Strategic planning for public relations by ronald d smith J7TbEBmsUBS7eIkI8wosyt7bU0mTABCj pdf

Strategic Planning for Public Relations Strategic Planning for Public Relations Ronald D Smith, APR Buffalo State College 2002 LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS Mahwah, New Jersey London Acquisitions Editor: Textbook Marketing Manager: Editorial Assistant: Cover Design: Textbook Production Manager: Full-Service Compositor: Text and Cover Printer: Linda Bathgate Marisol Kozlovski Karin Wittig Bates Kathryn Houghtaling Lacey Paul Smolenski TechBooks Hamilton Printing Company This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008 “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Copyright © 2002 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc All right reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, retrieval system, or any other means, without prior written permission of the publisher Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers 10 Industrial Avenue Mahwah, New Jersey 07430 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Strategic planning for public relations / edited by Ronald D Smith p cm Includes index ISBN 0-8058-4233-0 Public relations I Smith, Ronald D., 1948HM 1221 S77 2002 659.2—dc21 ISBN 1-4106-0422-5 Master e-book ISBN 2001055584 Brief Contents Int roduct ion Phase T hree TACTICS Phase One FORMATIVE RESEARCH 17 151 Step Choosing Communication Tactics 153 Step Step Analyzing the Situation 19 Implementing the Strategic Plan 211 Citations and Recommended Readings 227 Step Analyzing the Organization 28 Phase Four Step Analyzing the Publics 39 Citations and Recommended Readings 65 229 Step Evaluating the Strategic Plan 231 Citations and Recommended Readings 254 Phase Two STRATEGY EVALUATIVE RESEARCH 67 Step Establishing Goals and Objectives 69 Step Formulating Action and Response Strategies 82 Step Using Effective Communication 113 Citations and Recommended Readings 147 v Contents Int roduct ion Step Strategic Communication Analyzing the Publics 39 Integrated Communication What Is a Public? 39 Publics, Markets and Audiences 39 Nine Steps of Strategic Public Relations Characteristics of a Public 40 Formative Research Identifying Publics 41 Strategy 10 Tactics 11 Four Categories of Publics 41 Evaluative Research 11 Key Publics 44 Intercessory Publics and Opinion Leaders 45 Effective Creativity 12 Strategic Planning Example: Identifying Publics 46 Phase One FORMATIVE RESEARCH Step Analyzing the Situation 19 Public Relations Situation 19 Issues Management 22 Public Relations and Ethics 24 Strategic Planning Example: Analyzing the Situation 25 17 Strategic Planning Exercise: Identifying Publics 47 Identifying Key Publics 49 Strategic Planning Example: Identifying Key Publics 49 Strategic Planning Exercise: Identifying Key Publics 52 Analyzing Key Publics 53 Stages of Development 54 Strategic Planning Exercise: Analyzing the Situation 25 Step Analyzing the Organization 28 Internal Environment 28 Public Perception 30 Key Characteristics 56 Rethinking Your Publics 57 Benefit Statement 58 Strategic Planning Example: Analyzing Key Publics 59 Strategic Planning Exercise: Analyzing Key Publics 61 External Environment 31 Strategic Planning Example: Analyzing the Organization 32 Strategic Planning Exercise: Analyzing the Internal Environment 33 Strategic Planning Exercise: Analyzing Public Perception 35 Strategic Planning Exercise: Analyzing the External Environment 37 Phase Two STRATEGY 67 Step Establishing Goals and Objectives 69 Goals 69 Positioning 70 vii viii Contents Objectives 71 Identifying Organizational Spokespeople 122 Standards for Objectives 72 Hierarchy of Objectives 74 Writing Public Relations Objectives 77 Strategic Planning Example: Establishing Goals and Objectives 78 Strategic Planning Exercise: Establishing Goals and Objectives 79 Strategic Planning Example: Identifying Message Sources 124 Strategic Planning Exercise: Identifying Message Sources 125 Logos: Appealing to Reason 126 Proposition 126 Verbal Evidence 127 Step Avoiding Errors of Logic 128 Formulating Action and Response Strategies 82 Visual Supporting Evidence Proactive Public Relations Strategies 82 Positive Emotional Appeals 130 Action Strategies 82 Communication Strategies 91 Reactive Public Relations Strategies 97 128 Pathos: Appealing to Sentiment 128 Negative Emotional Appeals 131 Strategic Planning Example: Determining Message Appeals 133 Pre-emptive Action Strategy: Prebuttal 98 Strategic Planning Exercise: Determining Message Appeals 134 Offensive Response Strategies 99 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication 135 Defensive Response Strategies 100 Verbal Communication 135 Diversionary Response Strategies 102 Nonverbal Communication 142 Vocal Commiseration Strategies 104 Rectifying Behavior Strategies 107 Strategic Inaction: Silence 109 Strategic Planning Example: Formulating Action and Response Strategies 109 Strategic Planning Exercise: Formulating Action and Response Strategies 110 Strategic Planning Example: Planning Verbal/Nonverbal Communication 144 Strategic Planning Exercise: Planning Verbal and Nonverbal Communication 145 Phase T hree TACTICS Step Using Effective Communication 113 Communication Processes 113 Information 113 Persuasion 115 Dialogue 116 Rhetorical Tradition 117 Ethos: Convincing Communicators 118 Step Choosing Communication Tactics 153 Conventional Communication Categories 153 Strategic Communication Categories 154 Interpersonal Communication Techniques 156 The Strategy of Interpersonal Communication Tactics 156 Credibility 119 Personal Involvement 157 Charisma Information Exchange 158 Control 120 121 151 Special Events 160 Contents Strategic Planning Example: Choosing Interpersonal Communication Tactics 164 Strategic Planning Exercise: Choosing Advertising and Promotional Tactics 205 Packaging the Communication Tactics 206 Strategic Planning Exercise: Choosing Interpersonal Communication Tactics 165 Organizational Media Tactics 167 The Strategy of Organizational Media Tactics 167 General Publications 167 ix Thinking Creatively 207 Putting the Program Together 207 Strategic Planning Example: Packaging the Communication Tactics 209 Strategic Planning Exercise: Packaging Communication Tactics 210 Direct Mail 170 Miscellaneous Print Media 172 Audiovisual Media 172 Strategic Planning Example: Choosing Organizational Media Tactics 174 Step Implementing the Strategic Plan 211 The Written Plan 211 The Schedule 213 Frequency of Tactics 213 Strategic Planning Exercise: Choosing Organizational Media Tactics 175 News Media Tactics 176 Timelines of Tasks 214 The Budget 216 The Strategy of News Media Tactics 176 Budget Item Categories 217 Newspapers Approaches to Budgeting 218 178 Magazines 181 Managing the Budget 221 Radio 182 Full-Cost Budgets 223 Television 184 How Much Success Is Necessary? 224 Serving Media Information Needs 184 Direct News Material 186 Indirect News Material 190 Opinion Material 190 Strategic Planning Example: Implementing the Strategic Plan 224 Strategic Planning Exercise: Implementing the Strategic Plan 226 Interactive News Opportunities 191 Strategic Planning Example: Choosing News Media Tactics 193 Strategic Planning Exercise: Choosing News Media Tactics 194 Advertising and Promotional Media Tactics 195 The Strategy of Advertising and Promotional Media Tactics 195 Print Advertising Media 196 Electronic Media Advertising 199 Phase Four EVALUATIVE RESEARCH Step Evaluating the Strategic Plan 231 Research Design: What to Evaluate 231 Design Questions 231 Evaluation Criteria 232 Timing: When to Evaluate 233 Out-of-Home Advertising 201 Implementation Report 233 Promotional Items 203 Progress Report 236 Strategic Planning Example: Choosing Advertising and Promotional Tactics 204 Final Evaluation 236 Research Design 236 229 330 Index Argument(s) one-sided, 136 persuasive, 138 two-sided, 136 Article type, in content analysis study, 295 Artifacts, physical, in nonverbal communication, 143 Artigue, R.J., 17, 65 Artistic events, 162 Arts shows, 162 Assistant moderator, in focus group, 276 