Discourse analysis of langague used in marine orders in terms of speech act

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES ***  *** LÊ THỊ MINH PHƯƠNG DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE USED IN MARINE ORDERS IN TERMS OF SPEECH ACT (Phân tích diễn ngơn sử dụng lệnh hàng hải mặt hành động lời nói) M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS Field: English Linguistics Code: 60.22.02.01 Hanoi – 2014 VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES ***  *** LÊ THỊ MINH PHƯƠNG DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE USED IN MARINE ORDERS IN TERMS OF SPEECH ACT (Phân tích diễn ngôn sử dụng lệnh hàng hải mặt hành động lời nói) M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS Field: English Linguistics Code: 60.22.02.01 Supervisor: Dr Huỳnh Anh Tuấn Hanoi – 2014 DECLARATION I declare that this minor thesis entitled “Discourse Analysis of language used in marine orders in terms of speech act” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts is the results of my own work and that this thesis does not contain material which has been accepted for the award of any degree or diploma in any university, nor does it contain material previously published or written by any other person, except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis Hanoi, 2014 Le Thi Minh Phuong i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Huynh Anh Tuan Without his enthusiastic help and his precious advice and comments, the paper would not have been completed Secondly, I would like to send my warmest thanks to Assoc.Prof Le Hung Tien and Dr Nguyen Thi Minh Tam whose lectures provided me with a great deal of experience in discourse analysis and speech acts theory Thirdly, my thanks are also come to the co-teachers of Vimaru whose gave me precious advice during the implementation of my study was absolutely vital Finally, this is a good opportunity for me to give my special thanks to my beloved parents and friends who are always beside me whenever I encounter difficulties ii ABSTRACT Effectiveness in communications is an ingredient to safe and efficient ship operations To maintain this effectiveness, marine orders, one of the most important factors of communication at sea, must be precise, simple and unambiguous to avoid confusions and error With an aim to investigate more about the effectiveness of these marine orders, 190 marine orders used on board and in external communications were collected and analyzed quantitatively in terms of speech acts categories, directness, type of sentence, length and density of nautical terms Based on the data analysis of these linguistic features, the similarities and differences between the orders used on board and in external communications are unveiled Finally, all of these analyses and findings are summed up to make the most general and concise conclusions about the effectiveness of marine orders used in iii TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .ii ABSTRACT iii TABLE OF CONTENTS vi PART A: INTRODUCTION 1 Rationale for the study Aims and objectives of the study Scope of the study Significance of the study Research methodology Design of the study PART B: DEVELOPMENT Chapter 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 1.1 Speech act and discourse analysis 1.2 Speech act and the act of ordering 1.2.1 Classifications of speech act 1.2.1.1 Types of speech acts (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1969) 1.2.1.2 Direct and indirect speech acts 10 1.2.2 The act of ordering 11 1.2.2.1 Definitio 11 1.2.2.2 Ways of performing the act of ordering 11 1.2.3 The act of ordering in marine communication 14 1.3 Literature review 19 Chapter 2: METHODOLOGY 20 2.1 Research questions 20 2.2 Data 20 2.2.1 Data descriptions 20 2.2.2 Source of data 21 iv 2.3 Data analysis 22 2.3.1 Data analysis method 22 2.3.2 Data analysis framework 22 Chapter 3: DATA ANALYSIS 23 3.1 Types of speech acts realized in marine orders 23 3.1.1 Types of speech acts realized in orders used in external communications 23 3.1.2 Types of speech acts realized in orders used in on-board communications 24 3.2 Linguistic features of marine orders used in external communications and onboard communications 26 3.2.1 Linguistic features of marine orders in external communications 26 3.2.2 Linguistic features of marine orders in on-board communications 30 3.3 Comparison between orders used in external and on-board communications 32 3.3.1 Categories of speech acts 33 3.3.2 Linguistic features 34 Chapter 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 36 4.1 Findings 36 4.1.1 Speech act categories realized in marine orders 36 4.1.2 Linguistic features of marine orders 36 4.1.3 Orders used in external communications and on-board communications 37 4.2 Discussions 37 4.2.1 Speech act categories realized in