An International Legal Framework for Geoengineering Geoengineering provides new possibilities for humans to deal with dangerous climate change and its effects but at the same time creates new risks to the planet This book responds to the challenges geoengineering poses to international law by identifying and developing the rules and principles that are aimed at controlling the risks to the environment and human health arising from geoengineering activities, without neglecting the contribution that geoengineering could make in preventing dangerous climate change and its impacts This book first investigates international laws and principles that apply to geoengineering in general and to six specific geoengineering techniques respectively Then, this book compares different governance approaches and predicts the short-, mid- and long-term scenarios of the international governance of geoengineering In the end, in order to balance the positive and negative dimensions of geoengineering, this book proposes an assessment framework and a tailored implementation of the precautionary approach Haomiao Du is a post-doctoral researcher at the University of Twente, the Netherlands Routledge Research in International Environmental Law www.routledge.com/Routledge-Research-in-International-EnvironmentalLaw/book-series/INTENVLAW Environmental Mediation An International Survey Edited by Catherine Choquette and Véronique Fraser An Multilateral Environmental Agreements and Compliance The Benefits of Administrative Procedures Anna Huggins International Legal Framework for Geoengineering Managing the Risks of an Emerging Technology Haomiao Du International Natural Resources Law, Investment and Sustainability Edited by Shawkat Alam, Jahid Hossain Bhuiyan and Jona Razzaque Environmental Governance and Common Pool Resources Michael G Faure, Peter Mascini and Jing Liu Protecting Traditional Knowledge The WIPO Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore Edited by Daniel F Robinson, Ahmed Abdel-Latif and Pedro Roffe Sustainable Development Principles in the Decisions of International Courts and Tribunals 1992–2012 Edited by Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger and H.E Judge C.G Weeramantry Ecological Restoration in International Environmental Law Anastasia Telesetsky, An Cliquet and Afshin Akhtar-Khavari Stratospheric Ozone Damage and Legal Liability US Public Policy and Tort Litigation to Protect the Ozone Layer Lisa Elges Environmental Law and the Ecosystem Approach Maintaining Ecological Integrity through Consistency in Law Froukje Maria Platjouw An International Legal Framework for Geoengineering Managing the Risks of an Emerging Technology Haomiao Du First published 2018 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2018 Haomiao Du The right of Haomiao Du to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Du, Haomiao, author Title: An international legal framework for geoengineering : managing the risks of an emerging technology / Haomiao Du Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2018 | Series: Routledge research in international environmental law | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2017031665 | ISBN 9781138744615 (hbk) Subjects: LCSH: Environmental geotechnology—Law and legislation | Global warming—Law and legislation | Environmental engineering— Law and legislation | Technology and law | Climatology Classification: LCC K3585.5 D8 2018 | DDC 344.04/63—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017031665 ISBN: 978-1-138-74461-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-17975-9 (ebk) Typeset in Galliard by Apex CoVantage, LLC Contents List of figures and tables List of acronyms Preface Introduction ix xi xiii xv PART I Background 1 Political and scientific aspects of geoengineering 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 International background of geoengineering 1.2.1 Changes in the climate system 1.2.2 Attribution of climate change 1.2.3 Emission reduction – target and gap 1.2.4 A complement to traditional mitigation methods 1.3 Definitions 7 1.3.1 The definition of geoengineering 1.3.2 The definition of CDR 1.3.3 The