English for chemistry use for the students of chemistry in the education faculty of AGU

PREFACE To meet the higher and higher social requirements, AGU students need to be equipped with “two living tools” – English and Informatics for their future lives In the past years, AGU students have learned General English (GE) in four semesters in the first two years Then, English has not been taught for the following semester Therefore, after graduation, only a very small amount of English vocabulary stays in their minds More importantly, English vocabulary for their specializing fields is not provided for them in their university years However, in reality, they have to read a lot of documents in English which are associated with their majors to improve their own specializing knowledge As a result, they have difficulty in comprehending these documents With the obstacles mentioned above, AGU determined to ask for the introduction of some English for Special Purposes (ESP) course books and specifically English for Chemistry for the students of chemistry in the Education Faculty of AGU According to the definition of English for Specific Purposes (Tom Hutchinson and Alan Walters, 1990 - CUP), ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learners’ reasons for learning All of the learners need to learn to use a specific area of the English language in the shortest term possible (the other aspects of language should not be ignored!) Therefore, after identifying a target situation - the need for a specific segment at the College - the learners have to be identified; their situation and the target situation are then analyzed The learners’ potentials are identified, as well as the skills and knowledge needed to attain the target situation - taking constraints, such as aptitude, time and technical resources, into consideration With these data in mind, a course is designed and the materials are then chosen or specially designed Evaluation is a very important tool so that strategies can be redefined and results improved The authors of this English for Chemistry course-book intend to use it as a bridge to link the General English textbooks afore-learned and their future specialized –major materials That means this course book also focuses on integrated skills: Listening (10%); Speaking (10%); Reading (60%); Writing (20%) This course book provides some very basic terms of chemistry in English with essential vocabulary in simply comprehensive texts Obviously, the composition of this course book has some fundamental differences in comparison with other ESP course books compiled in many other Vietnamese universities, which just focus on major skills – Reading and Grammar Skills Why we intend to so? Because we think that in addition to helping students understand the texts due to key words, we would like to offer the learners more opportunities to get familiar with native speakers’ accents in some texts Therefore, they can improve their English pronunciation and they may remember new words longer These memorized new words will help them a lot when they read their own specializing materials Following is the outline of the course book: PART ONE GENERAL CHEMISTRY PART TWO INORGANIC CHEMISTRY PART THREE ORGANIC CHEMISTRY PART FOUR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS PART FIVE FURTHER READING Finally, the authors of this course book appreciate so much all positive comments from teachers of chemistry, students of chemistry and other readers who are interested in chemistry so that this course book will be improved, and we hope that the students of chemistry at AGU will have much success in their studies PART ONE GENERAL CHEMISTRY UNIT Introduction to Chemistry Chemistry for Life Over the last two centuries, chemistry has changed our daily lives more than any other of the sciences Chemistry makes our world more colorful, more efficient, more reliable and safer Pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, toiletries and body-care products, airbags and brake fluid they're all chemical products Of all the natural sciences, this is the only one to have given rise to an entire industry - in Europe alone, approx 1.7 million people are currently employed in the chemical industry Without doubt, chemistry will go on into the 21st century as the key science within newly evolving areas of knowledge and interdisciplinary research At the same time, however, no other science is connected with more bad emotions, refusal and anxiety across wide sectors of society Chemistry in everyday life "Every thing we wear is touched by the hands of the chemist The music we hear is touched by the hand of the chemist The perfume in the air in Washington cocktail parties is all chemicals Chemistry is not going to go away What we have to is to make sure that both chemists and non-chemists know a responsible way of working with chemistry and everything that it can for us." Sylvia Ware American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C ™ VOCABULARY Match each word in column A with its appropriate definition in column B COLUMN A composition COLUMN B a a group of descendants from a common origin b to transmit energy or electricity c a cleansing substance d water containing a significant amount of salt (esp used for curing) e chemical substance for killing unwanted plant f a characteristic quality of something