Associated Press, 187 Association(s) as defensive response strategy, 101 as secondary information, 265 Assumption, false, 128 Attack as error of logic in communication, 128 as offensive response strategy, 99–100 Attainable objectives, 73 Attitude, in content analysis study, 295 Attitude items, in questionnaires, 284–285 Attractiveness, communication and, 121 Attributes of Strategic Communication Program, 7–8 Audience feedback, 246 Audience participation in action objectives evaluation, 246–247 in proactive public relations strategies, 84–86 Audiences, description of, 40 Audience-site involvement, 158 Audio media, 172 Audio news releases (ANRs), 189 Audiovisual media, 172–174 Audit, sources of information for, 31 Ault, P.H., 185, 228 Austin, E.W., 3, 14 Authority appeal to, 128 communication and, 121 Awards dinners, 162 Awareness evaluation, 243 Awareness objectives, 75 evaluation of, 243–245 examples of, 74 Aware public, description of, 55 Babbie, E., 278, 280, 281, 298 Backgrounders, as direct news material, 188 The Background of Issues Management, 21 Bacon’s Directories, 177 Balance, in newsworthy information, 91 Balance theory of persuasion, 115 Banquets, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 Barnhurst, K.G., 94, 147 Baseline studies, 246 Basic research See Academic research Bates, M., 129, 148 Beauty pageants, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Before-after study, in program evaluation, 237–238 Behavior items, in questionnaires, 285–286 Benchmarking, in issues management, 22 Benchmark studies, 246 Benefit statement, 57–59 Benjamin, J., 126, 147 BEP See Break-even point Berelson, B., 45, 65 Berlo, D., 114, 147 Bickman, L., 20, 65 Bill inserts, 172 Biography(ies), as direct news material, 188 Bissland, J.H., 240, 254 Blame shifting, 100 Bleed ads, in magazine advertising, 196 Blimps, as aerial advertising, 203 Bloomberg News, 187 Boe, A.R., 21, 65 Booklets, 169 Boolean logic, 268–269 Botan, C.H., 3, 14, 116, 147 Bottom line, definition of, 40 Bowden Media Directory, 177 Boycotts, 159 Break-even point (BEP), 224 Breakout ads, in magazine advertising, 196 Briggs, W., 105, 148 Brochure(s) advocacy, 168 budget for, 223e Gantt chart for, 215, 216e organizational, 168 as organizational media tactic, 168–169 PERT chart for, 215–216, 216e Buber, M., 116, 147 Budgeting all-you-can-afford approach to, 219 approaches to, 218–220 full-cost, 223–224 for brochure, 222e for implementing strategic plan, 216–217 in written plan, 212 item categories in, 217–218 management of, 221–224 public relations agencies fee structures, 221 what-if-not-funded, 220 zero-based, 220 Bulletin boards, 172 Bulletins, 168 Burrelle’s Media Directory, 177 Burson-Marsteller Public Relations, 120, 147 Bursting, in message presentation, 212 Business cards, 172 Business-to-business catalogs, 171 Business Wire, 187 Bus signs, as transit advertising, 202 Cable crawls, in advertising, 200 Cable & Station Coverage Atlas, 177 Cable television advertising, 200 CACI Marketing systems/ ACORN, 267 Cameron, G.T., 185, 228 Campaigns samples of, 309 evaluation research phase, 323–327 formative research phase, 310–314 strategy phase, 315–317 tactics phase, 318–322 in strategic public relations, 10 Canada News Wire, 187 Canadian Press, 187 Canadian Public Relations Society, ethical standards of, 305–306 Caravans, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 Index Car cards, as transit advertising, 202 Carnivals, 160 Case history, 276 Case study(ies), 276–277 advantages and disadvantages of, 277–278 conducting of, 278–279 sample discussion guide of, 277 Case study researcher, 279 Casual research, 18 Catalogs, 171–172 Catholic News Service, 187 Celebrity spokespersons, 122–123 Census, in research sampling, 259 Centennial celebration, 162 Center spreads, 196 Certificates, 172 Challenging objectives, 73 Charisma, 120–121 Chase, W.H., 21, 65 Checklist items, in questionnaires, 289 Christians, C.G., 84, 147 Circulars, 169 Circuses, 160 Civic events, 160–161 Civil disobedience, 89 Claim in communication, 126 see also Proposition Claritas/PRIZM, 267 Clarity, in verbal communication, 138 Classified ads, 198 Clipping services, 243 Closed-ended items, in questionnaires, 288 Clothing in nonverbal communication, 143 as promotional item, 203 Cluster sampling, 263–264 Clymer, A., 287 Coalitions, 86–87 Cody, M.J., 98, 106, 147 Cognitive dissonance theory of persuasion, 115 Colloquiums, 158 Colors, in nonverbal communication, 143–144 Commercial information services, as secondary information, 266 Commission, as item in budget, 217 Committee, ethics by, 24 Communication, 113 in analysis of key publics, 56 appealing to reason, 126–128 appealing to sentiment, 128–133 avoiding errors of logic, 128 barriers to, 137 charisma and, 120–121 communication processes, 113–117 comparisons in, 127 control and, 121–122 convincing communicators and, 118–124 credibility and, 119–120 dialogue in, 116–117 examples in, 127–128 effective, three C’s of, 118e emotional, 129 factual proposition in, 126 familiarity and, 121 Fog Index, use of, 139 halo effect and, 122 information-based, 113–115 model of, 114e integrated, 4–6, marketing, mathematical theory of, 114–115 negative emotional appeals, 131–133 nonverbal, 142–144 strategic planning for, 144–146 open, persuasive, 115–116 persuasive arguments, 138 positive emotional appeals, 130–131 proactive, two-way, proposition in, 126–127 rational, 126–128 rhetoric, 117–118 sentimental, 128–129 similarity and, 121 spokespeople and, 122–124 strategic, 2–3 strategic planning for determining message appeals, 133–135 identifying message sources, 124–126 verbal, 135–141 strategic planning for, 144–146 verbal evidence in, 127–128 visual supporting evidence in, 128 331 Communication briefings, 168 Communication managers, Communication outputs, 240–243 Communication processes, 113–117 Communication strategies, 91–97 Communication tactics advertising and promotional media tactics electronic media advertising, 199–201 out-of-home advertising, 201–203 print advertising media, 196–199 promotional items, 203–204 pushing too far, 197 radio dayparts, 199 strategic planning for, 204–206 strategy of, 195–196 television dayparts, 198 conventional categories of, 153–154 description of, 153 interpersonal Donor Bill of Rights, 163 information exchange, 158–160 personal involvement, 157–158 special events, 160–164 strategic planning for, 164–166 strategy of, 156–157 news media tactics competitive media index, 179e direct news material, 186–190 indirect news material, 190 interactive news opportunities, 191–193 lead time, 183 magazines, 181–182 media directories, 177 newspapers, 178–181 opinion material, 190–191 public relations and, 185 radio, 182–184 serving media information needs, 184–186 strategic planning for, 193–195 332 Index Communication tactics (continued) strategy of, 176–178 television, 184 wire services, 187 organizational media tactics audiovisual media, 172–174 direct mail, 170–172 general publications, 167–170 miscellaneous print media, 172 strategic planning for, 174–176 strategy of, 167 packaging communication tactics, 206–210 putting program together, 207–209 strategic planning for, 209–210 thinking creatively, 207 strategic categories of, 154–156 audience reach and persuasive impact, 155e Communication technicians, Communicators charisma and, 120–121 control and, 121–122 convincing, 118–119 credibility and, 119–120 Company spokespersons, 123–124 Competence, communication and, 119 Competitive environment, Competitive media index, 179e Competitive parity approach, to budgeting, 218–219 Competitor, in organizational analysis, 31 Computer-assisted research, as secondary information, 266–269 Computer-based media in electronic media advertising, 201 as organizational media tactic, 173–174 Computer-based surveys, 280 Concern, as vocal commiseration strategy, 104 Concerts, 162 Concession, as diversionary response strategy, 102–103 Conclaves, 158 Conclusion(s), as error of logic drawing of, 136–137 unwarranted, 128 Condolence, as vocal commiseration strategy, 104 Confidentiality, in research, 257–258 