definition of SRM 10 1.3.4 Difference between CCS and geoengineering 11 1.3.5 Difference between geoengineering and mitigation and adaptation 12 1.4 Scientific aspects of CDR and SRM techniques 13 1.4.1 CDR 13 1.4.2 SRM 20 1.5 A description of adverse impacts of geoengineering activities on the environment and the climate 21 1.5.1 The ocean 22 1.5.2 The land 23 1.5.3 The atmosphere 24 1.5.4 The biosphere 25 1.5.5 The climate 26 vi Contents 1.6 The status of research on and testing of different geoengineering methods 27 1.7 Conclusion 28 PART II Applying contemporary international law to geoengineering 2 Contemporary international law and geoengineering – a general approach 2.1 Introduction 43 2.2 The international climate change regime 44 2.2.1 UNFCCC 44 2.2.2 Kyoto Protocol 45 2.2.3 Decisions of COP and CMP 46 2.2.4 Paris Agreement 46 2.3 The ENMOD Convention 48 2.4 Prevention and precaution – coping with environmental harm, the risk of harm and uncertainty 49 2.4.1 Coping with environmental harm and the risk of harm – the prevention principle 49 2.4.2 Addressing uncertain risks – the precautionary approach 66 2.5 Conclusion 79 3 Contemporary international law and geoengineering – a technique-by-technique approach 3.1 Introduction 95 3.2 Ocean fertilization 96 3.2.1 Ocean fertilization and the marine environment 96 3.2.2 Ocean fertilization and the climate change regime 103 3.2.3 The scale and purpose of ocean fertilization activities 104 3.2.4 Synthetic consideration 107 3.3 Ocean upwelling 107 3.3.1 The legal status of ocean pipes and ocean upwelling activities 108 3.3.2 Rights and duties in the conduct of ocean upwelling 109 3.3.3 Ocean upwelling and the marine environment 114 3.3.4 Synthetic consideration 115 3.4 Ocean alkalinity addition 115 3.4.1 Alkalinity addition and the obligation to prevent marine pollution 116 41 43 95 Contents vii 3.4.2 Introduction of alkaline substances and the rules of “dumping” 117 3.4.3 Potential impacts and relevant conventions 119 3.4.4 Synthetic consideration 119 3.5 Marine cloud whitening (MCW) 120 3.5.1 MCW and the UNCLOS 121 3.5.2 MCW and air-related conventions 123 3.5.3 Synthetic consideration 125 3.6 BECCS 125 3.6.1 Biomass plantation under the coverage of the biodiversity regime 125 3.6.2 Bioenergy production and air pollution 126 3.6.3 International legal regimes relating to CO2 transportation and sequestration 127 3.6.4 Synthetic consideration 131 3.7 Stratospheric Aerosols Injection (SAI) 132 3.7.1 The legality of exercising injection activities in the stratosphere 133 3.7.2 The obligations to prevent adverse impacts on the environment 134 3.7.3 Synthetic consideration 140 3.8 Conclusion 141 PART III Towards better governance 155 Main scenarios of the future of geoengineering governance 4.1 Introduction 157 4.2 Unilateralism 158 4.2.1 A brief introduction to unilateralism 158 4.2.2 Unilateralism and geoengineering 159 4.3 Minilateral governance 159 4.3.1 The emergence of minilateralism 159 4.3.2 The legitimacy and feasibility of minilateralism 160 4.3.3 Minilateralism and geoengineering 162 4.4 Multilateral governance 162 4.4.1 Geoengineering and equity concerns 163 4.4.2 International institutions 165 4.4.3 The proper form 167 4.5 A non-state governance approach 170 4.6 Some reflections on the international governance of geoengineering 170 157 viii Contents 4.6.1 Short-term scenario 171 4.6.2 Mid-term scenario 172 4.6.3 Long-term scenario 177 4.7 Conclusion 178 5 Balancing the risk of climate change against geoengineering – controlling environmental risk and coping with scientific uncertainty 5.1 Introduction 185 5.2 Designing a framework for balancing the risk of climate change against geoengineering 185 5.3 Main factors relating to the balancing of risks 186 5.3.1 Target risk vs countervailing risk 186 5.3.2 Scientific uncertainty 187 5.3.3 Various interests 189 5.3.4 Categories 189 5.4 The assessment framework for geoengineering 192 5.4.1 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and geoengineering 194 5.4.2 Monitoring geoengineering projects 200 5.4.3 Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) 201 5.5 Implementing the