Chemical contaminants and residues in food © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Related titles: Animal feed contamination: Effects on livestock and food safety (ISBN 978-1-84569-725-1) The production of animal feed increasingly relies on the global acquisition of feed material, increasing the risk of chemical and microbiological contaminants being transferred into food-producing animals Animal feed contamination provides a comprehensive overview of recent research into animal feed contaminants and their negative effects on both animal and human health Part I focuses on the contamination of feeds and fodder by microorganisms and animal by-products Analysis of contamination by persistent organic pollutants and toxic metals follows in Part II, before the problem of natural toxins is considered in Part III Veterinary medicinal products as contaminants are explored in Part IV along with discussion of the use of antimicrobials in animal feed Part V goes on to highlight the risk from emerging technologies Finally Part VI explores feed safety and quality management by considering the safe supply and management of animal feed, the process of sampling for contaminant analysis and the GMP+ feed safety assurance scheme Chemical migration and food contact materials (ISBN 978-1-84569-029-X) Most food sold is packaged and, although packaging has many positive benefits, constituents from it may migrate into the food, possibly exposing consumers to the chemicals, which may be carcinogenic or genotoxic As demand for pre-packaged food and ready meals increases, the potential for consumer exposure to these chemicals may also increase This collection surveys key research in the area Parts I and II review regulation of food contact materials and the latest developments in analysis of food contact materials and exposure estimation Part III covers different food contact materials in detail and includes case studies of specific packaging types Endocrine-disrupting chemicals in food (ISBN 978-1-84569-218-7) The rise in the incidence of health problems such as reproductive disorders and testicular and breast cancer has been linked by some to endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the environment The role of food in transmitting these chemicals is uncertain and a topic of considerable research This important book addresses key topics in this area Opening chapters review the effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals on health and behaviour The second part of the book covers the origins, analysis and risk assessment of endocrine disruptors in food products Concluding chapters concentrate on particular endocrine-disrupting chemicals Details of these books and a complete list of Woodhead’s titles can be obtained by: • • • visiting our web site at www.woodheadpublishing.com contacting Customer Services (e-mail: sales@woodheadpublishing.com; fax: +44 (0) 1223 832819; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 499140 ext 130; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, 80, High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 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India www.woodheadpublishingindia.com First published 2012, Woodhead Publishing Limited © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012; Chapters and © Crown copyright, 2012 The authors have asserted their moral rights This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials Neither the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited for such copying Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Control Number: 2012940478 ISBN 978-0-85709-058-4 (print) ISBN 978-0-85709-579-4 (online) ISSN 2042-8049 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition (print) ISSN 2042-8057 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition (online) The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp which is processed using acid-free and elemental chlorine-free practices Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards Typeset by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk, UK Printed by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall, UK © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Contents Contributor contact details Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition Preface Part I Risk assessment and selected analytical methods Risk assessment of chemical contaminants and residues in food D J Benford, Food Standards Agency, UK 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Risk assessment 1.3 Risk characterisation 1.4 Role of risk assessment in risk management 1.5 Sources of further information 1.6 References Gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy techniques for the detection of chemical contaminants and residues in foods P Vazquez-Roig and Y Pico, University of Valencia, Spain 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Gas chromatography injection techniques 2.3 Gas chromatography separation strategies 2.4 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry detection 2.5 Validation of new analytical methods 2.6 Applications and future trends 2.7 Acknowledgements © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 xiii xvii xxv 3 11 13 14 14 17 17 22 27 31 38 40 52 vi Contents 2.8 2.9 Sources of further information References Applications of HPLC-MS techniques for the analysis of chemical contaminants and residues in food B Cramer and H.-U Humpf, University of Münster, Germany 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Ionisation techniques 3.3 Mass spectrometer systems 3.4 Screening and identification using HPLC-MS 3.5 Quantification using HPLC-MS 3.6 References Cell-based bioassays for the screening of chemical contaminants and residues in foods H Naegeli, University of Zürich, Switzerland 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Description of bioassays 4.3 Transcriptomics fingerprinting technologies 4.4 Workflow of a transcriptomics fingerprinting-based screening strategy 4.5 Applications of transcriptomics fingerprinting for the screening of chemical contaminants and residues in foods 4.6 Conclusion and future trends 4.7 Acknowledgements 4.8 References 4.9 Appendix: Abbreviations Part II 52 54 62 62 63 66 69 73 76 79 79 80 83 87 90 91 93 93 97 Major chemical contaminants of foods 99 Dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in foods D Schrenk and M Chopra, University of Kaiserslautern, Germany 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Properties and occurrence of polychlorinated dibenzo-pdioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) 5.3 Toxicity