g proving that something is true h a response to the physical effects of something i to produce something as a result of j changing a substance from one state to another k basic l to change a liquid into a vapour m to make something continue to exist n a substance created by combining other separate substances o to make an exact copy of something property verifying conduct duplicate detergent herbicide reaction strain 10 fundamental 11 brine 12 evaporate 13 melting 14 sustain 15 yield Chemistry is study of the composition, structure, properties, and interactions of matter Chemistry arose from attempts by people to transform metals into gold beginning about AD 100, an effort that became known as alchemy Modern chemistry was established in the late 18th century, as scientists began identifying and verifying through scientific experimentation the elemental processes and interactions that create the gases, liquids, and solids that compose our physical world As the field of chemistry developed in the 19th and 20th centuries, chemists learned how to create new substances that have many important applications in our lives Chemists, scientists who study chemistry, are more interested in the materials of which an object is made than in its size, shape, or motion Chemists ask questions such as what happens when iron rusts, why iron rusts but tin does not, what happens when food is digested, why a solution of salt conducts electricity but a solution of sugar does not, and why some chemical changes proceed rapidly while others are slow Chemists have learned to duplicate and produce large quantities of many useful substances that occur in nature, and they have created substances whose properties are unique Much of chemistry can be described as taking substances apart and putting the parts together again in different ways Using this approach, the chemical industry produces materials that are vital to the industrialized world Resources such as coal, petroleum, ores, plants, the sea, and the air yield raw materials that are turned into metal alloys; detergents and dyes; paints, plastics, and polymers; medicines and artificial implants; perfumes and flavors; fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides Today, more synthetic detergent is used than soap; cotton and wool have been displaced from many uses by artificial fibers; and wood, metal, and glass are often replaced by plastics Chemistry is often called the central science, because its interests lie between those of physics (which focuses on single substances) and biology (which focuses on complicated life processes) A living organism is a complex chemical factory in which precisely regulated reactions occur between thousands of substances Increased understanding of the chemical behavior of these substances has led to new ways to treat disease and has even made it possible to change the genetic makeup of an organism For example, chemists have produced strains of food plants that are hardier than the parent strain Because the field of chemistry covers such a broad range of topics, chemists usually specialize Thus, chemistry is divided into a number of branches Nevertheless, the process of learning the properties of a substance and of taking it apart is fundamental to nearly all of chemistry The first step in investigating a complex material is to try to break it down into simpler substances Sometimes this is easy A mixture of brass and iron tacks, for instance, could be sorted with a magnet or even by hand Getting the salt out of brine or seawater is a little harder, but the water can be evaporated, leaving the salt Changes of this sort, which not alter the fundamental nature of the components of the mixture but modify their physical condition, are called physical changes Grinding a rock, hammering a metal, or compressing a gas causes physical changes Another example of physical change is the melting of ice, in which water changes from the solid to the liquid state Salt and water may not only be separated when in solution, but each may be broken down into other substances This, however, involves a different kind of change—one that usually requires more energy than a physical change and that alters the fundamental nature of the material This type of change is called a chemical change By applying electrical energy, water can be broken down into two gases, hydrogen and oxygen Hydrogen is a light gas that burns; oxygen is a gas that is necessary to sustain animal life Salt can be broken down by melting it, then passing an electric current through it This produces a pungent yellow-green gas called chlorine and a soft, silvery metal called sodium, which burns readily in air Some materials can be broken down simply by heating them Other materials yield to attack by another substance; for example, iron oxide ore heated with coke yields metallic iron ™ READING COMPREHENSION: Read the passage above and check whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) □ □ Modern chemistry was established in the early 18th century Chemists in the 19th and 20th centuries learned how to create new substances that have many important applications in our lives □ □ Wood, metal, and glass are often replaced by synthetic detergent Chemistry is often called the central science, because its interests lie between those of physics and philosophy □ □ Getting