Conflict resolution, 116 Congruity theory of persuasion, 115 Conjecture proposition, 126–127 Consensus building, 116 Consultant background, in written plan, 212 Content analysis, 290–291 advantages and disadvantages of, 292 follow-up of, 297 use of, 291–292 Content analysis study, 292–293 examples of, 293–297 Contests, 161 Context, as defensive response strategy, 102 Contingency statement, as opinion material, 191 Continuity, in message presentation, 212 Control, communication and, 121–122 Controlled before-after study, 238 Controlled media, in conventional communication, 153 Convenience sampling, 260 Conventional communication tactics See Communication tactics Conventions, 158 Convocations, 158 Cooperation, Corder, L., 156, 227, 230, 244, 254 Cornerstone ceremony, 161 Corporate video, as organizational media tactic, 173 Corrective action, 107–108 Cost-benefit analysis approach to budgeting, 219 Costumes, as promotional items, 203 Councils, as interpersonal communication tactic, 158 Cox News, 187 Creative thinking, 207 Creativity, 12–13 Credibility, 119–120 Crisis communication management, 97–98 Crisis Management, strategic approach to, 22–23 Curtain, P.A., 185, 227 Customer-driven response, Customers, as publics, 41, 43 Cybernetic model of communication, 114–115, 114e Cybernetics, in public relations, 237 Daily newspapers, lead time needed for, 183 Data analysis, in program evaluation, 248 Daypart(s) in radio commercials, 199, 200 in television commercials, 198, 199 Deasy, M., 156, 227, 230, 244, 254 Debates, 160 Dedication ceremony, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Defamation, in verbal communication, 141 Defensive response strategies, 100–102 Demo CDs, 172 Demo tapes, 172 Demographics in analysis of key publics, 56 of content analysis study, 295 of questionnaires, 287–288 Demonstrations, as interpersonal communication tactic, 159 Denial, as defensive response strategy, 100–101 Dennis, L.B., 42, 65 Deontological approach to ethical decision making, 24 Department, packaging by, 209 Dewey, J., 39, 65 Dial-a-message tactics, 172 Dialogue, communication and, 116–117 Dinners, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 Dioramas, as transit advertising, 202–203 Direct mail, 170–172 Direct mail video, 173 Direct news material, 186–190 Direct observation, in action objectives evaluation, 247 Directory advertising, 198 Disassociation, as diversionary response strategy, 103 Index Disclosure, in research ethics, 258 Display ads, 197–198 Disproportionate stratified sampling, 263 Diversionary response strategies, 102–104 Dominick, J.R., 264, 298 Donor Bill of Rights, in fundraising, 163 Door hangers, as organizational media tactic, 172 Doublespeak as diversionary response strategy, 103–104 in verbal communication, 141 Dow Jones News Service, 187 Dozier, D.M., 249, 254 Drawing conclusions, 136–137 Duty(ies), in making ethical judgments, 84 Editor and Publisher International Yearbook, 177 Editorial conferences, as interactive news opportunities, 193 Editorials, as opinion material, 191 Edmunds, H., 273, 298 Educational gatherings, as interpersonal communication tactic, 158–159 Effective communication See Communication Electronic catalogs, 201 Electronic mail, 173 Electronic media in advertising and promotional media tactics, 199–201 in conventional communication, 154 Elements, in research sampling, 259 Embarrassment, as offensive response strategy, 100 Emotional appeals negative, 131–133 positive, 130–131 Employee volunteer programs, benefits of, 90 Enablers, as publics, 42, 43 Endorsements, in communication, 128 Environment competitive, external, analysis of, 31–32 strategic planning for, 37–38 internal, strategic planning for, 33–35 Environmental News Service, 187 EPSEM samples, 262 Equal Probability of Selection Method See EPSEM samples Equifax, 267 Equipment, as item in budget, 217–218 Erickson, J.R., 85, 148 Esman, M.J., 41, 65 Ethical judgments, obligations in, 84 Ethical language, in verbal communication, 141 Ethical relativism approach to ethical decision making, 25 Ethical standards of Canadian Public Relations Society, 305–306 high, of International Public Relations Association, 306–308 of Public Relations Society of America, 299–304 Ethical treatment of people, 257–258 Ethics analysis of, 24–27 by committee, 22, 24 in research, 257 Ethos description of, 118 spokespersons and, 124 Evaluation of acceptance objectives, 246 of action objectives, 246 of awareness objectives, 243–245 of communication outputs, 241–243 criteria for, 232, 234–235 see also Program evaluation Evaluation phase, sample of, 323–327 Evaluation plan, in written plan, 212 Evaluation report(s) presentation of, 248–250 structure of, 249 Evaluative research, 11, 229–230 methods of, 239 reminders about, 233–234 types of, 249 Evan, W.H., 41, 65 Event listings, as direct news material, 186 Ewing, R.P., 21, 65 333 Excuse, as defensive response strategy, 101 Executive summary, in written plan, 211 Existing relations, principle of, 23 Expectation scale, in questionnaires, 283 Expertise communication and, 119 as ethical standard, 300 Explicit objectives, 73 Extent, in research sampling, 259 External environment, analysis of, 31–32 strategic planning for, 37–38 External impediments, in organizational analysis, 32 External media, in conventional communication, 153 External publications, as organizational media tactic, 168 Extras, as out-of-home advertising, 202 E-zines, as news media tactic, 182 Facilitator, in focus group, 273 Facilities, as item in budget, 217–218 Fackler, M., 84, 147 Fact sheets, as organizational media tactic, 169 Factual proposition, in communication, 126 Fairness, as ethical standard, 300 Fairs, as interpersonal communication tactic, 160 False assumption, as error of logic, 128 Fame, in newsworthy information, 91 Familiarity, communication and, 121 FAQ sheet, as organizational media tactic, 169 Fashion shows, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 Fear, appeals based on, 131–132 Feature releases, as direct news material, 188 Fee structures, for public relations agencies, 221 Festinger, L., 115, 147 Festivals, as interpersonal communication tactic, 160 Field days, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Field research, 276 Film festivals, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 334 Index Final report, in program evaluation, 236 Final word, in verbal communication, 136 Fink, A., 290, 298 Finn, D., 25, 65 Fischer, R., 229, 254 Fitzpatrick, K.R., 105, 147 Fixed fees, for public relations agencies, 221 Flighting, in presentation of messages, 212 Flyers, as organizational media tactic, 168–169 Focus groups advantages and disadvantages of, 272–273 conducting of, 273–276 outline for, 274–276 who’s who in, 276 working of, 273 Fog Index, 138 use of, 139 Folders, as organizational media tactic, 169 Forced-choice items, in questionnaires, 289 Formal opinion leaders, 46 Formative research, 9–10, 17–18 Formative research phase, sample of, 310–314 Forums, as interpersonal communication tactic, 160 Founders days, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 Free classes, as interpersonal communication tactic, 158 Full-cost budgets, 223–224 Full Disclosure, principle of, 23 Full-line catalogs, as organizational media tactic, 171 Fundraising Donor Bill of Rights in, 163 as interpersonal communication tactic, 162–164 Gale Directory of Publications and Broadcast Media, 177 Gallup Organization, 267 Gantt chart for brochure, in implementing strategic plan, 215, 216e Gaudet, H., 45, 65 Gebbie Press All-in-One Directory, 177 General interest newspapers, as news media tactic, 180 General publications, as organizational media tactic, 167–170 Geodemography, 266 Gibb, B., 22, 65 Giving USA 2001, 162, 227 Goal(s) establishment of, 69–70 strategic planning for, 78–81 packaging by, 208 see also Public relations goals Goal-rooted objectives, 72 Gofton, K., 235, 254 Good intention, as defensive response strategy, 101 Gottschalk, J.A., 102, 147 Government records, as secondary information, 266 Grand opening events, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Gray, R., 