of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) 5.4 Toxic effects of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in humans and experimental animals 5.5 Properties and occurrence of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 5.6 Toxicity of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 5.7 References 101 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 101 102 105 108 114 118 122 Contents vii Emerging environmental organic contaminants in foods M Rose and A Fernandes, The Food and Environment Research Agency, UK 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs) 6.3 Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) 6.4 Polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PBDD/Fs) 6.5 Mixed bromo-chloro dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PXDD/Fs) and mixed bromo-chloro biphenyls (PXBs) 6.6 Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and related substances 6.7 Conclusion 6.8 References 124 Veterinary drug residues in foods S Croubels, Ghent University, Belgium and E Daeseleire, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research, Belgium 7.1 Introduction: risk assessment and risk management of veterinary drug residues 7.2 Major causes of the presence of drug residues 7.3 Group A – residues of substances which have an anabolic effect and unauthorised substances 7.4 Group B – residues of veterinary drugs: antibacterial substances 7.5 Residues of other veterinary drugs 7.6 Analytical methods for drug residue control 7.7 Residue monitoring programmes 7.8 Bibliography 148 Pesticide residues in foods C K Winter, University of California, USA 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Regulation of pesticides in food 8.3 Pesticide residue monitoring 8.4 Risk assessment for pesticide residues in food 8.5 Special topics: organic and imported foods 8.6 References 183 Heat-generated toxicants in foods: acrylamide, MCPD esters and furan R H Stadler, Nestlé Product Technology Centre, Switzerland 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Acrylamide in food © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 124 125 128 134 136 138 140 141 148 151 154 160 165 169 172 175 183 187 190 195 197 199 201 201 202 viii Contents 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Monochloropropane-1,2-diol (MCPD) esters and related compounds Furan in food Future trends and conclusions References 212 219 225 225 10 Toxic metals and metalloids in foods A Hartwig and G Jahnke, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Aluminium in foods 10.3 Arsenic in foods 10.4 Cadmium in foods 10.5 Copper in foods 10.6 Iron in foods 10.7 Lead in foods 10.8 Mercury in foods 10.9 Tin in foods 10.10 Zinc in foods 10.11 Risk assessment of toxic metals and metalloids in foods 10.12 References 233 11 Toxicants in foods generated by non-thermal processes M Esselen and D Schrenk, University of Kaiserslautern, Germany 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Ethyl carbamate 11.3 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol and glycidol 11.4 Biogenic amines in fermented food 11.5 Other examples of toxicants in foods 11.6 References 250 12 D-Amino acids and cross-linked amino acids as food contaminants A T Cartus, University of Kaiserslautern, Germany 12.1 Introduction 12.2 D-Amino acids in food 12.3 Digestibility and utilization of D-amino acids 12.4 Toxicokinetics and pharmacological and toxicological properties of individual D-amino acids 12.5 Cross-linked amino acids in food 12.6 Lysinoalanine contents in food 12.7 Nutrition and safety: digestibility, utilization and toxic properties of lysinoalanine and lanthionine © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 233 234 235 237 238 240 241 243 244 245 247 248 250 251 258 265 275 278 286 286 287 294 296 300 304 307 Contents 12.8 12.9 ix Conclusion References 309 310 13 Mycotoxins in foods M Rychlik, Technische Universität München, Germany 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxin occurrence in foods 13.3 Toxicity of mycotoxins 13.4 Analytical methods for mycotoxins 13.5 Regulation of mycotoxins in foods 13.6 Future trends 13.7 Sources of further information 13.8 References 320 14 Phycotoxins and food safety B Luckas, T Krüger and K Röder, University of Jena, Germany 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Marine biotoxins 14.3 Application of LC-MS/MS methods for determination of assorted marine biotoxins in compliance with legislation 14.4 Cyanobacterial toxins 14.5 Application of LC-MS/MS methods for determination of assorted cyanobacterial toxins in compliance with legislation 14.6 Conclusion 14.7 References 342 15 Plant-derived contaminants in food B Dusemund, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Germany and A E M F Soffers and I M C M Rietjens, Wageningen University, The Netherlands 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) 15.3 Ethyl carbamate 15.4 Tropane alkaloids (TAs) 15.5 Opium alkaloids 15.6 Grayanotoxins 15.7 Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) 15.8 Conclusion and future trends 15.9 References 15.10 Appendix: Abbreviations 394 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 320 321 326 329 335 336 336 337 342 343 361 362 376 377 378 394 395 398 400 402 405 407 410 411 417 Heat-generated toxicants in foods: heterocyclic aromatic amines SHIRAI, T., SANO, M 563 and TAMANO, S (1997) The prostate: a target for carcinogenicity of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) derived from cooked foods, Cancer Res, 57, 195–198 SOLYAKOV, A and SKOG, K (2002) Screening for heterocyclic amines in chicken cooked in various ways, Food Chem Toxicol, 40, 1205–1211 TAKAYAMA, S., THORGEIRSSON, U.P and ADAMSON, R.H (2008) Chemical carcinogenesis studies in nonhuman primates, Proc Jpn Acad Ser B, 84, 176–187 TOTSUKA, Y., TAKAMURA-ENYA, T., NISHIGAKI, R., SUGIMURA, T and WAKABAYASHI, K (2004) Mutagens formed from β-carbolines with aromatic amines, J Chromatogr B, 802, 135–141 TURESKY, R.J (2006) Genotoxicity, metabolism, and biomarkers of heterocyclic aromatic amines, in Skog, K and Alexander, J (eds), Acrylamide and other hazardous compounds in heat treated foods, Cambridge, Woodhead, pp 247–274 TURESKY, R.J and LEMARCHAND, L (2011) Metabolism and biomarkers of heterocyclic aromatic amines in molecular epidemiology studies: lessons learned from aromatic amines, Chem Res Toxicol, 24, 1169–1214 TURESKY, R.J and VOUROS, P (2004) Formation and analysis of heterocyclic aromatic amineDNA adducts in vitro and in vivo, J Chromatogr B, 802, 155–166 WIDMARK, E.M.P (1939) Presence of cancer producing substances in roasted food, Nature, 143, 984 ZHENG, W and