the salt out of seawater is an example of biological change “Salt and water may be broken down into other substances” is another example of physical change □ □ □ Water can be broken down into two gases, hydrogen and oxygen Almost all materials can be broken down simply by heating them Water changing from the solid to the liquid state is called the evaporation process of water 10 □ Electric current is not likely to pass through salt when it is melting STRUCTURE STUDY I Comparative Adjectives When we talk about two things, we can "compare" them We can see if they are the same or different Perhaps they are the same in some ways and different in other ways We can use comparative adjectives to describe the differences We can use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things) In the example below, "bigger" is the comparative form of the adjective "big": A1 A2 A1 is bigger than A2 In this lesson we will look first at how we make comparative adjectives, and then at how we use them: Formation of Comparative Adjectives There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective: • • short adjectives: add "-er" long adjectives: use "more" Short adjectives • 1-syllable adjectives • 2-syllable adjectives ending in -y old, fast happy, easy Normal rule: add "-er" old > older Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -r late > later Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonant big > bigger Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i happy > happier Long adjectives • 2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y • all adjectives of or more syllables modern, pleasant expensive, intellectual modern > more modern expensive > more expensive Normal rule: use "more" Exception The following adjectives have irregular forms: • • • • good > better well (healthy) > better bad > worse far > farther/further With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-er' or 'more': • • • • quiet > quieter/more quiet clever > cleverer/more clever narrow > narrower/more narrow simple > simpler/more simple Use of Comparative Adjectives We use comparative adjectives when talking about things (not or 10 or 1,000,000 things, only things) Often, the comparative adjective is followed by "than" Look at these examples: • • • • John is 1m80 He is tall But Chris is 1m85 He is taller than John America is big But Russia is bigger I want to have a more powerful computer Is French more difficult than English? If we talk about the two planets Earth and Mars, we can compare them as shown in the table below: Earth Mars Diameter (km) 12,760 6,790 Mars is smaller than Earth Distance from Sun (million km) 150 228 Mars is more distant from the Sun Length of day (hours) 24 25 A day on Mars is slightly longer than a day on Earth Moons Mars has more moons than Earth Surface temperature (°C) 22 -23 Mars is colder than Earth Although we use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things), in fact one or both of the things may be a group of things • Mt Everest is higher than all other mountains Here, we are talking about hundreds of mountains, but we are still comparing one thing (Mt Everest) to one other thing (all other mountains) EXERCISE # Rewrite the following sentences without changing their meanings Example: The atomic weight of oxygen is heavier than the atomic weight of carbon The atomic weight of carbon is lighter than that of oxygen Hydrogen gas is much lighter than air Air Chemistry has changed our daily lives more than any other of the sciences Any other of the sciences _ More synthetic detergent is used than soap Soup Chemistry makes our world more colorful, more efficient, more reliable and safer Our world Chemists are more interested in the materials of which an object is made than in its size, shape, or motion An object’s size, shape, or motion is _ _ II DOUBLE COMPARATIVES The sentences begin with a comparative construction, and thus the second clause must also begin with a comparative The + comparative + subject + verb + the + comparative + subject + verb Example: The hotter it is, the more miserable I feel The higher we flew, the worse Edna felt The bigger they are, the harder they fall The sooner you take your medicine, the better you will feel The sooner you leave, the earlier you will arrive at your destination The more + subject + verb + the + comparative + subject + verb Example: The more you study, the smarter you will become The more he rowed the boat, the farther away he got The more he slept, the more irritable he became EXERCISE # 2: Use the double comparative to write sentences about yourself or about anything you like UNIT Elements and compounds More than 100 chemical elements—substances that cannot be decomposed or broken into more elementary substances by ordinary chemical means—are known to exist in the universe However, several of these elements, such as the so-called transuranium elements, have not been found in nature and can only be produced artificially Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleyev and German physicist Julius Lothar Meyer independently developed the periodic law of the chemical elements at about the same time in the late 19th century Mendeleyev is generally credited with the findings, because he established the periodic law in 1869, and Meyer established this chemical law in 1870 Both discovered that