4, 14 Gronstedt, A., 6, 14 Ground-breaking ceremony, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Group administration of surveys, 280 Grunig, J.E., 6, 14, 41, 54, 65 Guest editorials, as opinion material, 191 Guest lectures, as interpersonal communication tactic, 160 Guilt, appeals based on, 132–133 Gunning Readability Formula See Fog Index Halo effect, communication and, 122 Harris, T.L., 6, 14 Harris Polls, 267 Hawthorne effect, in evaluative research, 238 Hearing, difference between listening and, 271 Hearit, K.M., 97, 147 Hedrick, T.E., 20, 65 Heider, F., 114, 147 Hendrix, J., 8, 14 Hiebert, R.W., 6, 14 High ethical standards, Historic commemorations, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 History, as direct news material, 188 Holiday events, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Holmes, P., 5, 14 Home accessories, as promotional items, 203 Homepages, as organizational media tactic, 173 Hometowner releases, as direct news material, 188 Homilies, as interpersonal communication tactic, 160 Hon, L.C., 232, 234, 250, 254 Honesty communication and, 119, 120 as ethical standard, 300 House ads, in newspaper advertising, 198 House organs as news media tactic, 181 as organizational media tactic, 168 Hovland, C.I., 115, 149 How-to pieces, as direct news material, 188 Human interest, in newsworthy information, 91 Humor, appeals based on, 130–131 Hunt, T., 6, 14, 41, 54, 65 Idealism, as defensive response strategy, 102 Impact-oriented objectives, 72–73 Impartiality, in questionnaires, 286–287 Impediment, in public relations audit, 30 Implementation report, in program evaluation, 235–238 Improvement scale, in questionnaires, 283 Independence, as ethical standard, 300 In-depth interviews, 272 Indirect news material, in news media tactics, 190 Infante, D.A., 126, 147 Inflatables, as aerial advertising, 203 Infomercials, 199 Informal opinion leaders, 46 Informant, in case studies, 279 Information for audit, 31 newsworthy, 91–96 Index Information-based communication, 113–115 model of, 114e see also Communication Information exchange, as interpersonal communication tactic, 158–160 Informed consent, in research ethics, 258 Ingratiation, as diversionary response strategy, 103 Innocence, as defensive response strategy, 100 Inoculation theory of persuasion, 115 Integrated communication, 4–6, Intensive interviews, 272 Interactive news opportunities, in news media tactics, 191–193 Intercession, 45 Intercessor, 45 Intercessory publics, 45 see also Public(s) Intercoder reliability, in content analysis, 292 Internal environment, analysis of, 28–30 strategic planning for, 33–35 Internal impediments, in public relations audit, 29–30 Internal media, in conventional communication, 153 Internal publications, as organizational media tactic, 168 Internal video, as organizational media tactic, 173 International Code of Ethics, 306–308 International Public Relations Association, ethical standards of, 306–308 Internet information sites, 267 Interpersonal communication tactics artistic events, 162 audience-site involvement, 158 civic events, 160 contests, 161 demonstrations, 159 Donor Bill of Rights, 163 educational gatherings, 158–159 fundraising events, 162 historic commemorations, 162 holiday events, 161 information exchange, 158–160 meetings, 159 organizational-site involvement, 157–158 parades, 161 personal involvement, 157–158 product exhibitions, 159 progress-oriented events, 161 social events, 162 special events, 160–164 speeches, 160 sporting events, 161 strategic planning for, 164–166 strategy of, 156–157 Interstitial ads, in computer-based media, 201 Interview notes, as direct news material, 186 Interviews, 269 asking questions during, 269–271 intensive, 272 listening during, 271–272 Introductory statement, in questionnaires, 282 Investigation, as rectifying behavior strategy, 107 Invitations, as organizational media tactic, 171 Issues Management analysis of, 22–24 background of, 21 purpose of, 22 Jackson, P., 17, 65, 96, 147 Jargon of strategic public relations, 10 Johnston, D.D., 126, 148 Jones, B.L., 21, 65 Judgment sampling, 261 Judgmental assessments, in evaluative research, 239–241 Justification, as defensive response strategy, 101–102, 101 Katz, H., 214, 228 Keirsey, D., 129, 148 Kendall, R., 8, 14 Keynote speeches, as interpersonal communication tactic, 160 Key publics, 44–45 active public, 55 analysis of, 53–60 benefit statement, 57–59 communication, 56 demographics, 56 335 key characteristics, 56–57 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 58 organization, 56 Packard’s hidden needs, 59 personality preferences, 56 public relations situation, 56 rethinking your publics, 57 stages of development, 54–56, 54e strategic planning for, 59–64 apathetic public, 55 aware public, 55 identification of, 49 priority worksheet, 52e scoring chart, 53e strategic planning for, 49–53 Tiny Tykes Toys priority worksheet, 51e Upstate College priority worksheet, 50e interests of, 92–94, 92e latent public, 55 nonpublic, 55 see also Publics Kim, J.B., 173, 227 Kitchen, P.J., 6, 14 Klein, P., 30, 65 Kowalski, R.M., 85, 148 Krugman, H.E., 214, 227 Lack of control, as defensive response strategy, 101 Language in nonverbal communication, 143 in verbal communication, 141 Larson, C.U., 126, 148 Lasswell, H.D., 113, 148 Latent public, description of, 55 Lauzen, M., 21, 65 Lazarfeld, P.F., 45, 65 Lead time, for various news media tactics, 183 Leaflets, as organizational media tactic, 169 Lean resources,7 Lectures, as interpersonal communication tactic, 160 Letters to editor, as opinion material, 191 as organizational media tactic, 171 LEXIS/NEXIS, 267 336 Index Libel See Defamation Libraries, as secondary information, 266 Likability, communication and, 121 Likert scale, in questionnaires, 289–290 Limiters, as publics, 42–43, 43 Lindenmann, W.K., 240, 254, 264, 298 Linkages, between organization and publics, 41 Linked to research objectives, 73 Lippy, C.H., 182, 227 Lipstein, B., 74, 148 Listening, difference between hearing and, 271 Listservs, as organizational media tactic, 173 Lobbying exchanges, as interpersonal communication tactic, 159 Localness, in newsworthy information, 91 Logic, avoiding errors of, 128 Logos in communication, 126–128 in nonverbal communication, 142 Love, appeals based on, 130 Loyalty, as ethical standard, 300 Lukaszewski, J.E., 23, 65 Luncheons, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 Maddux, D, 178, 227 Magazine advertising, 196–197 Magazines lead time needed for, 183 as news media tactic, 181–182 Mail surveys, 280 Management See Crisis Management; Issues Management Management by objectives (MBO), 72 Management function, Mangione, T.W., 281, 298 Manifest content, in content analysis, 292 Marathon races, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Marches, as interpersonal communication tactic, 159 Margin of error, in sampling, 264 Marist Research, 267 Market research See Applied research Market segments See Markets Marketing communication focus of, integration of public relations with, 4–6, Marketing letters, as organizational media tactic, 171 Markets, description of, 39–40 Marston, J.E., 8, 14 Martin, J., 106, 148 Martinelli, K.A., 105, 148 Mascots, in nonverbal communication, 143 Maslow, A., 56, 58, 65 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 58 Mass media, in conventional communication, 154 Massing, in presentation of messages, 212 Matera, F.R., 17, 65 Material, as item in budget, 217 Matthews Media Directories, 177 Mau, R.R., 42, 65 MBO See Management by objectives McCombs, M.E., 93, 148 McGuire, W.J., 115, 148 McLaughlin, M.L., 98, 106, 147 McManus, J., 185, 227 Measurable objectives, 73 Media agenda-setting theory of, 93 conventional categories of, 153–154 directories, 177 information needs of, 184–186 Media advisories, as indirect news material, 190 Media agenda, organizational activities/messages, interests of key public and, 92–94, 92e Media alerts, 190 Media-as-Ally, principle of, 23 Media changes, Media costs, as budget item, 217 Media directories, 177 Media impressions, in