precautionary approach for geoengineering 202 5.5.1 Clarifying the scope of application 203 5.5.2 Flexible thresholds of triggering the precautionary approach 204 5.5.3 Proportionate actions 205 5.5.4 The burden of proof 207 5.6 Seeking a balance 209 5.7 Conclusion 211 Conclusion Appendix References Index 185 219 225 231 255 List of figures and tables Figures 1.1 1.2 5.1 5.2 Solar radiation management techniques FECCS and BECCS Categories of geoengineering activities EIA process of a geoengineering project 11 18 190 196 Tables 1.1 Carbon dioxide removal methods 5.1 Categories of geoengineering activities 5.2 Flexible thresholds of triggering the precautionary approach 10 191 204 References 249 Dykema, J A., Keith, D W., Anderson, J G., & Weisenstein, D (2014) Stratospheric 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world Retrieved from http://world.bymap.org/Coastlines.html Index Note: Page numbers in italics indicate a figure and page numbers in bold indicate a table 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development 5 adaptation: definition 12; geoengineering different from 12 adverse impacts of geoengineering: atmosphere 24 – 25; biosphere 25 – 26; land 23 – 24; ocean 22 – 23; scientific uncertainty concerning 188; see also specific geoengineering techniques afforestation 6 – 7, 10, 10, 16; deployment within territorial jurisdiction of one state 29; Kyoto Protocol and 46; unintended impacts on biosphere 26 Agreement on Straddling and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (1995) 68 air pollution: BECCS and 126; transboundary 134 – 137 air space 199 – 200 albedo: adverse effects of enhancement 26; cloud 21; surface 21, 29 algal bloom 22, 25 – 26, 97, 100 ambient air capture 10, 10, 19 – 20, 29 Antarctic Environment Protocol 195 Antarctic ozone hole 138 Antarctic Treaty 60, 102, 134, 136, 195, 220 Anthropocene 15, 141, 222 artificial trees 10, 12, 19 assessment framework for geoengineering 192 – 201 atmosphere, adverse impacts of geoengineering on 24 – 25 balancing interests, obligation for 65 – 66 balancing risk of climate change against geoengineering 185 – 213, 221 – 222; categories of geoengineering activities 189 – 191, 190, 191, 211; complexity of seeking a balance 209; framework for 185 – 186; implementing precautionary approach 202 – 209; proportionate actions 205 – 207; scientific uncertainty 187 – 188; small-scale field experiments 191 – 192; target risk vs countervailing risk 185 – 186; varying interests 189 Bali Action Plan 46 Bali Road Map 46 Bamako Convention 128 Basel Convention 127 – 128, 175 BECCS see bioenergy with carbon capture and storage Bergen Declaration 68 best available techniques 53, 73 – 74 binding instruments 167 – 169, 178, 221 biochar: burial 10, 10, 18; definition 17; deployment within territorial jurisdiction of one state 29; production of 18; utilization of 18 bioenergy: definition 17; production and air pollution 126 bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) 6 – 7, 10, 10, 12, 17 – 18, 18, 125 – 132; adverse impacts of 25, 126; assessment framework for geoengineering 192 – 193; biodiversity and 125 – 126, 131; carbon dioxide transportation and sequestration 127 – 132; governance and 176; intergenerational equity 189; wide deployment 171 biological diversity: BECCS and 125 – 126, 131; impacts of 256 Index geoengineering on 25 – 26; ocean fertilization and 102 – 103; stratospheric aerosols injection and 139; see also Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) biological pump, ocean carbon cycling and 13 – 15 biomass: burial 10, 10, 19, 29; definition of 17 biosphere, adverse impacts of geoengineering on 25 – 26 Bodansky, Daniel 67 burden of proof 73 – 74, 207 – 209, 212 Cancun Agreements 46 – 47 carbon capture and storage (CCS) 6; Clean Development Mechanism and 46; geoengineering distinct from 11 – 12; see also bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS); fossil-fuel energy with carbon capture and storage (FECCS) carbon dioxide: contribution to radiative force 5; as hazardous waste 127 – 128, 132; storage, offshore 130 – 131; storage, onshore 131; transboundary movement of 127 – 130, 132 carbon