arranging the elements in order of increasing atomic mass produced a table of chemical properties and reactivity patterns that were regularly repeated This phenomenon— known as the periodic law—is most often represented in the periodic table of the elements Read the two paragraphs above and answer the following questions What are chemical elements? Have all chemical elements been found in nature? Is Meyer a German chemist? Is Mendeleyev a Russian chemist? What is the peiodic law? 10 In cases where atoms DONATE Ionic bonds The sodium atom on the left has only one electron (blue) in its ELECTRONS outermost orbit so it is unstable To achieve a stable electron shell, sodium TO OTHER atoms like to GIVE AWAY or DONATE its outermost electron to other atoms ATOMS to Chlorine has seven electrons in its outermost orbit and only needs ONE to achieve the achieve stability When sodium donates its electron to chlorine, both achieve optimum orbital bliss and stability However, since electrons carry a negative charge, number of the sodium atom becomes POSITIVELY charged when it donates an electron electrons in the and chlorine becomes NEGATIVELY charged upon gaining an electron The outer orbits + two charged atoms are now called IONS and they strongly attract each other and - ions are forming the compound SALT or NaCl formed which attract each other much like the poles of magnets The bonds formed by these attractions are called IONIC BONDS Ionic bonds are not as strong as covalent bonds, but they play an important role in biochemistry Another type of association between molecules, which is not a TRUE BOND, is called the HYDROPHOBIC ASSOCIATIONS The hydrophobic associations form between molecules that are hydrophobic (hydro=water; phobic=dislike) Since water molecules love each other so much they refuse to associate with the hydrophobic molecules That is water is a hydrophobic bigot The result is that the water molecules force or push the hydrophobic molecules together Molecules that love to associate with water are said to be HYDROPHILIC and they are always surrounded by a shell or covering of water molecules For example, the central core of many proteins is rich in hydrophobic associations because the TERRIBLE HYDROPHILIC MOLECULES along with their associating water molecules have pushed the hydrophobic molecules into the center A common molecule associated with these types of associations are phospholipids (click on the cell Figure Hydrophobic association "phospholipid" box) that are often found in membranes; note the long hydrophobic tails (gray & white balls) and the hydrophilic phosphate end (orange ball) and how water lies on the outer surface of the membrane Other molecules that form hydrophilic associations are the common fats that we are warned to cut back 41 on like oleic and palmitic acid and cholesterol 41 cut back: to interrupt the sequence of a plot (as of a movie) by introducing events prior to those last presented : cut down ²cut back on sugar³ 142 Figure Polar molecules In a water molecule the oxygen atom is attached, ASYMMETRICALLY to two hydrogen atoms by covalent bonds The oxygen nucleus attracts the hydrogen electrons more strongly than the hydrogen nucleus, thus the negatively Figure Hydrogen bonds By binding together the charged electrons hang around the oxygen water molecules form a film on the surface nucleus more, giving it a more NEGATIVE charge and the hydrogen atoms a more POSITIVE charge The water molecules bind together (figure below) through the weak + & - associations forming a film on the surface of water that is STRONG enough for some insects to walk on it HYDROGEN BONDS When two atoms that differ (1) _ their attraction for electrons form a covalent bond a POLAR molecule forms because the electrons are unequally distributed; being closer to one of the atoms than to the other That is, the distribution of (2) _ is ASYMMETRICAL Since the electrons are negatively charged the atom that attracts electrons the most (3) take on a small NEGATIVE charge The atom at the other end of the asymmetrical molecule has a DEFICIENCY of electrons and takes on a slight POSITIVE charge Thus one POLE of the molecule is partly negative and the other is partly positive Hydrogen forms polar molecules with oxygen and nitrogen, (4) _ with carbon Water is one such POLAR molecule; the hydrogen has a positive charge and the oxygen a negative charge The positive hydrogen in polar molecules forms weak bonds with the negative poles of other polar molecules These weak bonds are called HYDROGEN BONDS and are very important in (5) molecules WEAK BONDS are crucial to the processes of life Their role are illustrated in #DNA The large molecules of DNA which carry the genetic information of every (6) (except a few viruses) have a problem On the one hand it must be STABLE or the genetic message become garbled and lost, but it must be "READ" easily both to be #REPLICATED or COPIED for the (7) generation and to provided the information to make the tools of life for the cell it currently resides in HYDROGEN BONDS solve this problem Hydrogen bonds are very weak; so weak in fact that the heat from our own bodies is enough to cause single hydrogen bonds to break But in very large (8) _ like proteins, and 143 nucleic acids there can be many hydrogen bonds The SUM of the hydrogen bonds in a protein or nucleic acid