LEE, S (2010) Well-done meat intake, heterocyclic amine exposure and cancer risk, Nutr Cancer, 61, 437–446 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Index abalones, 545–6 acceptable daily intake (ADI), 8, 150 acid-catalysed racemisation, 288 free and protein-bound amino acids, 289 acrylamide, 202–11, 436–8 health effects, 206–11 carcinogenicity, 207–11 epidemiological studies on dietary intake and cancer risk, 209–10 exposure, 206–7 exposure estimates, 207 implications for stakeholders, 211 mechanisms of formation and mitigation, 204–6 key intermediates in acrylamide formation, 204 measures in acrylamide reduction several food categories, 205 methods of analysis and occurrence in foods, 202–4 Acrylamide Toolbox, 205 active carbon, 524 adverse effect, aflatoxins analytical methods, 330 structures, 322 Agent Orange, 116 Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS), 484 Agricultural Research Service (ARS), 484 AhR response elements see dioxin responsive elements (DRE) aldrin, 503 alternaria toxins, 324–5 analytical methods, 333–4 structures, 325 aluminium, 234–5 effects in animals, 235 effects in humans, 235 occurrence, 234 toxicokinetics, 234 amino-imidazoquinoline, 556 amino-quinoxaline, 556 aminocyclitols, 160–1 aminoglycosides, 160–1 aminoimidazo, 555 amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) toxins, 357 chemical structure of domoic acid, its isomers, and epimers, 358 anatoxin-a(s) (ANAS) chemical structure, 366 anatoxins (ANA), 362–5 analogues and derivatives of anatoxin-a, 364 chemical structure of epoxyanatoxins and dihydroanatoxins, 363 MS/MS fragmentation pattern of anatoxin-a and phenylalanine, 365 anti-nutrients, 426 anti-thyroid agents, 154 antibiotics, 480–1 anticoccidials, 478–80 antihelminthics, 165–6 antiparasitics, 478 ARfD, arsenic, 235–7, 431–2, 517 effects in animals, 236 effects in humans, 236–7 occurrence, 235–6 toxicokinetics, 236 arsenosugars, 235–6 As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA), 12, 211, 425, 518 asparagine, 206 atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation, 64–5 schematic illustration, 65 atmospheric pressure photoionisation, 65–6 schematic illustration, 66 avoparcin, 163 azalides, 162 azaspiracides (AZA), 355–7 chemical structure of azaspiracid-1, 356 overview, 356 azodicarbonamide, 439 β-carbolines, 555–6, 557–9 β-lactam, 161 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 566 Index β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA), 366–8 chemical structure, 367 base-catalysed racemisation, 288–91 enantiomeric composition of eight alkali-treated proteins and their lysinoalanine content, 290 free and protein-bound amino acids, 289 benchmark dose, 9–10 benzimidazoles, 165 beta-agonists, 157 bioassay, 80 bioconcentration factor (BCF), 537–8 biogenic amines, 265–75 food occurrence, 268–9 relevant concentration in food, 269 human exposure, 269–70 values, 270 main concentration in food, 266–7 toxicity, 270–4 dose–response relationship of histamine in humans, 272 dose–response relationship of tyramine in humans, 274 brominated flame retardants (BFR), 511–12 cadmium, 237–8, 432–3, 517–18 effects in animals, 238 occurrence, 237 toxicokinetics, 237–8 calcium signalling, 81–2 camphechlor, 505 cannabinoid receptor CB1, 408 cannabinoid receptor CB2, 408 carbamoyl toxins, 345 cell-based bioassays applications, 90–1 description, 80–3 calcium signalling measurements, 81–2 cell viability and cytotoxicity assays, 81 reporter gene assays, 82–3 future trends, 91–3 screening of chemical contaminants and residues, 79–97 transcriptomics fingerprinting technologies, 83–7 chemical group-specific expression signatures, 86–7 DNA microarrays, 84–5 real-time PCR, 84 unbiased sequencing strategies, 85–6 workflow of a transcriptomics fingerprinting-based screening strategy, 87–90 monitoring and interpretation of gene expression changes, 89–90 reconstitution and cytosensor exposure, 88–9 sample extraction, 88 cell viability, 81 Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 484 Centre for Veterinary Medicine (CVM), 482, 483 cephalosporins, 161 cereals chemical contamination, 421–40 food additives, 438–9 heavy metals, 430–3 inherent toxicants, 426–7 mycotoxins, 427–30 overview, 421–5 approach, 423–5 chemical contaminants associated with various stages of food production, 424 grain continuum from ‘field to fork,’ 424 related entries into the European Union Rapid Alert System, 425 significance to human diet, 421–3 pesticides, 433–5 process toxicants, 435–8 charged residue model, 63 chemical contaminants analysis using HPLC-MS techniques, 62–75 ionisation techniques, 63–6 mass spectrometer systems, 66–9 quantification, 73–5 screening and identification, 69–73 cell-based bioassays, 79–97 applications of transcriptomics fingerprinting, 90–1 description, 80–3 future trends, 91–3 transcriptomics fingerprinting technologies, 83–7 farmed finfish, 518–24 environmental contaminants in feral fish, 518–20 fillet levels of dioxin and dioxin-like PCB, 523 POP contamination reduction, 521–4 POP feed to fish carry-over, 520–1 gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy techniques, 17–52 applications and future trends, 40–52 extraction, 20–1 gas chromatography injection techniques, 22–7 gas chromatography separation strategies, 27–31 GC-MS detection, 31–8 validation of new analytical methods, 38, 40 risk assessment, 3–14 contaminants and residues in food, 5–6 exposure assessment, 10–11 hazard characterisation, 7–10 hazard identification, 6–7 paradigm and definition, 4–5 risk characterisation, 11–13 role in risk management, 13–14 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Index chemical contamination cereals, 421–40 food additives, 438–9 heavy metals, 430–3 inherent toxicants, 426–7 mycotoxins, 427–30 overview, 421–5 pesticides, 433–5 process toxicants, 435–8 finfish with persistent organic pollutants and metals, 498–524 chemical contaminants in farmed finfish, 518–24 chlorinated pesticides, 503–7 environmental contaminants and human exposure, 499–502 fluorinated compounds, 514–15 polychlorinated biphenyls, 507–14 poultry meat and eggs, 469–85 future trends, 485 overview, 469–71 unintentional exposure, 472–7 veterinary drugs regulation in animal food products in the US, 481–5 veterinary medicines as residue source, 477–81 red meat, 447–63 overview, 447–9 PCDD/F, PCB, and PBDE analytical methods, 462 perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), 457–8 pesticides, 458–9 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), 455–7 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), 452–5 polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, 449–52 