marine orders 37 4.2.2 Linguistic features of marine orders 38 4.2.3 Orders used in external communications and on-board Communications 38 PART C: CONCLUSION 39 Conclusions 39 v Implications 40 2.1 The act of ordering realized in marine orders 40 2.2 Orders used in external communications and on-board communications 41 Limitations of the study 41 Suggestions for further study 41 REFERENCES 43 APPENDIX I vi PART A: INTRODUCTION Rationale of the study In the world of international shipping, English is used as a medium of communication between ships, between ships and shore stations, or between ships and helicopters in different situations Among the conversations exchanged, marine orders take a large proportion and play an important part in ensuring safe voyages at sea However, the structure of a standard marine order is quite different from a social order, which causes barrier issue to non-majors of English, and it is a challenge to ship officers to remember and follow the orders correctly Below is an example of a standard distress message, which informs the position, emergent situation and request assistance: MAYDAY THIS IS TWO-ONE-ONE-TWO-THREE-NINE-SIX-EIGHT-ZERO MOTOR VESSEL “BIRTE” CALL SIGN DELTA ALPHA MIKE KILO POSITION SIX TWO DEGREES ONE ONE DECIMAL EIGHT MINUTES NORTH ZERO ZERO SEVEN DEGREES FOUR FOUR MINUTES EAST I AM ON FIRE AFTER EXPOSITION I REQUIRE FIRE FIGHTING ASSISTANCE SMOKE NOT TOXIC OVER Judging from the example above, it can be seen that English used in those situations is fairly typical and very catchy to linguists Having taught students of Vietnam Maritime University (VIMARU) to practise these acts of ordering for over the past few years, I find that marine orders are still confusing to most of them In addition, a majority of learners learn the orders mechanically without fully recognizing the speech act realized by these orders and fail to understand the reasons underlying their structure and what linguistic features can ensure the effectiveness of these orders in communications For these reasons, I would like to carry out a study under the title “Speech act and linguistic features of Marine orders” to provide students with the fundamental notion of speech act and some linguistic features of marine orders so that they can use them and understand them appropriately for more effective maritime communication Aims and objectives of the study By analyzing marine orders used in radiotelephony (external communications) and on board communications, this research aims at investigating what speech act is realized in marine orders and what linguistic features lead to the effectiveness of these orders in maritime communication This aim of the research is specified by the following objectives: - Clarifying the effectiveness of marine orders in communication at sea and comparing orders used in on-board communications and in radiotelephony (external) communications The features to be investigated encompass the type of speech act realized by these orders and some of their linguistic features including directness, types of sentence, length of sentence and the density of technicality - Helping students in the Navigation Department of VIMARU better understand the effectiveness of maritime orders in terms of the above features Scope of the study Language used in navigation is so different and typical which contains many issues for further in-depth studies However, due to the limitation of a minor thesis, this research only focuses on marine orders in terms of speech acts and such linguistic features as directness, types of sentence, length of sentence and the density of technicality Besides, there is also a comparison between orders used on board and in external communications These command sentences are selected from the most popular conversations on radio broadcast, marine websites, articles, books and recordings of language use in real life Significance of the study Investigating marine orders in terms of speech acts and some of their linguistic features, the study is expected to make certain contributions to the related populations including navigational teachers and students teaching and learning length Therefore, the majority orders and commands just contain from four to six words Long orders with more than seven words are rarely found in any cases Although the orders are very simple short sentences, nearly all of them contain technical words About two-third of marine orders have at least one terminology in each sentence The use of block language permits to reduce all unnecessary words to a tolerable minimum and keep only content and meaningful words Therefore, the words in marine orders are made as densely as possible which mainly contains terms relating to navigational areas 4.1.3 Orders used in external communications and on-board communications Generally, on board