message exposure, 243–244 Media kits, 190 Meetings, as interpersonal communication tactic, 159 Memorandum, 170 Memo, as organizational media tactic, 170 Merton, R.K., 273, 298 Message appeals, strategic planning for, 133–135 Message content, 244 Message cost, evaluation of, 241–242 Message distribution, evaluation of, 241 Message exposure, 243–244 Message frequency, 214 Message production, 241 Message reach, 214 Message recall, in awareness evaluation, 245 Message repetition patterns, 212 Message sources identification, strategic planning for, 124–126 Message structure, in verbal communication, 136–138 Methodology, in program evaluation, 238–247 Miciak, A.R., 123, 148 Middleberg, D., 185, 227 Miller, D.A., 5, 15 Miscellaneous print media, as organizational media tactic, 172 Mistaken identity, as defensive response strategy, 100 Mitigation, as defensive response strategy, 102 Mobile billboards advertising, 203 Moderator, in focus group, 273, 276 Morgan, D.L., 275, 298 Motorcades, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Multiple-choice items, in questionnaires, 289 Multiple tools, Multistage sampling, 263–264 Music, in nonverbal communication, 142–143 Mutz, D., 94, 147 Myers, I.B., 129, 148 Myers, P.B., 129, 148 Nager, N.R., 67, 148 National Opinion Research Center, 267 Negative emotional appeals, 131–133 Nemec, R., 6, 15 Network placement, in television commercials, 199 Network radio commercials, 200 Networking, 45 Newcomb, T.M., 115, 148 Newport, F., 178, 227 News, organizational generation of, 94 Index News briefs, as direct news material, 188 News conferences, as interactive news opportunities, 192–193 News fact sheets, as direct news material, 186 News groups, as organizational media tactic, 173 News interviews, as interactive news opportunities, 192 News media tactics competitive media index, 179e direct news material, 186–190 indirect news material, 190 interactive news opportunities, 191–193 lead time needed for, 183 magazines, 181–182 media directories, 177 newspapers, 178–181 opinion material, 190–191 public relations, 185 radio, 182–184 serving media information needs, 184–186 strategic planning for, 193–195 strategy of, 176–178 television, 184 News releases as direct news material, 186–188 as organizational media tactic, 169 Newsletter, as organizational media tactic, 167–168 Newsletters in Print, 177 Newspaper advertising, 197–198 Newspaper Association of America, 179, 227 Newspapers, as news media tactics, 178–182 Newsworthy information in communication strategies, 91–96 significance of, 91 Niche, in public relations audit, 28–29 Nonbroadcast video, as organizational media tactic, 173 Nondaily newspapers, lead time needed for, 183 Nonprobability sampling advantages and disadvantages of, 261–262 types of, 260–261 Nonpublic, description of, 55 Nonpublic media, in conventional communication, 154 Nonverbal communication, 142–144 strategic planning for, 144–146 Nyer, P.U., 85, 148 Objective, packaging by, 208–209 Objective-based budgeting, 220 Objectives acceptable, 73–74 acceptance, 74, 75 action, 75–76 attainable, 73 awareness, 74, 75 challenging, 73 establishment of, 71–77 strategic planning for, 78–81 explicit, 73 goal-rooted, 72 hierarchy of, 74–77 impact-oriented, 72–73 linked to research, 73 measurable, 73 poorly worded, 77 public-focused, 72 singular, 73 standards for, 72–74 time-definite, 73 Obligations, in making ethical judgments, 84 Observer, in case studies, 279 Offensive response strategies, in reactive public relations, 99–100 Office accessories, as promotional items, 203 One Voice, principle of, 24 One-sided arguments, in verbal communication, 136 One-step resources, 266 On-line research, as secondary information, 266–269 Op-ed pieces, as opinion material, 191 Open communication, Open house, as interpersonal communication tactic, 158–159 Open-ended items, in questionnaires, 288 Opinion items, in questionnaires, 284–285 Opinion leaders, 45–46, 46, 65 337 Opinion material in news media tactics, 190–191 in questionnaires, 284 Opponent, in organizational analysis, 31 Opportunity born of tragedy, 95 Orations, as interpersonal communication tactics, 160 Order of presentation, in verbal communication, 136 Organization analysis of external environment, 31–32 getting audit information, 31 internal environment, 28–30 public perception, 30–31 Public Relations Audit, 29e strategic planning, 32–38 in analysis of key publics, 56 Organizational activities, media agenda, key public and, 92–94, 92e Organizational files, as secondary information, 265 Organizational media tactics audio media, 172 audiovisual media, 172–174 brochures, 168 catalogs, 171–172 computer-based media, 173–174 direct mail, 170–172 general publications, 167–170 invitations, 171 letters, 171 memos, 170 miscellaneous print media, 172 postcards, 171 progress reports, 169 reprints, 169 research reports, 170 serial publications, 167–168 stand-alone publications, 168–169 strategic planning for, 174–176 strategy of, 167 user kits, 170 video media, 173 Organizational newspapers, as news media tactic, 181 Organizational performance, in proactive public relations strategies, 82–84 Organizational-site involvement, as interpersonal communication tactic, 157–158 Organizational spokespeople, 122–124 Osgood, C.E., 115, 148 338 Index Ostrowski, H., 6, 15 Outcomes, distinction between outputs and, 240 Outdoor posters, as out-of-home advertising, 201–202 Outdoor spectator events, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Out-of-home advertising, as advertising and promotional media tactic, 201–203 Out-of-home video, as out-of-home advertising, 202 Outputs See Communication outputs Packaging, of communication tactics, 206–209 Packard, V., 56, 59, 65 Packard’s hidden needs, 59 Pageants, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 Painted bulletins, as out-of-home advertising, 202 Paints, as out-of-home advertising, 202 Pamphlets, as organizational media tactic, 169 Panels, as interpersonal communication tactic, 160 Papageorgis, D., 115, 148 Parades, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Pathos, in communication, 128–133 Pay stuffers, as organizational media tactic, 172 People, in nonverbal communication, 143 Perceived expertise, 119 Perceived status, 119 Percentage-of-sales approach, to budgeting, 219 Performance in public relations audit, 28 quality, Performance scale, in questionnaires, 283 Permanent paints, as out-of-home advertising, 202 Personal interviews, in survey research, 280 Personal involvement, as interpersonal communication tactic, 157–158 Personality preferences, in analysis of key publics, 56 Personnel, as item in budget, 217 Persuasion, in communication, 115–116 Persuasive arguments, in verbal communication, 138 Persuasive communication, 117–118 PERT chart for brochure, 215–216, 216e Philosophy statement, for implementing strategic plan, 211 Photo exhibits, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 Photographs and captions, as direct news material, 189–190 Physical artifacts, in nonverbal communication, 143 Physiology, appeals and, 129 Pickets, as interpersonal communication tactics, 159 Pinkleton, B.E., 3, 14 Placebo effect, in evaluative research, 238 Plant tours, as interpersonal communication tactics, 158–159 Plays, as interpersonal communication tactics, 162 Policy proposition, in communication, 127 Polls, 280 Poorly worded objectives, 77 Popular media, in conventional communication, 154 Population, in research sampling, 259 Pop-ups, in computer-based media, 201 Position paper, 191 Position paragraph, 191 Position statements, examples of, 71 as opinion material, 191 Positioning, in establishing goals and objectives, 70–71 Positive emotional appeals, 130–131 Postcards, as organizational media tactic, 171 Posters, as organizational media tactic, 172 Power, communication and, 121 Power words, in verbal communication, 138–139 PR Newswire, 187 Prebuttal, in reactive public relations strategy, 98–99 Preemptive action strategy, in reactive public relations, 97–99 Premiere performances, as interpersonal communication tactics, 158 Presentation, in