prevention and regulations, 462–3 toxic metals, 459–61 veterinary drugs, 461–2 chloracne, 110, 126 chloramphenicol, 157–8 chlordane, 503–4 chlorinated pesticides, 503–7 aldrin and dieldrin, 503 camphechlor, 505 chlordane, 503–4 chlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), 504–5 heptachlor, 506–7 hexachlorobenzene (HCB), 506 technical hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), 505–6 chlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), 504–5 chloropropanols, 436 chlorpromazine, 158 ciguatoxins (CTX), 357–61 chemical structure of the ciguatoxin analogues, 360 567 chemical structure of the Pacific and Caribbean ciguatoxin-1, 359 substances produced by Gambierdiscus, 360–1 clam, 543 clenbuterol, 157 coccidiostats, 168–9 Codex Alimentarius Commission, 189 Commission Decision 2002/657/EC, 40 Commission Regulation (EC) No 401/2006, 335 Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006, 335 Commission Regulation No 761/1999, 38 confirmatory methods, 172–3 copper, 238–40 effects in animals, 239 effects in humans, 239–40 occurrence, 238–9 toxicokinetics, 239 corticosteroids, 167–8 cross-linked amino acids food, 300–4 analysis, 304 reactions that generate dehydroproteins and cross-linked amino acids, 302–3 structures, formation and kinetics, 301–4 food contaminants, 286–309 lysinoalanine and lanthionine digestibility, utilisation and toxicological properties, 307–9 lysinoalanine contents in food, 304–7 cyanobacterial toxins, 362–76 anatoxin-a(s) (ANAS), 366 anatoxins (ANA), 362–5 β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA)), 366–8 cylindrospermopsins (CYN), 369–71 hepatotoxins, 369 L-diaminobutyric acid (DAB), 368–9 LC-MS/MS determination in compliance with legislation, 376–7 microcystins (MC), 371–4 neurotoxins, 362 nodularins (NOD), 374–6 cylindrospermopsins (CYN), 369–71 chemical structures, 369 overview, 370 cytochrome P450-dependent monoxygenase 1A1 (CYP1A1), 106 cytosensor, 80, 87, 91 reconstitution and, 88–9 cytotoxicity assays, 81 D-alanine, 297 D-amino acids digestibility and utilisation, 294–6 growth response in mice fed a free amino-acid diet, 295 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 568 Index food, 287–94 formation in food processing, 287–91 illustration, 292–3 native and process-related contents, 291–4 food contaminants, 286–309 toxicokinetics, pharmacological and toxicological properties, 296–300 D-arginine, 297 D-aspartic acid, 297 D-cysteine, 297 D-glutamate, 297–8 D-histidine, 298 D-homocysteine, 298 D-lysine, 298 D-methionine, 298 D-phenylalanine, 298 D-proline, 298 D-serine, 299 D-threonine, 299 D-tryptophan, 299–300 Deca-BDE, 128 decarbamoyl toxins, 345 dehydroalanine, 309 delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 407–9 structure, 407 diacylglyerols, 217 diaminopyrimidines, 164–5 diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins, 346–7 dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), 477 dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), 476 dieldrin, 503 diet cereal significance, 421–3 cereal grain, 422 world production, 423 diethylstilbestrol (DES), 159 digestibility, 294–6 dinophysistoxins (DTX), 347–8 DTX-1, and 3, 347 dioxin responsive elements (DRE), 106 dioxins, 474–5 direct sample introduction/difficult matrix induction (DSI/DMI), 24 DNA microarrays, 84–5 dough conditioners, 438 eggs, 294 chemical contamination, 469–85 future trends, 485 overview, 469–71 poultry production, consumption and risk on contamination, 470–1 residue sources in pre-harvest poultry production, 471 unintentional exposure to chemical contaminants, 472–7 dioxins, 474–5 heavy metals, 473–4 mycotoxins, 472–3 pesticides, 475–7 veterinary drugs regulation in animal food products in the US, 481–5 veterinary medicines as residue source, 477–81 electron impact ionisation, 32 electrospray ionisation, 63–4 schematics of a heated electrospray ionisation ion source, 64 environmental contaminants, farmed finfish and feral fish, 518–20 sum of dioxins and dioxin-like PCB in fillets, 519 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 188–9 Environmental Working Group, 198 ergot alkaloids analytical methods, 334 lysergic acid structure, 326 ethyl carbamate, 251–8, 398–400 carcinogenicity, 255–7 study result in drinking on B6C3F1 mice, 256 epidemiology, 257 food occurrence, 251–3 food concentration and alcoholic beverages, 252 maximum levels in alcoholic beverages, 253 formation from ethanol, cynate and urea, 251–8 risk assessment, 257 structure, 399 toxicity, 253–5 toxicokinetics, 253 DNA adducts, 255 metabolism in mice, 254 European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), 203 Existing Substances Regulation (793/93/EEC), 128 fatty acid derivatives, 276–8 natural fatty acid oleic acid and elaidic acid structures, 276 fatty acid hydroperoxides, 277 fatty acid peroxides, 276–8 fermentation, 291, 294 ferritin, 240 field mycotoxins, 428–9 finfish chemical contamination with persistent organic pollutants and metals, 498–524 chemical contaminants in farmed finfish, 518–24 chlorinated pesticides, 503–7 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Index environmental contaminants and human exposure, 499–502 fluorinated compounds, 514–15 polychlorinated biphenyls, 507–14 flour treatment agents, 138 fluorinated compounds, 514–15 perfluoroalkylated substances (PFAS), 514 perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), 514 perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), 514–15 food heat-generated toxicants, 552–60 HAA carcinogenic activity, 559–60 HAA formation and nomenclature, 552–4 HAA occurrence and levels, 554–6 HAA toxicology, 556–9 regulation, 560 mycotoxins, 320–36 analytical methods, 329–35 future trends, 336 mycotoxicogenic fungi, 321–6 regulation, 335–6 toxicity, 326–9 plant-derived contaminant, 394–411 delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 407–9 ethyl carbamate, 398–400 future trends, 410–11 grayanotoxins, 405–7 opium alkaloids, 402–5 pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA), 395–8 tropane alkaloids (TA), 400–2 toxic metals and metalloids, 233–48 aluminium, 234–5 arsenic, 235–7 cadmium, 237–8 copper, 238–40 iron, 240–1 lead, 241–3 mercury, 243–4 risk assessment, 247–8 tin, 244–5 zinc, 245–7 food additives, 438–9 current issues, 438–9 definition, 438 Food Animals Residue Avoidance and Depletion Program, 151 food contaminants D-amino acids cross-linked amino acids, 286–309 cross-linked amino acids in acids in food, 300–4 D-amino acids in food, 287–94 digestibility and utilisation, 294–6 lysinoalanine and lanthionine digestibility, utilisation and toxicological properties, 307–9 lysinoalanine contents