polymer, provides (9) Yet within these molecules, small numbers of hydrogen bonds are EASILY BROKEN when required; the overall molecule remaining stable because of the many other hydrogen bonds Hydrogen bonds are like buttons in a shirt; individual buttons are easily opened when it is necessary to get into the shirt, but the other buttons retain the basic shape of the shirt even while one or two buttons are opened Read the above text HYDROGEN BONDS and choose the most appropriate word to complete each space A in A electronics A strongly A but for A biologically A organics A next to A molecules A stably 10 A requiring B from B electrics B strong B if not B biological B organism B next B protons B stable B required C.between C.electrons C strength C but not C biologic C organs C near C atoms C stabilize C require D for D electricities D strengthen D due to D biology D inorganics D nearby D nucleus D stability D requirement CARBOHYDRATES and SUGARS, like glucose, sucrose and fructose, and their polymer, POLYSACCHARIDES (like the starch in bread or the cellulose in paper) To see the structure of individual sugars AMINO ACIDS and their polymers, #PROTEIN ;however, you must use the RasMol helper application From this URL you should learn what "Side Chains" on amino acids are As you will learn that proteins are the "tools" of life in that they make things work in a cell If DNA is the "blueprint or plans" of life,proteins are the "hammers, nails, glue, and screw drivers" etc of life One such protein is hemoglobin which makes our blood red and carries the oxygen we aerobes need to live Another protein, one in our tears, is lysozyme, which dissolves many types of bacteria; does it make sense to you that our tears should contain such a protein? NUCLEIC ACIDS and NUCLEIC ACID POLYMERS Nucleic acids (NA) are the building blocks of the genetic material (genes) of living organisms View this site for a look at the major NA that are required for life When individual NA are strung together in long, #large molecules, they are called polynucleotides or NUCLEIC ACID POLYMERS In later chapters you will learn how certain of these polymers hold the code of life Small organic molecules we commonly call VITAMINS such as folic acid, pantothenic acid, vitamin C etc How many of you have tried vitamin C for your colds? 144 Living organisms are mostly composed of POLYMERIC molecules, which are large molecules composed of repeating subunits of smaller molecules, called MONOMERS, strung together in various arrangements Common biopolymers are proteins, starch, cellulose, fats and nucleic acids In this course you will not be concerned with the detailed chemical structures of these polymers or the monomers that they are made of Rather, you will responsible for learning the BASIC PRINCIPLES of their compositions and functions in living organisms Figure Sugar polymer In this molecule, sugar monomers (e.g glucose; red hexagons) are fastened together with covalent bonds (black lines) to form a larger molecule called a POLYMER All biopolymers can be represented in a similar fashion There is a SIMPLE TERMINOLOGY that, once learned, allows one to easily describe the general size & composition of biomolecules The size of biomolecules is described in general terms by their PREFIXES: POLY means MANY or LOTS; MONO means one, which is the basic SUBUNIT of a polymer; BI, & DI, TRI, TETRA, PENTA and HEX mean two, three, four, five and six subunits bonded together to form a larger molecule OLIGO means something larger than ~6 subunits but not as many as POLYMER SUFFIXES are often used to describe the general molecular type of a biomolecule: The suffix "OSE", refers to mono sugars like glucOSE, fructOSE, sucrOSE etc.; The suffix "SACCHARIDE" refers to sugar; i.e., a POLYSACCHARIDE is a large molecule composed of many sugar subunits (Fig 8) A polysaccharide may be composed of ONLY ONE TYPE of sugar (starch has only glucose in it) or MANY DIFFERENT SUGARS (lipopolysaccharide = #LPS), plus other molecules The suffix "PEPTIDE" refers to a molecule composed of or more AMINO ACIDS; a DIPEPTIDE is composed of amino acids, a TRIPEPTIDE of three etc A long string of amino acids is called a POLYPEPTIDE or a PROTEIN The amino acid monomers or subunits of peptides and proteins are fastened together with very strong covalent bonds called PEPTIDE BONDS 145 Two types of polynucleotides are present in all cells These are DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) and RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) There are two chemical differences between them Both have a Figure A molecule of DNA The PINK balls are the phosphate PENTOSE sugar (5-carbon groups and the 5-sided ORANGE structures are the pentose atoms), but DNA contains the sugar, deoxyribose These two chains of alternating sugarpentose sugar phosphate molecules, make up the BACKBONE of the DNA DEOXYRIBOSE and RNA molecule The four bases (RED, GREEN, BLUE and ORANGE) contains the pentose sugar are attached to the pentose sugar and always face each other, RIBOSE Both DNA and forming the DOUBLE STRAND Note that an "A" always RNA contain phosphate and associates with a "T" and a "G" with a "C" The blue lines four nucleotide BASES between the bases represent #HYDROGEN BONDS that hold Three of the bases are the the two strands together An A-T & G-C are called BASE same, GUANINE, PAIRS