifying, 82–93 primary, 83 secondary, 83 Spearman rho, 210, 211, 334, 369 Specificity of variables, external validity and, 258, 259–260 Split-half reliability, 167 SPSS 18, 352–357, 358–360, 362–364, 366–367 Stability, 165–166, 166–167 Standard deviation, 234, 326 Standard error, 214, 342–344 Standard error of measurement, 169 Standard error of the mean, 343 Standardized test, defined, 154 Standard scores, 330 The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, 164 Stanford Achievement Tests, 155 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, 156 Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test, 155 Static-group comparison, 266–267 Stating what’s missing, in report, 473 Statistical regression, internal validity and, 256 Statistical significance, 208 Storytelling, 406 Strata (stratum), 133 Stratified sampling, 133–135, 138 Street Corner Society (Whyte), 446 Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory, 158 Structural equation modeling (LISREL), 215 Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), 368 Structured interviews, 386–387 Structured items, on surveys, 186 Style, of research report, 533–534 Subtest, 155 Summary, evaluation of, 558 Survey, defined, 184 SurveyMonkey.com, 194 Survey research, See also Questionnaires collection methods, 191 conducting, 185–195 defined, 184 design, 184–185 evaluation of, 558 examples, 198–201 purpose of, 184 summary, 183, 196–197 Web-based tools, 194 SUBJECT INDEX Surveys, 468 Symbolic interaction, 12, 13 Systematic replication, 302 Systematic sampling, 137–138 T Table of random numbers, 131–132 Tabulation, for data analysis, 320–321 Target population, 130 Technical writing, guidelines for, 99 TerraNova, 155 Test battery, 155 Test Critiques (Keyser and Sweetland), 172 Testing, internal validity and, 255 Test in Print (TIP), 170 Test-retest reliability, 165 Tests administration, 174–175 constructing, 173–174 defined, 154 selecting, 169, 172–173 sources of information, 170–172 Tests: A Comprehensive Reference for Assessments in Psychology, Education, and Business (Maddox), 171 Tests of general mental ability, 155 Tests of significance analysis of variance, 357–361, 369 chi square, 364–367, 369 data mining, 367–368 defined, 345 degrees of freedom, 349–350 factor analysis, 368 multiple regression, 361–364 overview, 344–345 parametric and nonparametric, 350–351, 368, 369 selecting among, 350–351 structural equation modeling, 368 t test, 351–357, 369 two-tailed and one-tailed tests, 345–347 Type I and Type II errors, 347–349 Tetrachoric, 211 Themes, in data analysis, 469 Theoretical validity, 392 Theory, defined, 62 Theses, formatting, 534–538 Thurstone scale, 157–158 Time-ordered meta matrix, 450 Time schedule, research plan and, 115–116 Time-series design, 271 Topic statement, 66 647 “To What Extent Are Literacy Initiatives Being Supported,” (Marlow, Inman, and Shwery), 198–201 Transferability, 392 Treatment diffusion, external validity and, 258, 260 Treatment variables, 153, 251 Trend surveys, 185 Triangulation, 393, 427 Triangulation mixed methods design, 486 True category, 365 True experiment designs, 264, 267–270 Trustworthiness, 392 T scores, 331–332 t test, 369 analysis of gain or difference scores, 357 defined, 351 explained, 351 for independent samples, 351–355 for nonindependent samples, 355–357 Twitter, 64 Two-tailed tests, 345–347 Type I/Type II errors, 347–349 U Unobtrusive measures, 258 Unordered meta-matrix, 449, 450 Unstructured interviews, 386 Unstructured items, on surveys, 186 U.S Department of Education, 91 “Using Community as a Resource for Teacher Education,” (Koerner and Abdul-Tawwab), 454–462 V Validity in qualitative research, 391–394 threats to, 300–302 Values, 156 Values tests, 158 Variability, measures of, 325 Variables, defined, 150 dependent and independent, 152–153 interval, 151, 152 measurement scales and, 151–152 nominal, 151 ordinal, 151–152 overview, 150–151 quantitative and qualitative, 152 ratio, 151, 152 Variance among scores, 325–326 648 SUBJECT INDEX Variance (Continued) common, 207–208 Vates-MacGinitie Reading Tests, 155 Videotape, 390 Vocational Test and Reviews, 170 Wiki, 391 Wilcoxon signed rank test, 369 Wilson Education Index, 89 World Wide Web, 90–91 Z W Web sites, for research topic, 63, 65 Wechsler scales, 156 Zoomerang, 194 Zotero, 535 z scores, 330–332 ... ethnographic, and case study Identify and differentiate among research purposes, including basic research, applied research, evaluation research, research and development (R&D), and action research. .. Qualitative Research Process Characteristics of Qualitative Research Classification of Research by Purpose Basic and Applied Research Evaluation Research Research and Development (R&D) Action Research. . .EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH This page intentionally left blank EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Competencies for Analysis and Applications T E N TH E D I TI O N L R Gay