orders and external orders are quite similar in terms of speech act categories, directness, types of sentences, length and density of technical terms As these marine orders are used at sea, they must be always clear and concise to ensure the safety and security of the ship, its crew and its passengers However, as being used in different context, on – board and external orders have different way to enhance the effectiveness in communications While communication by radiotelephony, people clearly inform his/her intentions by message markers, on – board orders, on the other hand, using short and simple imperative sentences As the context of giving order is out-door which may be distracted by sound of engine, wave, wind…, to ensure the accuracy, the addressee must repeat the message again Besides, on-board orders omit all predicates, with just content words remaining to make the sentences much shorter than orders used in external communications 4.2 DISCUSSIONS 4.2.1 Speech act categories realized in marine orders According to the International Regulations for Preventing Collision at Sea, language used must be relevant with situations Therefore, the result of directive speech act realized in all 190 marine orders in this study is totally comprehensible and meet the requirements of the regulations Although the orders can be performed by different ways, they all reach the purpose of making somebody to something The majority of performance is by imperative sentences as orders normally made by 37 authority people, for instance, orders of captain, the chief officer…on crew members 4.2.2 Linguistic features of marine orders All linguistic features of marine orders, namely directness, types of sentences, length, and density of nautical terms support to make the orders clear, concise and unambiguous As working in a multi-national environment, a simplified and standard language is necessary to reduce misunderstanding and error However, depending on the contexts, these features can change slightly to adapt themselves with the situations For instance, orders in emergencies are rather different from orders in routine communications as in under pressure of time and psychology stress, people act differently Therefore, in routine communication, people tend to use longer and more complicated orders 4.2.3 Orders used in external communications and on-board communications External and on-board communications are two different types of conversations at sea While external orders are exchanged by radiotelephony, onboard orders are given directly between seafarers This is the main reason leading to the different linguistic features of each type Besides, on – board orders are mainly directions for ship operation, therefore, they include many specialized vocabulary for equipments on board, course, position…Meanwhile, radio communication concerns with broadcasts of meteorological forecasts and aids to navigation information as well as reporting incidents and accidents on boards As a result, external orders tend to be longer but less nautical terms 38 PART C: CONCLUSION Conclusions Effective maritime communication is very important as the cost of communication breakdown can be damage to property, to the environment or loss of life Investigation into the human factors regarding disasters at sea, which focused on communication behavior (Trenker, 2007) revealed that one third of accidents happen primary due to insufficient command of maritime English Therefore, there is a need for a comprehensive and effective marine order system that used in radio communications and face – to – face communication on board ship In 1995, International Maritime Organization (IMO) officially adopted English as the language at sea and in 2001 introduced Standard Maritime Communication Phrases (SMCP) which contained standard marine orders By analyzing 190 marine orders that are most frequently used in external and on – board communications, this research has unveiled the effectiveness as well as conciseness in language of ordering at sea Meanwhile, two research questions have been answered reasonably as follows: - The effectiveness of marine orders is realized through some criteria: speech acts categories, directness, length of sentences, types of sentences and density of nautical terms The common feature of marine orders analyzed in this research is that they all follow the standard of IMO SMCP which makes the orders themselves explicit and direct The standard form of direct orders is imperative sentences that can be found in almost every marine order Furthermore, spoken marine orders appears to be characterized by a rather authoritative tone, achieved through the use of formal, Latin-based words and phrases and the general avoidance of politeness formulas in the imperative Therefore, it is rarely to see politeness marker as Please, Can