in food, 304–7 toxicokinetics, pharmacological and toxicological properties, 296–300 569 dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls, 101–22 properties and occurrence of PCB, 114–18 properties and occurrence of PCDD/F, 102–5 toxic effects of PCDD/F in humans and experimental animals, 108–14 toxicity of PCB, 118–22 toxicity of PCDD/F, 105–8 emerging environmental organic contaminants, 124–41 brominated flame retardants (BFRs), 128–34 bromo-chloro dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PXDD/Fs) and bromo-chloro biphenyls (PXBs), 136–8 perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), 138–40 persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 124–5 polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PBDD/Fs), 134–6 polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs), 125–7 food processing formation of D-amino acids, 287–91 acid-catalysed racemisation mechanism, 288 base-catalysed racemisation mechanism, 288–91 lysinoalanine formation, 306 food safety phycotoxins, 342–78 cyanobacterial toxins, 362–76 LC-MS/MS methods for cyanobacterial toxins determination, 376–7 LC-MS/MS methods for marine biotoxins determination, 361–2 marine biotoxins, 343–61 Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), 484 food toxicants 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol, 258–65 biogenic amines in fermented food, 265–75 ethyl carbamate, 251–8 glycidol, 258–65 non-thermal process generated, 250–78 other samples, 275–8 fruits, 291 fumonisins, 332 structure, 324 furan, 219–24 health effects, 222–4 exposure, 222–3 exposure estimates, 224 food category specific contribution to exposure, 223 toxicology, 223–4 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 570 Index implications for stakeholders, 224 mechanisms of formation and mitigation, 221–2 formation from 4-hydroxy-2-butenal, 221 methods of analysis and occurrence in foods, 219–21 ranges in baby food category, 220 fusarium toxins, 323–4 analytical methods, 330–3 G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), 81 gas chromatography applications and future trends, 40–52 applications to food contaminants and residues according to separation mode, 42–51 detection of chemical contaminants and residues in foods, 17–52 analytical techniques for the determination of chemical contaminants and residues, 18–19 different GC-MS operation modes, 20 extraction, 20–1 GC-MS detection, 31–8 ionisation techniques, 31–2 mass analysers, 32–8 injection techniques, 22–7 conventional injection techniques, 22–3 large volume injection techniques, 23–6 on-line coupling of extraction/injection, 26–7 responses of PCB and PBDE congeners in cod liver oil, 25 separation strategies, 27–31 conventional GC, 27–8 fast GC, 28–9 separation of HCH-isomers and difenoconazole-isomers, 30 two-dimensional GC, 29, 31 validation of new analytical methods, 38, 40 gas chromatography with electron capture detection (GC-ECD), 169 genotoxicity, 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol, 264 glycidol, 264 glycidol carcinogenicity, 263–4 food occurrence and formation, 258–60 esters concentration in food, 260 fatty acid and glycidol structure, 259 glycidol formation mechanism from acylglycerol, 261 genotoxicity, 264 reproductive toxicity, 264–5 toxicity, 263 toxicokinetics and metabolism, 260–2 glycidol metabolism, 262 glycidol esters, 214, 217 Gore-Tex, 138 grayanotoxins, 405–7 structures, 406 green mussels, 541, 543 ‘green-sick’ oysters, 549 harman, 557–8 hazard, hazard characterisation, 7–10 benchmark dose, 9–10 health-based guidance values, 7–8 uncertainty factors, 8–9 hazard identification, 6–7 heat-generated toxicants acrylamide, MCPD esters and furan, 201–25 acrylamide in food, 202–11 furan, 219–24 future trends, 225 monochloropropane-1,2-diol (MCPD) esters and related compounds, 212–19 food, 552–60 HAA carcinogenic activity, 559–60 HAA formation and nomenclature, 552–4 HAA occurrence and levels, 554–6 HAA toxicology, 556–9 regulation, 560 heavy metals, 430–3, 473–4 arsenic, 431–2 bioaccessibility from shellfish consumption, 547–8 cadmium, 432–3 contamination of marine molluscs, 535–49 contamination of shellfish from particular areas, 548–9 lead, 430–1 marine bivalves, 536–44 marine gastropods, 544–6 hepatotoxins, 369 heptachlor, 506–7 heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAA), 552–60 carcinogenic activity, 559–60 formation and nomenclature, 552–4 structures of aminoimidazoazaren, 554 structures of carboline, 553 occurrence and levels, 554–6 regulation, 560 toxicology, 556–9 PhIP pathway of metabolism, 558 hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD), 129–32 chemical structure, 129 hexachlorobenzene (HCB), 506 high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), 169 high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) analysis of chemical contaminants and residues in food, 62–75 ionisation techniques, 63–6 atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation, 64–5 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Index atmospheric pressure photoionisation, 65–6 electrospray ionisation, 63–4 mass spectrometer systems, 66–9 combined systems, 69 ion trap mass spectrometer, 67 orbitrap mass spectrometer, 68–9 quadrupole mass spectrometer, 66–7 time-of-flight mass spectrometer, 67–8 quantification, 73–5 matrix effect, 74–5 principal requirements, 73–4 screening and identification, 69–73 combined experiments, 72–3 high resolution mass spectrometer scans, 71–2 tandem mass spectrometer experiments, 69–71 high resolution mass spectrometer scans, 71–2 mass spectrum of a human plasma extract, 72 1-hydroxymethyl-1,2-dehydropyrrolizidine, 395 indicative values, 211 inherent toxicants, 426–7 consumer health implications, 426–7 description and occurrence, 426 International Agency for Research on Cancer, 560 International Program on Chemical Safety (IPCS), 132–3 interspecies difference, 539 intraspecies difference, 539–44 weight-adjusted soft tissue concentrations Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in green mussels, 542 investigational veterinary pharmaceutical product (IVPP), 482 ion evaporation model, 63 ion trap mass spectrometer, 67 iron, 240–1 effects in animals, 241 effects in humans, 241 occurrence, 240 toxicokinetics, 240 Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), 203 Joint Research Centre (JRC), 203 L-diaminobutyric acid (DAB), 368–9 chemical structure of L-2,4-diaminobutyric acid, 369 lanthionine, 307–9 lasalocid, 479 lasiocarpine, 397 lead, 241–3, 430–1 cereals contribution to dietary heavy metal body burden, 430 effects in animals, 242 571 effects in humans, 242–3 occurrence, 241–2 toxicokinetics, 