The A-T association has two hydrogen bonds, whereas ADENINE, CYTOSINE, the G-C association has The human genome contains however DNA contains approximately billion base pairs The DNA molecule is the THYMINE, while RNA INSTRUCTION MANUAL that tells a cell how to make more of contains URACIL The bases the exact same cells are almost always found in pairs consisting of AT or AU and GC Both DNA and RNA exist as long chains The backbone of these chains are alternating sugar-phosphate units The bases are attached to the respective sugars and stick out on one side of the chain Usually, but not always, RNA and DNA exist as DOUBLE STRANDS These double strands are bonded together through HYDROGEN BONDING between the BASE PAIRS So a DNA chain has pairs of AT and GC facing each other at all points down the double strands The AT pairs have TWO hydrogen bonds and the GC have THREE hydrogen bonds between each pair THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF LIFE: THE ABILITY TO RECOGNIZE MOLECULES We all know that (1) organisms are very complicated If you've ever wondered just how you developed from a single fertilized egg to the thinking, feeling, (2) and beautiful person you are today with two hands, two eyes, two legs etc., all in the right place on your body, you have likely been amazed at how (3) _ could occur Consider just how the cells in the embryo that produced your nose, "knew" where to grow as a nose, or other cells as an eye, or a liver etc.? In some cases terrible errors occur during fetal (4) and brains or other organs develop outside of the body, or aren't produced at all, or appear at a point in the body where it is monstrous Why and how such mistakes happen and why don't they happen more often? 146 When you were born the FIRST THING your mother asked was "is my baby all right?", (5) ; with five fingers, five toes etc The simple answer to the above questions, and to life itself, is REGULATION That is, life is only possible if there is a high level of regulation to control every event in every living cell all the time You may well say "that's obvious, but it still doesn't tell me how that fantastic level of regulation is achieved!", and you would be right of course This regulation is achieved through the ability of the (6) _ of life to RECOGNIZE and IDENTIFY each other Based on this recognition, these molecules respond in preprogrammed ways which in turn result in things coming out the way they evolved (7) I will tell you concerning how living organisms anything is predicated on this single UNIVERSAL principle If you learn this principle, you will have a basic (8) _ of how life works An analogy is that (9) people understand the basic principle behind the internal combustion engine, so cars, trucks e.t.c are no great mystery Of course we don't know every detail of the inner workings of our automobiles, but (10) _ comprehend the basics The cartoon below illustrates the UNIVERSAL principle Figure The principle of molecular recognition A typical cell contains a number of molecules exposed to the environment and in communication with it These molecules act as the "eyes, ears and nose" of a cell They contain, as part of each molecule, specific portions called RECEPTORS or BINDING SITES Other molecules in the environment contain specific components called LIGANDS Ligands are sections or regions of a molecule that have the characteristic of binding or attaching (docking) specifically to unique receptors on the cells Following this attachment a message is passed to the interior of each cell involved as to the situation it has found This information, in turn, triggers the COMMAND CENTER of each cell to carry out a series of preprogrammed responses based on the data it has received 147 Read the above passage and choose the most appropriate word for each space A living A activate A so perfection A developing A meant normal A molecules A Something A understand A most 10 A most of us B alive B active B such perfection B developmental B means normal B atoms B Anything B understanding B mostly B mostly of us C lively C activity C such perfective C development C meaning normally C substances C Everything C understandable C the most C almost of us D live D action D so perfective D developer D meaning normal D protons D Nothing D understandably D almost D the most of us STRUCTURE STUDY SUBORDINATORS These words combine clauses to create complex sentences See the comma rule page Time: when, while, since, before, after, until, once Place: where, wherever Cause: because, since, as, now that, inasmuch as Condition: if, unless, on condition that Contrast/Concession: although, even though, despite, in spite of Adversative: while, where, whereas Other: that, which, who, whoever, whom, what, why, how Note: These words introduce clauses, not complete sentences Thus, when you use these words, you need to make sure to use these words in subordinate clauses that are connected to main clauses with a comma Examples: When you use subordinators, you must connect the clause containing the subordinator to a clause without a subordinator Although punctuation may seem trivial, not using punctuation correctly makes your sentences difficult to read If the subordinate clause appears at the beginning of the sentence, use a comma to connect the clauses Subordinate clauses are not connected with a comma when