you, Could you…in these marine orders Indeed, the verb “Can, Could” is considered to be poly-semantic words which expresses both ability and permission Hence, in order to minimize misunderstandings, this type of words is avoided 39 Furthermore, spoken marine orders is undoubtedly subject to a widespread standardization of constructions, often resulting from omission of semantically less prominent sentences elements Therefore, the order sentence is not very long The average length is from four to six words which mainly contain nautical terms - On board and external orders generally have the similar characteristics but have different ways to maintain the effectiveness in communication Since confusion and misunderstanding in external communication or non face – to – face conversations are likely to occur, it is important for interlocutors to use message markers before the intended messages The need for a clear indication of intended messages is required by the abundant use of imperative form, typically associated to different pragmatic functions, such as advising, requesting, ordering and so forth Meanwhile, on board orders use a block language with very short simple sentences to avoid ambiguous and misunderstanding in communications In addition, the research has also discussed the necessity of applying standard marine orders at sea and in teaching nautical terms Therefore, there are some implications for teaching these marine orders effectively Implications 2.1 The act of ordering realized in marine orders By critically analyzing 190 marine orders used in different contexts, it can been concluded that these marine orders are totally clear and concise to maintain an effective communication at sea Therefore, the use of these standard phrases should be encouraged by both seafarers and nautical teachers Nowadays, a large number of ships are manned by multinational crews; the use of a common standard language will not only dismiss the language barrier but also ensure the safety of the voyage Therefore, when sailing or handling ships, it is necessary for seafarers to memorize these standard marine orders so that when emergencies occur, with the pressure of time and stress, the seafarers can recall the orders correctly Nautical teachers, on the other hands, should closely rely on these standards marine orders to train their students The task of the teacher is to create sufficient opportunities for learning to 40 take place In addition, regular oral communications are practised with other topics such as preventing marine pollution, manning and regulation of shipping, safety and emergency procedures, security at sea…so that the students can make orders accurately and precisely due to the standard of IMO SMCP 2.2 Orders used in external communications and on-board communications Communications on board and between ship – to – ship or ship – to - shore have some slight differences, so when teaching marine orders used in these contexts, teachers should pay attention to the language features of each type As Maritime English is a product of life on the ocean itself, teachers can set up real-life stimulations for their students to practice commutations This method not only enhances student’s motivation and understanding through communication on meaningful topics but also help them imagine the real life working environment in future Meanwhile, the seafarers must strictly follow the rules set by IMO SMCP when communicating by radiotelephony Besides, to function effectively during routine shipboard operations, all crew need to know the exact terminology of vessel’s equipment, its usage and safe handling that appear a lot in marine orders used on board Limitations of the study For any research, limitations are inevitable and of course my research is not an exception In the data collection of the research, it is really regretful for me not to cover all marine orders used in other contexts such as cargo handling and passenger care which also contain typical features of Maritime English Suggestions for further study My research is expected to be a useful material in both theory and practice Theoretically, the research deeply investigates the field of speech acts as well as language of ordering in marine orders Up till now, many researches on Maritime English have been carried out whereas language of ordering applied in marine orders is really new and strange Practically, the study encourages the use of 41 standard marine orders in conversations between seafarers at sea and in navigational training Hopefully, people who are really interested in the field of speech acts and marine orders would find my research as an important and necessary material From what the research has gained, I would like to make suggestions for further research regarding the other linguistic features of Maritime languages like