verbal communication, 136 Presentations software, as organizational media tactic, 173 Press packet, as direct news material, 190 Presumptions, unfounded, as error of logic, 128 Pretentious language, in verbal communication, 141 Pre-test/post-test study, in program evaluation, 237–238 Primary research, 18, 265 Print advertising media, 196–198 Print media, in conventional communication, 154 Privacy, in verbal communication, 141 Proactive measure, 82 Proactive public relations strategies action strategies in, 82–91 activism, 89–91 alliances, 86–87 audience participation, 84–85 coalitions, 86, 87 organizational performance, 82–84 special events, 85–86 sponsorships, 87–89 communication strategies in, 91–97 newsworthy information, 91–96 transparent communication, 96–97 description of, 82 two-way communication in, typology of, 83 Probability, in research sampling, 260 Probability sampling, types of, 262–264 Processions, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Proclamations, as organizational media tactic, 172 Producers, as publics, 42, 43 Product exhibitions, as interpersonal communication tactic, 159 Product names, in verbal communication, 139 Index Professional associations, as secondary information, 265 Program(s), in strategic public relations, 10 Program advertising, 198 Program evaluation after-only study in, 237 criteria for, 232, 234–235 data analysis in, 248 judgmental assessments in, 239–241 methodology in, 238–248 presentation of, 248–250 reminders about, 233–234 research design in, 231–235 strategic planning for, 250–253 timing in, 235–238 trend in, 232 see also evaluation Program Evaluation and Review Technique See PERT chart Program names, in verbal communication, 140 Progress-oriented events, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Progress report as organizational media tactic, 169 in program evaluation, 236 Project(s), in strategic public relations, 10 Project fees, for public relations agencies, 221 Prominence, in content analysis study, 295 Promotional characters, in nonverbal communication, 143 Promotional items, in advertising and promotional media tactics, 203–204 Promotional media tactics See Advertising and promotional media tactics Proportionate stratified sampling, 263 Proposition, in communication, 126–127 Provocation, as defensive response strategy, 101 PRSA See Public Relations Society of America Pseudoevent, in proactive public relations strategies, 85 Psychographics, 266 Psychological abstracts, 267 Psychological type, appeals and, 129 Public(s) active, 55 analysis of, 39 benefit statement, 57–59 communication, 56 demographics, 56 key characteristics, 56–57 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 58 organization, 56 Packard’s hidden needs, 59 personality preferences, 56 public relations situation, 56 rethinking your public, 57 stages of development, 54–56, 54e strategic planning for, 59–64 apathetic, 55 aware, 55 categories of, 41–44, 42e characteristics of, 40–41 common traits of, 40–41 customers as, 41–42, 43 definition of, 39 description of, 39 enablers as, 42, 43 identification of, 41–46 priority worksheet, 52e scoring chart, 53e strategic planning for, 46–49 Tiny Tykes Toys Priority Worksheet, 51e Upstate College Priority Worksheet, 50e importance of, 41 interaction with, 41 intercessory, 45 key publics, 44–45 analysis of, 53–60 identification of, 49–53 latent, 55 limiters as, 42–43 nonpublic, 55 opinion leaders, 45–46 packaging by, 208 producers as, 42, 43 recognizable grouping of, 40 size of, 41 strategic, 44–45 typology of, 43 see also Key publics 339 Public affairs meetings, as interpersonal communication tactic, 159 Public libraries, as secondary information, 266 Public media, in conventional communication, 154 Public perception, analysis of, 30–31 strategic planning for, 35–36 Public relations, 4–5 cybernetics in, 237 ethics and analysis of, 24–25 evaluation of, 249–250 focus of, goals in, 69–70 establishing of, 70 strategic planning for, 78–81 integrating marketing with, 5–6 integration of marketing with, news writing and, 185 objectives in establishment of, 71–77 strategic planning for, 78–81 writing of, 76, 77–78 responses in, typology of, 98 strategic planning for description of, 1–2 evaluative research, 11 formative research, 9–10 model of, 9–11 publics-before-objectives order, 45 strategy, 10–11 tactics, 11 Zen of, 20 see also Strategic public relations Public relations agencies, fee structures for, 221 Public relations audit elements of, 29e sources of information for, 31 Public relations situation analysis of, 19–21 in analysis of key publics, 56 Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) code provisions of, 300–304 member code of ethics, 299 member code of ethics pledge, 304 member statement of professional values, 299–300 Silver Anvil web site, 309 340 Index Public-focused objectives, 72 Publicity effects, measurement of, 248 Pulsing, in presentation of messages, 212 Pure research See Academic research Purposive sampling, 261 Q&A See Question-answer Qualitative techniques, of evaluative research, 239 Quality performance, Quantitative methods, of evaluative research, 239 Quarterly reports, as organizational media tactic, 169 Query letters, as indirect news material, 190 Question-answer piece, as direct news material, 188 Question-answer sessions, as interpersonal communication tactic, 160 Questionnaires, 282–283 action and behavior in, 285–286 checklist items in, 289 demographics in, 287–288 forced-choice items in, 289 general tips for, 283–284 impartiality in, 286–287 items in, 289–290 level of information in, 284 multiple-choice items in, 289 open-ended vs closed-ended items in, 288 opinion and attitude in, 284–285 rating scales in, 289–290 timing and wording in, 287 Quick Response, principle of, 23 Quotes, in verbal communication, 140 Radio lead time needed for, 183 as news media tactic, 182–184 Radio commercials, in electronic media advertising, 200 Radio dayparts, in advertising and promotional media tactics, 199 Rallies, as interpersonal communication tactic, 159 Rancer, A.S., 126, 147 Random sampling, 262–263 Rank, H., 138, 148 Rasinski, K.A., 286, 298 Rating scales, in questionnaires, 289–290 Ray, M., 74, 149 Reactive measure, 82 Reactive public relations strategies for defensive response, 100–102 for diversionary response, 102–104 for offensive response, 99–100 planning for, 109–112 for preemptive action, 98–99 for public relations legal vs., 105 typology of responses, 98 for rectifying behavior, 107–109 for strategic inaction, 109 for vocal commiseration, 104–107 when fur flies, 97 Readability measures, in awareness evaluation, 244–245 Reason, appeal to, 126–128 Recitals, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 Recognition lunches, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 Recommendations presentation, in written plan, 211 Recorded information, as organizational media tactic, 172 Recorder, in focus group, 276 Rectifying behavior strategies, in public relations, 107–109 Regret, as vocal commiseration strategy, 104–105 Reiteration, in verbal communication, 137 Relabeling, as diversionary response strategy, 103–104 Relation(s) existing, principle of, 22 public, focus of, see also Public relations Relationship(s), strategic planning for, Relationship management goals, 69 examples of, 70 see also Public relations goals Repentance, as rectifying behavior strategy, 108–109 Reprints, as organizational media tactic, 169 Reputation, 7–8 in public relations audit, 30 Reputation management goals, 69 examples of, 70 see also Public relations goals Reputational priorities, principle of, 23 Requirement scale, in questionnaires, 283 Research academic, 255 casual, 18 evaluative, 229–230 formative, 17–18 primary, 18 secondary, 18 strategic, 17 tactical, 17 Research data, ethical use of, 259 Research design, in program evaluation design questions, 231–232 evaluation criteria, 232, 234–235 hopeful trend in, 232 reminders about, 233–234 Research ethics, 257 sampling, 259–260 cluster, 263–264 convenience, 260 error and size in, 264–265 nonprobability, 260–262 