242 levamisol, 165 lincosamides, 161 liquid chromatographic separation and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), 377 cyanobacterial toxins determination in compliance with legislation, 376–7 marine biotoxins determination in compliance with legislation, 361–2 threshold values, 362 lysinoalanine contents in food, 304–7 formation in food processing, 306 formation prevention, 306–7 native and processed food, 305 digestibility, utilisation and toxicological properties, 307–9 macroalgae, 546 macrocyclic lactones, 166 macrolides, 162 Maillard reaction, 204 margin of exposure (MOE) approach, 12–13 marine biotoxins, 343–61 amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) toxins, 357 azaspiracides (AZA), 355–7 ciguatoxins (CTX), 357–61 diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins, 346–7 LC-MS/MS determination in compliance with legislation, 376–7 okadaic acid (OA) and dinophysistoxins (DTX), 347–8 paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins, 343–6 pectenotoxins (PTX), 348–50 yessotoxins (YTX), 350–5 marine bivalves, 536–44 biokinetic parameters of Cd, Cu and Zn in different species, 538 interspecies difference, 539 intraspecies difference, 539–44 marine gastropods, 544–6 predicted trophic transfer factors (TTF) of Ag, Cd, and Hg in the abalones, 546 marine molluscs contamination with heavy metals, 535–49 marine bivalves, 536–44 marine gastropods, 544–6 metal bioaccessibility from shellfish consumption, 547–8 shellfish from particular areas, 548–9 mass spectrometry, 32–8 chromatogram from salmon oil analysis, 36 full scan spectra of buprofezin, isocarbophos and isofenphos methyl, 39 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 572 Index GC/EI-MS of PBCDE with one possible general structure inserted, 34 general specifications and features, 33 iprodione in buffered QuEChERS baby food extract, 37 maximum residue limits (MRL), 189–90 mercury, 243–4, 515–17 content in fillet from feral and framed fish, 516 effects in animals, 243–4 effects in humans, 244 occurrence, 243 toxicokinetics, 243 metabolism 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol, 260–2 glycidol, 260–2 metal contamination marine molluscs with heavy metals, 535–49 marine bivalves, 536–44 marine gastropods, 544–6 metal bioaccessibility from shellfish consumption, 547–8 shellfish from particular areas, 548–9 metals chemical contaminants in farmed finfish, 518–24 chemical contamination finfish, 498–524, 515–18 arsenic, 517 cadmium, 517–18 mercury, 515–17 environmental contaminants in finfish and human exposure, 499–502 metalloids in finfish food products, 501–2 methylmercury, 243 Michigan cohort, 132 Microbiological and Residue Computer Information System (MARCIS), 485 microcystins (MC), 371–4 amino acid composition, 373 chemical structure of the cyclic heptapeptide microcystin-LR (MC-LR), 372 minimum nephrotoxic effect levels (MNEL), 308 mixed bromo-chloro biphenyls (PXBs), 136–8 mixed bromo-chloro dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PXDD/Fs), 136–8 monensin, 162–3 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol carcinogenicity, 263–4 food occurrence and formation, 258–60 esters concentration in food, 260 fatty acid and glycidol structure, 259 glycidol formation mechanism from acylglycerol, 261 genotoxicity, 264 reproductive toxicity, 264–5 toxicity, 263 toxicokinetics and metabolism, 260–2 glycidol metabolism, 262 monochloropropane-1,2-diol (MCPD) esters, 212–19 health effects, 217–18 implications for stakeholders, 218–19 mechanisms of formation and mitigation, 215–17 stages of edible oil refining, 216 methods of analysis and occurrence in foods, 212–15 analytical scheme of DGF method, 213 occurrences and amounts in edible fats/oils and products, 215 monocrotaline, 397 morphine, 402, 404–5 mutagenicity, mycotoxicoses, 328–9 overview, 329 mycotoxins, 427–30, 472–3 analytical methods, 329–35 aflatoxins, 330 alternaria toxins, 333–4 ergot alkaloids, 334 fusarium toxins, 330–3 illustration, 330 multi-methods, 334–5 ochratoxin A, 333 patulin, 332–3 descriptions and toxicology, 427–8 associated with cereals, 427 food, 320–36 future trends, 336 mycotoxicogenic fungi occurrence in food, 321–6 aflatoxins, 322 alternaria toxins, 324–5 ergot alkaloids, 326 fungi production, 321 fusarium toxins, 323–4 ochratoxin A, 322–3 patulin, 325 regulation, 335–6 samples in foods and feed in European Unio and USA, 335 regulatory approaches and food safety management, 428–30 toxicity, 326–9 acute and chronic, 328 carcinogenicity, 327–8 mycotoxicoses, 328–9 oestrogenic activity, 328 overview, 326 narasin, 480 neurotoxins, 362 nitro-imidazoles, 158 nitrofurans, 159 no observable adverse effect level (NOAEL), 196, 482–3 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Index nodularins (NOD), 374–6 chemical structure of the cyclic pentapeptide nodularin, 374 naturally occurring variants, 375 non-thermal process food toxicants, 250–78 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol, 258–65 biogenic amines in fermented food, 265–75 ethyl carbamate, 251–8 glycidol, 258–65 norharman, 557 NSAIDs, 167 ochratoxin A, 322–3 structure, 322–3 OctaBDE, 128 Office of New Animal Drug Evaluation (ONADE), 482 okadaic acid (OA), 347–8 chemical structure, 347 Olestra, 110 on-column injection, 23 opium alkaloids, 402–5 structures, 403 orbitrap mass spectrometer, 68–9 organic foods, 184, 197–8 organotin compounds, 244–5 oysters, 540 Pacific oysters, 544 paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins, 343–6 chemical structure, 344 overview, 344–5 patulin analytical methods, 332–3 structure, 325 pectenotoxins (PTX), 348–50 chemical structure, 349 overview, 349 PentaBDE, 128 perfluoroalkylated substances (PFAS), 514 perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), 457–8, 514 origins and occurrence, 457 public health significance, 458 perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), 138–40 perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), 457–8, 514–15 origin and occurrence, 457 public health significance, 458 persistent organic pollutant (POP), 124–5 chemical contaminants in farmed finfish, 518–24 chemical contamination of finfish, 498–524, 502 chlorinated pesticides, 503–7 environmental contaminants in finfish and human exposure, 499–502 573 finfish food products, 499–501 important POP present in aquafeeds and farmed finfish, 500 fluorinated compounds, 514–15 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), 507–14 pesticide, 184, 433–5, 458–9, 475–7 cereal-related food poisoning events, 434 description and toxicology, 433–4 organic and imported foods, 197–9 organic foods, 197–8 pesticides, 198–9 origins