simple sentences in marine orders, substitution of language by using flag or transaction of part of speech in shipping 42 REFERENCES Printed source: Austin J.L (1962) How to things with words Oxford University Press Bobrovski, V.I Business English for Seamen (Nghiệp vụ Hàng hải, translated by Lê Đình Ngà) Vietnam Maritime University Publishing House Brown G and Yule G Discourse analysis Cambridge University Press Goergakopoulou, A & Goutsos, D (2004) Discoures Analysis Edinburgh University Press Hoa, N (2004) Understanding English Semantics Hanoi VNU Publishing House Kreidler, W (1998) Introduce English Semantics Routledge Taylor & Francis Group Leech G N (1983) Principles of Pragmatics, Longman Pearson Education Nunan, D (1993) Discourse Analysis Penguin English Searle J.R (1969) Speech acts: An Essay in the philosophy of language Cambridge University Press 10 Pritchard, B (2003) Maritime Communications and IMO SMCP 2001 University of Jireka 11 Thuy, D.T.T (2004) Analysis of Ship’s Business Letter PhD Thesis 12 Thomas J (1995) Meaning in interaction: An introduce to pragmatics Longman Pearson Education 13 Valeria, A (2006) Maritime English valuing a common language Nautical Institute of Great Britain 14 Winbow, A (2002) “The importance of effective communication” International Seminar on Maritime English, Turkey 2002 15 Widdowson H.G (2007) Discouse Analysis (Oxford introduction to language study) Oxford University Press 43 16 IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases 2002 International Maritime Organization Online Source: http://www.smcpexamples.com/ http://www.dieukhientaubien.net/ http://mareng.utu.fi/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_act http://qp04ds6.blogspot.com/2009/05/ships-orders-and-commands.html http://www.he-alert.org/filemanager/root/site_assets/standalone_article_pdfs_0605/he00845.pdf https://www.academia.edu/5048335/Indirect_Speech_Acts_in_English http://www.imo.org/blast/blastDataHelper.asp?data_id=18000&filename=Internatio nalSeminar.pdf http://www.he-alert.org/filemanager/root/site_assets/standalone_article_pdfs_0605/HE00620.pdf 44 APPENDIX COMMANDS AND ORDERS IN EXTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS I Emergencies Number Commands/ Orders/ Request 10 11 12 13 REQUEST Please send a doctor REQUEST Supply bunkers REQUEST Immediate assistance/ I require a tug REQUEST Stop search REQUEST MV SEADOG requires escort REQUEST Helicopter and rescue REQUEST: Permission to enter the Fairway REQUEST Report damage REQUEST Assist with search vicinity of position REQUEST I require fire fighting assistance INSTRUCTION Stop your engines immediately INSTRUCTION Stay where you are Wait for tug to arrive INSTRUCTION You must close up on the vessel ahead of you INSTRUCTION Stop your engine immediately INSTRUCTION Cary out radar search ADIVCE Turn to port ADVICE You may stop search and proceed with voyage ADVICE (Advise you) stand by on VHF channel six nine ADVICE Steer course: 80 degrees ADVICE Navigate with caution ADVICE Keep minimum passing distance of five cables when passing her ADVICE Recommend you alter course to 125 degrees True ADVICE Anchor in anchorage B3 ADVICE Stand by for giving instruction ADVICE You must keep clear from the dredge ADVICE Alter course to port/starboard side WARNING: Do not overtake WARNING Do not enter Traffic Lane WARNING Vessel must avoid this area WARNING Keep clear 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 I II Routine communications 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 ADVICE Stand by on channel 6-8 INSTRUCTION You must anchor in different position REQUEST Please give instructions to reach Soumenlinna Coast Guard Station INSTRUCTION You cannot enter the channel Wait until 14:00 UTC Request telephone call connection ADVICE Steer course: 2-53-3 degrees true Please call me again beam of Delta Bravo 17 Can you see the name of the vessel on your starboard side? Put ahead engine Could you take one passenger pilot up to Brunsmittel? Could you spell me your vessel’s name, please? Please pass on my starboard side You can keep coming in until you get close to the buoy WARNING Fishing are prohibited miles around this position REQUEST Wide berth requested Can you throw cargo overboard to refloat? Can you sail to distress position? Can you control major flow of water into vessel? Hoist the anchor ball Change the radar to miles range scale Stand by for cutting the manila lashing if requested Rig the pilot ladder on port side/ starboard side/ leeside You must rig another pilot ladder Move/Stand by the pilot ladder REQUEST Correct the list of the vessel Keep the sea on your port quarter/ starboard quarter ADVICE Steer 25 degrees to make a lee INSTRUCTION Go ahead and follow me WARNING Do not follow me Proceed along ice channel INSTRUCTION Stop in present position INSTRUCTION