probability, 262–264 purposive, 261 quota, 261 random, 262–263 snowball, 261 stratified, 263 systematic, 263 volunteer, 260–261 treatment of people, 257–258 use of data, 259 Research leader, in focus group, 276 Research participants, ethical treatment of, 257–258 Research practices, 244 Research reports, as organizational media tactic, 170 Research techniques case studies, 276–279 content analysis, 290–297 do-it-yourself, 256, 257 focus groups, 272–276 interviews, 269–272 questionnaires, 282–290 secondary, 265, 265–269 surveys, 280–282 Index Research topics, appropriate, 255–256 Resources, lean, Responses, customer-driven, Response device, as organizational media tactic, 171 Response releases, as direct news material, 188 Response strategies See Action and response strategies Restitution, as rectifying behavior strategy, 108 Retail catalogs, as organizational media tactic, 171 Retainer fees, for public relations agencies, 221 Return device, as organizational media tactic, 171 Rhetoric communication, 117–118 Ribbon-cutting, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Ride-alongs, as interpersonal communication tactic, 158 Ries, A., 71, 149 Roasts, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 ROB See Run-of-book Rog, D.J., 20, 65 Rogers, E., 45, 65 ROP See Run-of-press Roper Center for Public Opinion Research, 267 Roper Starch Worldwide, 267 ROS See Run-of-station Rose, P.B., 5, 15 Roser, C., 132, 149 Ross, R.S., 126, 149 Ross, S.S., 185, 227 Rotary paints, as out-of-home advertising, 202 Rotzoll, K.B., 84, 147 Rubenstein, S.M., 273, 298 Rubin, M.S., 105, 147 Run-of-book (ROB), 196 in magazine advertising, 196 Run-of-press (ROP), in newspaper advertising, 198 Run-of-station (ROS), in radio commercials, 199 Saad, L., 178, 227 Saliency description of, 84 in proactive public relations strategies, 84 Same-as-before approach to budgeting, 219 Same-as-before-but-more budgeting, 219 Sample, definition of, 259 Sampling bias in, 262 cluster, 263–264 convenience, 260 definition of, 259 error in, 264–265 nonprobability advantages/disadvantages of, 261–262 description of, 260 probability, 262–264 purposive, 261 quota, 261 simple random, 262–263 size in, 264–265 snowball, 261 stratified, 263 systematic, 263 volunteer, 260–261 Sampling frame, 262 Sampling unit, in probability sampling, 262 Satellite Media Tour (SMT), as interactive news opportunities, 193 Satisfaction scale, in questionnaires, 283 Schedule for implementing strategic plan, 213–216 in written plan, 211 Schramm, W., 114, 149 Schultz, D.E., 6, 14 Schwartz, P., 22, 65 Science fairs, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Secondary customers, as publics, 41 Secondary information advantages and disadvantages of, 265 types of, 265–269 commercial information services, 266 computer-assisted or on-line research, 266–269 government records, 266 internet information sites, 267 341 organizational files, 265 public and academic libraries, 266 trade and professional associations, 265 Secondary research, 18, 265 Seideman, T., 97, 149 Selective exposure, persuasion and, 115 Self-administered surveys, 280 Semantic differential scale, in questionnaires, 290 Seminars, as interpersonal communication tactic, 158 Sentiment, appealing to, 128–133 Serial publications, as organizational media tactic, 167–168 Sermons, as interpersonal communication tactic, 160 Service article, as direct news material, 188 Service marks, in verbal communication, 140 Setting, in nonverbal communication, 144 Shadow constituencies, as publics, 42 Shadow programs, as interpersonal communication tactic, 158 Shanklin, W.L., 123, 148 Shannon, C.E., 114, 149 Shaw, D.L., 93, 148 Shelter posters, as transit advertising, 203 Sherif, M., 115, 149 Sieberg, E., 116, 149 Signage, as out-of-home advertising, 202 Silence, in public reaction strategy, 109 Similarity, 121 Simmons Market Research Bureau, 183, 227 Simple random sampling, 262–263 Singular objectives, 73 Situation, analysis of background of issues management in, 21 ethics in by committee, 22 public relations and, 24–25 issues management in, 22–24 public relations in, 19–21 Zen of public relations, 20 strategic planning for, 25–27 in written plan, 211 342 Index Skywriting airplanes, as aerial advertising, 203 Slander See Defamation Slide shows, as organizational media tactic, 173 Slogans, in verbal communication, 140 Smith R.D., 94, 129, 149 Smith, Ronald D., viii SMT See Satellite media tour Sneak previews, as interpersonal communication tactic, 158 Snowball sampling, 261 Snyder, L.B., 227 Social events, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 Social judgment theory of persuasion, 115 Sociological abstracts, 267 Socio-samples, 261 Soto, F., 3, 14 Sound bite, as direct news material, 189 Speaker’s bureaus, as interpersonal communication tactic, 160 Special events as interpersonal communication tactic, 160–164 in proactive public relations strategies, 85–86 Special-audience newspapers, as news media tactic, 180 Special-interest newsletters, as organizational media tactic, 168 Special-interest newspapers, as news media tactic, 180 Specialty catalogs, as organizational media tactic, 171 Spectaculars, as out-of-home advertising, 202 Speeches, as interpersonal communication tactic, 160 Spelling bees, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Sperry, R.W., 129, 149 Spokespersons, 122–124 Sponsorships, in proactive public relations strategies, 87–89 Sporting events, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Spot advertising, in television commercials, 199 Spot radio, in radio commercials, 200 Stage-of-lifestyle budgeting, 220 Stages of publics and their relationships, 54e Stand-alone captions, as direct news material, 189–190 Stand-alone publications, as organizational media tactic, 168–169 Standard error, in sampling, 264 Standard error of the mean, in sampling, 264 Standard Rate & Data Service, 197 Standby statement, as opinion material, 191 Stanford Research Institute/VALS, 267 Statement of principles, in written plan, 211 Station posters, as transit advertising, 202–203 Statistics, in communication, 128 Status, communication and, 119 Stenson, P., 173, 227 Story ideal memos, as indirect news material, 190 Strategic communication, 2–3 Strategic managers, Strategic communication planning basic elements of, skills needed for, Strategic communication program, attributes of, 7–8 Strategic inaction, in public reaction strategy, 109 Strategic listening, 272 Strategic philanthropy, in proactive public relations strategies, 87–88 Strategic plan budgeting of, 216–217 approaches to, 218–220 brochure, 222e fee structures for public relations agencies, 221 full-cost budgets, 223–224 item categories, 217–218 management of, 221–224 evaluation of acceptance objectives, 246 action objectives, 246–247 awareness objectives, 243–245 communication outputs, 241–243 criteria for, 232–235 cybernetics and public relations, 237 data analysis, 248 evaluation reports, 248–250 final evaluation, 236 hopeful trend in, 232 how to evaluate, 238–248 how to measure publicity effects, 248 implementation report, 235–236 judgmental assessments, 239–241 methods of research, 239 outputs and outcomes, 240 progress report, 236 reminders about, 233–234 research design, 236–238 research practices, 244 strategic planning for, 250–253 structure of evaluation report, 249 value-added relations, 249–250 what to evaluate, 231–235 what to measure, 235 when to evaluate, 235–238 message repetition patterns of, 212 scheduling of Gantt chart for brochure, 215, 216e PERT chart for brochure, 215–216, 216e tactics frequency, 213–214 tasks timelines, 214–216 strategic planning for implementation of, 224–226 success of, 224 written presentation of, 211–213 Strategic planning for advertising and promotional tactics, 204–206 for analysis of external environment, 37–38 for analysis of key publics, 59–64 for analyzing internal environment, 33–35 for analyzing organization, 32–33 for analyzing public perception, 35–36 for analyzing situation, 25–27 for determining message appeals, 133–135 Index for establishing goals and objectives, 