and occurrence, 458–9 public health significance, 459 regulation in food, 187–90 international regulation, 189–90 US regulations, 187–9 regulatory approaches and food safety management implications, 434–5 residue monitoring, 190–5 international monitoring, 195 US monitoring, 190–4 residues in foods, 183–99 pesticide use, 184–7 US agricultural use of pesticides, 2006, 187 US agricultural use of pesticides, 2007, 187 user expenditures on pesticides in the US, 186 world and US pesticide expenditures, 185 risk assessment, 195–7 Pesticide Data Program, 193–4 results for fresh fruits and vegetables, 194 phenicols, 162 phycotoxins cyanobacterial toxins, 362–76 food safety, 342–78 LC-MS/MS methods for cyanobacterial toxins determination, 376–7 LC-MS/MS methods for marine biotoxins determination, 361–2 marine biotoxins, 343–61 phytic acid, 426 plant-derived contaminant delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 407–9 ethyl carbamate, 398–400 food, 394–411 future trends, 410–11 grayanotoxins, 405–7 opium alkaloids, 402–5 pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA), 395–8 tropane alkaloids (TA), 400–2 pleuromutilins, 161 polyaromatic hydrocarbons, 435–6 polybrominated biphenyls (PBB), 132–4, 512–13 polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PBDD/Fs), 134–6 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), 128–9, 455–7, 513–14 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 574 Index analytical methods, 462 composition and substitution pattern of selected congeners, 513 food chain transfer and human exposure, 455–7 mean concentrations of in red meat in various countries, 456 origins and occurrence, 455 public health significance, 455 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), 452–5, 507–14 analytical methods, 462 brominated flame retardants (BFR), 511–12 dioxins, 509–11 toxic equivalency factors (TEF), 510 food chain transfer and human exposure, 453–5 mean concentrations of in red meat in various countries, 454 origins and occurrence, 452 polybrominated biphenyls (PBB), 512–13 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), 513–14 properties and occurrence, 114–18 average levels in various food groups, 117 chemical structure, 115 occurrences in food and human exposure, 116–18 physical and chemical properties, 114–16 sources, 116 public health significance, 453 toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for dioxin, 508 toxicity, 118–22 correlation between number of tumourbearing animals and TEQ dose, 120 mode of action, 118–19 regulations, 121 toxic effects, 119–21 toxicokinetics, 118 polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/F) properties and occurrence, 102–5 chemical structure of PCDDs and PCDFs, 102 levels for selected food groups calculated as TEQ, 104 occurrence in food and human exposure, 103–5 physical and chemical properties, 102–3 sources, 103 toxic effects in humans and experimental animals, 108–14 carcinogenicity and genotoxicity, 111–13 case studies, 113 humans, 110 immunotoxicity, 111 laboratory animals, 108–9 maximum regulatory values in foodstuff in the EU, 114 regulations, 113–14 reproductive and developmental toxicity, 110–11 toxicity, 105–8 arylhydrocarbon receptor activation and CYP1A1 induction, 106 mode of action, 105–7 TEF concept, 107–8 TEF values, 108 toxicokinetics, 105 polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD), 449–52, 509–11 analytical methods, 462 characteristics in red meat, 450–2 mean concentrations of in red meat in various countries, 451 food chain transfer and human exposure, 450 origins and occurrence, 449 public health significance, 449 polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF), 449–52, 509–11 analytical methods, 462 characteristics in red meat, 450–2 mean concentrations of in red meat in various countries, 451 food chain transfer and human exposure, 450 origins and occurrence, 449 public health significance, 449 polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs), 125–7 PCN 52, 126 polyether ionophores, 162–3 polymyxins, 163–4 polypeptides, 163–4 potassium bromate, 439 poultry meat chemical contamination, 469–85 future trends, 485 overview, 469–71 poultry production, consumption and risk on contamination, 470–1 residue sources in pre-harvest poultry production, 471 unintentional exposure to chemical contaminants, 472–7 dioxins, 474–5 heavy metals, 473–4 mycotoxins, 472–3 pesticides, 475–7 veterinary drugs as residue source, 477–81 veterinary drugs regulation in animal food products in the US, 481–5 praziquantel, 166 precautionary principle, 150 pressurised hot water extraction (PHWE), 21 principal component analysis (PCA), 89–90 process contaminants, process toxicants, 435–8 acrylamide, 436–8 chloropropanols, 436 polyaromatic hydrocarbons, 435–6 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Index programmed temperature vaporisation injection (PTV), 23 Provisional Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake (PMTDI), 409 pyrantel embonate, 166 pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA), 395–8 chemical structures, 396 quadrupole mass spectrometer, 66–7 QuEChERS method, 21, 171 quinolones, 164 real-time PCR, 84 red meat chemical contamination, 447–63 overview, 447–9 factors influencing residues of contaminants, 448 major contaminants, 449 PCDD/F, PCB, and PBDE analytical methods, 462 perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), 457–8 pesticides, 458–9 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), 455–7 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), 452–5 polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, 449–52 preventions and regulations, 462–3 toxic metals, 459–61 veterinary drugs, 461–2 reporter gene assays, 82–3 reproductive toxicity 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol, 264–5 glycidol, 264–5 residue, analysis using HPLC-MS techniques, 62–75 ionisation techniques, 63–6 mass spectrometer systems, 66–9 quantification, 73–5 screening and identification, 69–73 cell-based bioassays, 79–97 applications of transcriptomics fingerprinting, 90–1 description, 80–3 future trends, 91–3 transcriptomics fingerprinting technologies, 83–7 workflow of a transcriptomics fingerprinting-based screening strategy, 87–90 gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy techniques, 17–52 applications and future trends, 40–52 extraction, 20–1 gas chromatography injection techniques, 22–7 575 gas chromatography separation strategies, 27–31 GC-MS detection, 31–8 validation of new analytical methods, 38, 40 pesticide in foods, 183–99 organic and imported foods, 197–9 pesticide use, 184–7 regulation in food, 187–90 residue