Go to berth No.15 ADVICE Make lee on your port/starboard side You must heave up anchor WARNING Anchoring prohibited Move ahead metres Wide berth requested REQUEST Repeat your position for identification II 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 Advise you change to larger range scale ADVICE Course to 125 degrees INSTRUCTION You must anchor at 14:00 UTC INSTRUCTION You must heave up anchor ADVICE Keep pilot boat on port/starboard side INSTRUCTION You have permission to enter the traffic lane ADVICE Stop in present position Wait for pilot ADVICE Rig pilot ladder on portside metres above water Advise you keep present course REQUEST Man ropes required Stay where you are INSTRUCTION Move ahead/ astern metres III APPENDIX COMMANDS AND ORDERS IN ON-BOARD COMMUNICATIONS I Wheel orders Number 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 English wheel orders Starboard (port) More starboard (port)/ Starboard (Port) little more Hard a – starboard (port) All starboard (port) Little bit a starboard (port)/ Starboard (port) handsomely! Starboard (port) five/ ten/ twenty/ five to port Starboard (port) easy! Ease !/ Ease the helm Amidship (midships)/ Helm amidships Meet her !/ Meet (check) the helm ! Steady!/ Steady as she goes !/ Steady so! / Right so !/ Steady this course Shift the helm to starboard (port) ! Easy to 5/10/15/20 Steer on the range Change from auto pilot to hand steering Nothing to starboard (port) ! Mind the helm ! Steer the course! Watch your steering ! Steer for that light (buoy)! A hand to the helm ! Leave the red buoy on the starboard (port) side! Steer 175/ Course 175 Shift your rudder Heading to the buoy Keep straight to the lighthouse Keep to middle of channel Middle the two buoy Report alarms Keep the buoy on port/starboard side Port/starboard 182 Go astern Finish with the wheel/ engine No more steering Report if she does not answer the wheel IV II Engine telegraph orders 10 11 12 13 Full speed ahead (astern) Half ahead (astern) Slow ahead (astern) Dead slow ahead (astern) Easy ahead (astern) Stop !/ Stop her !/Stop the engine ! Try the engine ! Stand by engine ! Finish with engine ! Faster ! Slower ! Full ahead both Increase your speed! III 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Commands for mooring Stand by for mooring ! Give on shore (ashore) the heaving line! Have the fenders ready ! Fenders on the starboard (port) side ! Ship (unship) the fenders ! Run out the head (bow) rope (stern rope) ! Send on shore the bow (stern) spring ! Slack away (pay away) the bow (stern) spring ! Veer out handsomely ! Hold on ! Avast heaving in ! Check your head rope (stern rope) ! Check her on the spring ! Haul in (pick up) the slack ! Heave way (in) the head rope ! Make fast ! Make all fast ! Tie her up like that ! Single up lines ! Let go (cast off) ! Let go the spring rope (the head, stern rope) ! Heave away (in) the head rope Heave up V 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 Lower (heave up) the ladder ! Hoist (haul down) the flag ! Double up fore and aft ! Heave away (in) the tow rope Give her a short kick ahead/ astern We must make fast stern to ! Heave in the port (starboard) anchor chain ! Cant the stern (the bow) off the pier ! Get in the bow (stern) ! Send on shore the forward breast line ! Check the aft breast line ! Avast heaving in (on) the cable ! Hold on the cable ! Keep it slack Pay away some more chain Put out (veer out, slack away) the towing hawser Ship/Unship the fenders Shorten in towing howser Give out two lies, one from each side IV 10 11 Commands for anchoring Get the starboard (port) anchor ready ! Get both anchor ready ! Let go (drop) the starboard (port) anchor ! Veer the cable ! Veer out the anchor to the bottom ! Slack away (pay away) the chain (cable) ! Slack away(pay away)two(three etc)shackles of the chain! Pay away some more chain ! Heave short ! Make fast (secure) the chain ! Clap the stoppers ! V Towing orders Come along side Pass (give) the tow line(the heaving line) to the tugboat Make fast (secure) the tow rope (tow line) VI 10 Commence towing Pay out (veer out, slack away) the towing hawser(tow-line) Heave away the tow rope Shorten in the towing hawser Steer to starboard (port) Let go (cast off) the tow rope Go slower VII ... of speech acts realized in marine orders 23 3.1.1 Types of speech acts realized in orders used in external communications 23 3.1.2 Types of speech acts realized in orders used. .. broadcast, marine websites, articles, books and recordings of language use in real life Significance of the study Investigating marine orders in terms of speech acts and some of their linguistic... method is used to find out what speech act is realized in maritime orders and how the act of ordering is realized in marine orders in terms of their directness, types of sentences, length of sentences,