78–81 for evaluating strategic plan, 250–253 for formulating action and response strategies, 109–112 for identification of key publics, 49–53 for identifying message sources, 124–126 for identifying publics, 46–47 for implementing strategic plan, 224–226 for interpersonal communication tactics, 164–166 for news media tactics, 193–195 for organizational media tactics, 174–176 for packaging communication tactics, 209–210 for planning verbal and nonverbal communication, 144–146 for public relations description of, 1–2 model of, 9–11 Strategic public relations steps of, 8–11 see also Public relations Strategic publics, 44–45 see also Public(s) Strategic research, 17 Strategy, 67 of advertising and promotional media tactics, 195–196 in establishing goals and objectives, 69 of interpersonal communication tactics, 156–157 of news media tactics, 176–178 of organizational media tactics, 167 in strategic planning for public relations, 10–11 Strategy phase, sample of, 315–317 Stratified sampling, 263 Structure creativity and, 12 in public relations audit, 29 Studio interviews, as interactive news opportunities, 193 Subscription newsletter, as organizational media tactic, 168 Suggestion boxes, as organizational media tactic, 172 Sugimoto, N., 105, 149 Summative report, in program evaluation, 236 Superstitial ads, in computer-based media, 201 Support, word-of-mouth, 46 Supporters, in organizational analysis, 31 Survey shows radio use patterns, 189 Surveys, 280–282 Symbiotic relationship, in news media tactics, 184 Symbols, in nonverbal communication, 142 Symmetry theory of persuasion, 115 Symposiums, as interpersonal communication tactic, 158 Synods, as interpersonal communication tactic, 158 Systematic interval sampling, 263 Systematic sampling, 263 Table of contents, in written plan, 211 Tactical category, packaging by, 208 Tactical communication managers, Tactical research, 17 Tactics, 151–152 in strategic planning for public relations, 11 see also Communication tactics Tactics frequency, in implementing strategic plan, 213–214 Tactics phase, sample of, 318–322 Talent contests, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Talks, as interpersonal communication tactic, 160 Tannenbaum, P.H., 115, 148 Targeted media, in conventional communication, 154 Tasks management goals, 69 examples of, 70 see also Public relations goals Tasks timelines, in implementing strategic plan, 214–216 Teacher kits, as organizational media tactic, 170 Teas, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 Technician, in focus group, 276 Teleconferences, as organizational media tactic, 173 343 Teleological approach, to ethical decision making in public relations, 24–25 Telephone media, as organizational media tactic, 172 Telephone surveys, 280 Television lead time needed for, 183 in news media tactics, 184 Television and Cable Factbook, 177 Television commercials, in electronic media advertising, 199–200 Television dayparts, in advertising and promotional media tactics, 198 Tellis, G.J., 214, 227 Temperament, appeals and, 129 Test drives, as interpersonal communication tactic, 158 Testimony, in communication, 128 Theme events, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Theoretical research See Academic research Theory of accounts, in public relations relations response strategy, 97–98 Third-party endorsement, in news media tactics, 177–178 Thompson, J., 156, 227, 230, 244, 254 Thompson, M., 132, 149 Threat, as offensive response strategy, 100 Time-definite objectives, 73 Timelines in implementing strategic plan, 215 in newsworthy information, 91 Timelines of tasks, in implementing strategic plan, 214–216 Time period, in research sampling, 259 Timing in program evaluation, 235–238 in questionnaires, 287 Tiny Tykes Toys Priority Worksheet, 51e Tip sheets, as indirect news material, 190 Title page, in written plan, 211 Toll-free lines, as organizational media tactic, 172 Touch-sensitive computers, as organizational media tactic, 174 Tournaments, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 344 Index Tours, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Town meetings, as interpersonal communication tactic, 160 Track meets, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Tracts, as organizational media tactic, 169 Trade associations, as secondary information, 265 Trade media, in conventional communication, 154 Trade newspapers, as news media tactic, 180 Trade shows, as interpersonal communication tactic, 159 Tradition, appeal to, as error of logic, 128 Tragedy, opportunity born of, 95 Training sessions, as interpersonal communication tactic, 159 Transit advertising, 202–203 Transparent communication, in proactive public relations strategies, 96–97 Trial memberships, as interpersonal communication tactic, 158 Triathlon events, as interpersonal communication tactic, 161 Tributes, as interpersonal communication tactic, 162 Triggering events, in proactive public relations strategies, 85 Trout, J., 71, 148 Two-sided arguments, in verbal communication, 136 Two-step resources, 266 Two-way communication, Typology of Publics, 43 Tyson, C.B., 173, 227 U.S Department of the Census, 267 Uncontrolled media, in conventional communication, 153 Unfounded presumptions, as error of logic, 128 Uniforms, as promotional items, 203 United Press International, 187 Unit-of-sales approach to budgeting, 219 Units of analysis, in research sampling, 259 Unusualness, in newsworthy information, 91 Unwarrented conclusions, as error of logic, 128 Upstate College Priority Worksheet, 50e User kits, as organizational media tactic, 170 Value proposition, in communication, 127 Vanden Bergh, B.G., 214, 228 Verbal communication, 135 clarity in, 138 ethical language in, 141 message structure in, 136–138 drawing conclusions, 136–137 final word, 136 one-sided arguments, 136 order of presentation, 136 reiteration, 137 two-sided arguments, 136 power words in, 138–140 strategic planning for, 144–146 Verbal evidence, in communication, 127–128 Victimization, as defensive response strategy, 101 Video advertising as direct news material, 189 as organizational media tactic, 173 as out-of-home advertising, 202 Video news releases (VNRs), as direct news material, 189 Virtual ads, in computer-based media, 201 Virtue, appeals based on, 130 Visibility, in public relations audit, 30 Visual supporting evidence, in communication, 128 VNR See Video news release Vocal commiseration strategies, in reactive public relations, 104–107 Volunteer sampling, 260–261 Waddel, H., 283, 298 Wall murals, as out-of-home advertising, 202 Wallscapes, as out-of-home advertising, 202 Weaver, W., 114, 149 Web radio, as organizational media tactic, 173 Web sites, as organizational media tactic, 174 Web-based television, as organizational media tactic, 173 Weighted stratified sampling, 263 Weiner, M., 234, 254 Weiner, N., 114, 149, 237, 254 West Glen Communications, 189, 228 What-if-not-funded budgets, 220 White paper, as opinion material, 191 Wilcox, D.L., 185, 228 Wild, C., 90, 149 Williams, W., 162, 228 Wimmer, R.G., 264, 298 Window displays, as organizational media tactic, 172 Wire services, 187 Womack, D.F., 126, 147 Wording, in questionnaires, 287 Word-of-mouth support, 46 Workshops, as interpersonal communication tactic, 159 Writer’s Market, 177 Written plan, for implementing strategic plan, 211–213 Yankelovich Partners, 267 Yin, R.K., 277, 279, 298 Young, D., 83, 149 Zen of public relations, 20 Zero-based budgeting, 220 Zeuschner, R., 272, 298 ... Publishers 10 Industrial Avenue Mahwah, New Jersey 07430 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Strategic planning for public relations / edited by Ronald D Smith p cm Includes index ISBN... included an expanding number of pages and links related to public relations and other aspects of strategic communication Ron Smith smithrd@bscmail.buffalostate.edu faculty.buffalostate.edu/smithrd.. .Strategic Planning for Public Relations Strategic Planning for Public Relations Ronald D Smith, APR Buffalo State College 2002 LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS Mahwah, New Jersey London