monitoring, 190–5 risk assessment, 195–7 risk assessment, 3–14 contaminants and residues in food, 5–6 exposure assessment, 10–11 hazard characterisation, 7–10 hazard identification, 6–7 paradigm and definition, 4–5 risk characterisation, 11–13 role in risk management, 13–14 veterinary drug, 148–75 analytical methods for residue control, 169–72 causes of presence of residues, 151–4 Group A – substances with an anabolic effect, 154–60 Group B – antibacterial substances, 160–5 residue monitoring programmes, 172–4 residues of other veterinary drugs, 165–9 risk assessment and risk management, 148–51 veterinary drugs as source in poultry products, 477–81 antibiotics, 480–1 anticoccidials, 478–80 antiparasitics, 478 Residue Violation Information System (RVIS), 485 retrorsine, 395–6 riddelliine, 397 risk, risk assessment chemical contaminants and residues in food, 3–14 contaminants and residues in food, 5–6 exposure assessment, 10–11 hazard characterisation, 7–10 hazard identification, 6–7 paradigm and definition, 4–5 risk analysis paradigm, pesticide, 195–7 risk characterisation, 11–13 chemicals with health-based guidance values, 11–12 combined exposure, 13 margin of exposure (MOE) approach, 12–13 threshold of toxicological concern (TTC), 13 role in risk management, 13–14 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 576 Index toxic metals and metalloids, 247–8 tolerable vs estimated mean intake levels, 247 veterinary drug, 149–50 prohibited substances, 149 risk management veterinary drug, 150–1 safety, salinomycin, 479 scallops, 539, 540 Scheduled MRM, 71 screening methods, 172 sedatives, 166 selenomethionine isomers, 299 senecionine, 395–6 seneciphylline, 395–6 serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), 85 shellfish metal bioaccessibility, 547–8 metal contamination from particular areas, 548–9 signal value, 211 SilverStone, 138 snails, 544 solid-phase microextraction (SPME), 26 Spanish toxic oil syndrome, 275–6 3-(N-phenylamino)-1,2-propanediol structure and its fatty acid esters, 276 split injection, 22 splitless injection, 22 Stainmaster, 138 steroids, 159–60 storage mycotoxins, 429–30 sulfonamides, 164–5 tandem mass spectrometer experiments, 69–71 product ion spectrum of Ochratoxin A, 70 tannins, 426–7 Taylor cone, 63 technical hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), 505–6 Teflon, 138 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo- para-dioxin (TCDD), 103, 108–9, 111–13 tetracyclines, 165 thin layer chromatography, 169 threshold of toxicological concern (TTC), 13 through oven transfer absorption/desorption (TOTAD), 24–5 time-of-flight mass spectrometer, 67–8 tin, 244–5 effects in animals, 245 effects in humans, 245 toxicokinetics, 245 Tissue Residue Information Management System (TRIMS), 485 tolerable daily intake (TDI), tolerances, 188 Total Diet Study, 129, 131, 140 US Food and Drug Administration, 192–3 frequency of occurrence of residue, 193 toxic equivalency factor (TEF), 103, 107–8 values, 108 toxic metals, 459–61 characterisation, 460–1 origins and occurrence, 459–60 public health significance, 460 trans fatty acids, 276–8 transcriptomics, 83 transcriptomics fingerprinting technologies, 83–7 applications, 90–1 chemical group-specific expression signatures, 86–7 DNA microarrays, 84–5 real-time PCR, 84 unbiased sequencing strategies, 85–6 workflow, 87–90 monitoring and interpretation of gene expression changes, 89–90 reconstitution and cytosensor exposure, 88–9 sample extraction, 88 triamilides, 162 trichothecenes, 323 type A and B structures, 324 tropane alkaloids (TA), 400–2 structures, 401 trophic transfer factor (TTF), 537–8 type A trichothecenes, 330–1 type B trichothecenes, 331–2 uncertainty factors, 8–9 subdivision of uncertainty factors, urethane see ethyl carbamate US Food and Drug Administration, 335, 482, 483 regulatory monitoring, 190–2 2008 monitoring program results – domestic sample, 191 2008 monitoring program results – imported sample, 192 total diet study, 192–3 frequency of occurrence of residue, 193 utilisation D-amino acids, 294–6 illustration, 296 vegetables, 291 veterinary drug, 461–2 analytical methods for residue control, 169–72 evolution of methods in residue analysis, 169 causes of presence of residues, 151–4 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Index chemical structures of major classes within Group A substances, 155 chemical structures of major classes within Group B substances, 156 Group A – substances with an anabolic effect, 154–60 anti-thyroid agents, 154 beta-agonists, 157 compounds included in Commission Regulation No 37/2010, 157–9 stilbenes, steroids and resorcylic acid lactones, 159–60 Group B – antibacterial substances, 160–5 aminoglycosides and aminocyclitols, 160–1 betalactams, 161 lincosamides and pleuromutilins, 161 macrolides, triamilides and azalides, 162 phenicols, 162 polyether ionophores, 162–3 polypeptides and polymyxins, 163–4 quinolones, 164 sulfonamides and diaminopyrimidines, 164–5 tetracyclines, 165 origins and occurrence, 461 other veterinary drug residues, 165–9 antihelminthics, 165–6 coccidiostats, 168–9 corticosteroids, 167–8 NSAIDs, 167 sedatives, 166 public health significance, 461–2 regulation in animal food products in the US, 481–5 577 post-approval monitoring process, 483–5 pre-approval regulatory process, 482–3 residue monitoring programmes, 172–4 compounds detected in slaughterhouses, 173–4 residue source in poultry products, 477–81 antibiotics, 480–1 anticoccidials, 478–80 antiparasitics, 478 residues in foods, 148–75 risk assessment and risk management, 148–51 virginiamycin, 163 whelk, 545 xenobiotic response elements (XRE) see dioxin responsive elements (DRE) yessotoxins (YTX), 350–5 chemical structure, 350 chemical structure of adriatoxin, 354 chemical structure of the desulfoyessotoxin analogues, 354 overview, 351–3 zearalenone, 323, 328, 332 structure, 324 zeranol, 160 zinc, 245–7 effects in animals, 246 effects in humans, 246–7 occurrence, 245–6 toxicokinetics, 246 Zonyl, 138 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 ... solid foods Edited by D Kilcast Proteins in food processing Edited by R Yada Detecting foreign bodies in food Edited by M Edwards Understanding and measuring the shelf-life of food Edited by R... Microbial decontamination in the food industry: novel methods and applications Edited by A Demirci and M O Ngadi 235 Chemical contaminants and residues in foods Edited by D Schrenk 236 Robotics and automation... prevention and control Edited by B Austin 232 Diet, immunity and inflammation Edited by P C Calder and P Yaqoob 233 Natural food additives, ingredients and flavourings Edited by D Baines and R Seal