the subordinate clause is at the end of the sentence So, we have these rules: [Subordinator] + Subject + Verb , Subject + Verb (comma) Subject + Verb [Subordinator] + Subject Verb (no comma) 148 You can delete some subordinators and still have a complex sentence The man (whom) you saw robbed a bank The comma (that) I added was not necessary CONJUNCTS Use a semicolon with these words to combine complete sentences Use a comma to separate these works in a sentence Enumerative: first, second, third ; 1, 2, 3, ; to begin with; in the first place, in the second place ; next, then; finally, to conclude Reinforcing: also, furthermore, moreover, in addition, above all Equative: equally, likewise, similarly, in the same way Summative: in conclusion, to sum up Apposition: namely, in other words, for example (e.g.), for instance, that is (i.e.), that is to say Inferential: otherwise, in other words, in that case Replacive: alternatively, rather, on the other hand Antithetic: instead, on the contrary, in contrast, by comparison Concessive: however, nevertheless, still, yet, in any case, at any rate, after all Result: consequently, hence, therefore, thus, as a result Note: These conjuncts are usually parenthetical; therefore, they are separated from the sentence by commas You can use these words to combine sentences; however, when you do, you must use a semicolon (;) So, these rules apply: [Conjunct] , Subject + Verb Subject + Verb ; [conjunct], Subject + V 149 THE PERIODIC TABLE Group 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Period 1 H He Li Be B F 10 Ne 11 12 Na Mg 13 14 15 16 17 Al Si P S Cl 18 Ar 19 20 K Ca 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br 36 Kr 37 38 Rb Sr 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I 54 Xe 55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 * Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At 86 Rn 87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 ** Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo C N O *Lanthanoids * 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb **Actinoids ** 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Links to wiki pages for elements 117 and 118 are shown although there are no current claims for either of these elements 150 Word List Unit ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Pharmaceutical Cosmetic Alchemy Ore Insecticide Biology Organism Magnet Solution Sodium Coke (a) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) dược khoa mỹ phẩm thuật giả kim quặng thuốc trừ sâu sinh vật học thể, sinh vật nam châm hòa tan, dung dịch natri Cocacola Transuranium Elementary Periodic law Element Periodic table Composition Substance Compound Component Ratio Proportion (n) (a) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) nguyên tố siêu urani đinh luật tuần hoàn nguyên tố bảng tuần hoàn chất tổng hợp chất hợp chất thành phần tỉ số, tỉ lệ sụ cân xứng, tính tỉ lệ Atom Molecule Nucleus Matter Quark Whirl Release Accelerator Microscope (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (v) (n) (n) (n) nguyên tử phân tử hạt nhân chất, vật chất vi lượng xoáy bay ra, thoát chất gia tốc kính hiển vi Determine Poisonous Cell Dye Artificial (v) (a) (n) (n) (a) xác định độc, có chất độc tế bào thuốc nhuộm nhân tạo Unit ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ (n) Unit ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Unit ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ 151 Unit ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Array Malleable Shilft Conductor Crystal Symmetry Lithium Palladium Magnesium Inert chemicals Noble gas Electronegativity (n) (a) (v) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (a) dãy xếp dễ dát mỏng, dễ uốn di chuyển, dời chỗ chất dẫn ( điện, nhiệt) tinh thể Sự cân đối, tính đối xứng lithi palađi magie hóa chất trơ khí độ âm điện (n) Unit ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Covalent bonds Ionic bonds Electrovalent Electrostatics Attraction Periodic table Shell Repel liên kết cộng hóa trị liên kết ion thuộc hóa trị điện tĩnh điện học hút, sức hút bảng phân lọai tuần hoàn vỏ đẩy (a) (n) (n) (n) (v) Unit ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Particles Process Fertilizer Mental alloy Steel Detergent Lime Vinylchloride plastic Reaction Investigation (n) (n) (n) Các hạt trình phân bón hợp kim thép chất tẩy rửa Vôi nhựa vinyl phản ứng sụ điều tra (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) Unit ♦ Isotope (n) ♦ Deuterium nguyên tử số khối ♦ Mixtures (n) ♦ Mass (n) ♦ Undergo (v) chất đồng vị đồng vị hydro với khối lượng hỗn hợp khối lượng trải qua Unit 152 ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Chemical bonds Theory Valence Stability Valence shell Affinity (n) liên kết hóa học lí thuyết hóa trị tính ổn định vỏ hóa trị lực (n) (n) (n) (a) (kim loại) chất phản ứng khong gian vũ trụ có tạp chất (adj) (v) (n) (adj) (n) (v) (adv) xen nhau; thay đổi bao gồm đặt đồng hàng liên kết hoá trị độ dày, mật độ, độ chặt mật độ phân tử mô tả, miêu tả kim loại phân tử bảng tuần hồn tiên đốn cách tương tự (n) (adj) (v) (n) (n) (v) (n) (n) (n) (v) (n) thuật làm đồ gốm tuần hoàn chế tạo, sản xuất chân, tay đặc điểm hoạt bát lại, phục hoạt vai trị hệ thống tính siêu dẫn truyền tải ống, mạch (n) (n) (n) đến, tới lĩnh vực xen vào, can thiệp (n) (n) (n) Unit 10 ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Foil Reactant Aerospace Impure Unit 11 ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Alternative contain coordination covalent density molecular density descriptive Metal Molecule Periodic table Predict Similarly (adj) (n) (n) Unit 12 ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Ceramics Circulatory Fabricate Limb Property Reactivate Role System Superconductivity Transmit Vessel Unit 13 ♦ Advent ♦ Field ♦ Intervention 153 ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Persistent Precise Reaction Synthesize Synthesis (adj) (adj) (n) (v) (n) bền xác phản ứng tổng hợp tổng hợp Unit 14 ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Condtituent Crystal Distil Distillation Ester Flask Immerse Neutralization Refine Vinegar (n) cấu thành (n) tinh thể (v) (hóa học) cất (n) q trình chưng cất (n) (hố học) Este (n) bình thót cổ (dùng phịng thí nghiệm) (adj) nhúng, ngâm (n) trung tính (v) lọc, lọc trong, luyện tinh, tinh chế (n) giấm Unit 15 ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Arbitrary Limestone Lubricate Nonpolar Solvent Tar to cover with tar Viscosity (n) (adj) (n) (v) (adj) (n) (n) tuỳ ý, tự ý đá vôi tra dầu mỡ, bơi trơn (máy) (điện học) có cực dung mơi nhựa đường, hắc ín rải nhựa; bơi hắc ín tính sền sệt, tính lầy nhầy, tính nhớt, tính dẻo, tính dính Unit 16 ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Bond atomic bond distinguish Formula spatial spatial extent share (n) (v) (n) (adj) (v) liên kết liên kết nguyên tử phân biệt công thức (thuộc) không gian khoảng không chia, phân chia, phân phối, phân cho Unit 17 ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ apex the apex of a triangle Notation Parent Turpentine (n) (n) (n) (n) đỉnh ngọc, chỏm đỉnh tam giác ký hiệu nguồn gốc dầu thông Unit 18 154 ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Analysis applicable calibration composition chromatography Execute interfere isolate petal Quantitative quantitative analysis regulator specialize stainless uniformity volatile numerical standardization (n) (adj) (n) (n) (n) (v) (v) (v) (n) (adj) phân tích ứng dụng kiểm tra cỡ trước chia độ (ống đo nhiệt ) cấu tạo, thành phần phép ghi sắc thực hiện, thi hành gây trở ngại, quấy rầy (hoá học) tách cánh hoa định lượng (hố học) phân tích định lượng (n) người điều chỉnh (v) chun mơn hố (adj) khơng gỉ (kim loại) (n) tính đồng dạng (adj) dễ bay (adj) ( thuộc) số (n) tiêu chuẩn hoá Unit 19 ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Accurate Analytical Cation Detect Insolubility Obscure Precipitation Procedure Scheme Vague (adj) (adj) (n) (v) (n) (adj) (n) (n) (n) (adj) xác dùng phép phân tích (vật lý) cation dị ra, tìm ra, khám phá ra, phát tính khơng hồ tan khơng rõ nghĩa, tối nghĩa kết tủa, lắng; chất kết tủa, chất lắng thủ tục phối hợp mơ hồ (n) (v) (v) (adj) (v) (n) (adj) (n) (v) (n) (n) (n) hút, hút thu phân tích; phân ly, phân huỷ suy ra, luận ra, suy luận, suy diễn riêng biệt, riêng rẽ, rời rạc gây ra, đem lại mảnh, mảnh vỡ số hạng tỷ lệ thức cộng hưởng lượng tử hoá thiết bị đo quang phổ quang phổ bước sóng Unit 20 ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Absorption Decompose Deduce Discrete Induce Fragment Proportional Resonance Quantize Spectrophotometer Spectrum Wave-length 155 REFERENCES 10 11 12 Ball, P., Life's Matrix: A Biography of Water, Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, New York (2000).CDC fact sheets http://atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts96.html Ebbing, Darrell D., General Chemistry, 3rd Ed, Houghton Mifflin, 1990 Franks, F., Water: A Matrix of Life, 2nd Ed., Royal Society of Chemistry,Cambridge, UK (2000) Hewitt, Paul, Suchocki, J and Hewitt, L., Conceptual Physical Science, Addison-Wesley, 1999 Hill, John W and Kolb, Doris K., Chemistry for Changing Times, 9th Ed., Prentice Hall, 2001 Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A (1987) English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centered approach Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Lenntech Water treatment & air purification Holding B.V http://www.lenntech.com/Periodic-chart-elements/Au-en.htm Michael "Flea" Lee, Rust Felix, and Ryan Harfield, "ChemWeb Online," http://library.thinkquest.org/10429/, accessed December 2, 2000 Senese, Fred General Chemistry Online, http://antoine.fsu.umd.edu/chem/senese/101/, accessed December 29, 2000, copyright 1997-2000 "Atom," Encyclopedia Britannica and www.britannica.com, http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/ query=atom, accessed December 30, 2000, copyright 1999-2000 The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition 2000.http://www.bartleby.com/61/ Accessed December 31, 2000 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry 156 ... Melting Point The melting point (or freezing point) of a substance is the temperature at which the solid form of the substance changes to a liquid (or from liquid to solid) The melting point of. .. possible The position of the electron pairs in the outer shell then determines the angles at which the central atom bonds with the surrounding atoms in the molecule Another common type of bond, the. .. sectors of society Chemistry in everyday life "Every thing we wear is touched by the hands of the chemist The music we hear is touched by the hand of the chemist The perfume in the air in Washington