dioxide removal (CDR) 7 – 20; categorization of methods 9 – 10, 10; CMP and 46; definition of 9 – 10; governance 172 – 174, 178, 221; Kyoto Protocol and 45 – 46; as mitigation 12; Paris Agreement and 47 – 48, 219, 222; precautionary approach and 79; scientific aspects of 13 – 20; scientific uncertainty 188; solar radiation management (SRM) distinct from 11; UNFCCC and 44 – 45, 221 carbon dioxide removal (CDR), scientific aspects of 13 – 20; afforestation, reforestation, and land-use management 16 – 17; ambient air capture 19 – 20; biomass-related techniques 17 – 19; ocean fertilization 13 – 15; weathering, enhanced 15 – 16; see also specific techniques CAS see Commission on Atmospheric Sciences 171 Case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua 133 causal relationship, proof of 209 CBD see Convention on Biological Diversity CBDR see common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR) principle 163, 177 CCS see carbon capture and storage CDM see Clean Development Mechanism CDR see carbon dioxide removal CEIA see comprehensive environmental impact assessment CFCs see chlorofluorocarbons Chicago Convention 133 – 134, 220 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 24 chlorophyll 13 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) 46, 103 – 104 climate: adverse impacts of geoengineering on 26 – 27; weather differentiated from 26 – 27 climate change regime, ocean fertilization and 103 – 104 climate emergency 210 – 211, 212 climate modification, by stratospheric aerosols injection 140 cloud whitening see marine cloud whitening CLRTAP see Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution CMP see Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol code of conduct 206 Commission on Atmospheric Sciences (CAS) 171 common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR) principle 163, 177 Communication on the European Commission on the Precautionary Principle 69 complexity, uncertainty due to 72 comprehensive environmental impact assessment (CEIA) 195, 197 – 198 computer modelling 9, 20, 28, 96 Conference of the Parties (COP) 46, 79, 174; Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 59, 75 – 76, 103, 126, 166 Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP) 46, 79, 104 Index 257 consultation and negotiation, obligation for 63 – 64 consultation, environmental impact assessment and 199 – 200 Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic see OSPAR Convention Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 43, 59, 119, 141, 175 – 177, 220; applicability to geoengineering activities 220; BECCS and 126; collaborations 175; COP (Conference of the Parties) 59, 75 – 76, 103, 126, 166; governance of geoengineering under 166; intergenerational equity 164; ocean fertilization and 75 – 76, 96, 102 – 107; ocean upwelling and 114 – 115; precautionary approach and 75 – 77; stratospheric aerosols injection 139; transboundary harm 116, 139 Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context see Espoo Convention Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP) 63, 167, 175 – 176, 220; marine cloud whitening 124 – 125; stratospheric aerosols injection 135 – 136, 141, 175 – 176; Vienna Convention compared to 137 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources 102 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 139 – 140 Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Use of International Watercourses 52 Convention on the Law of the Sea see United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques see ENMOD Convention Convention on the Protection of the Baltic Sea Area 120 Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea 62 Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents 51 Convention to Combat Desertification 175 COP see Conference of the Parties coral reefs 23, 26 Corfu Channel case 50, 62 countervailing risk 186 – 187, 202, 209 dead zones 25, 188 “deleterious effects,” meaning of 119, 135, 139, 142 deliberative process, to implementation of precautionary approach 206 dimethylsulfide (DMS) 24 – 25, 96 direct air capture 7, 10, 10, 12, 19 – 20 domoic acid 25 – 26 downwelling, ocean 10, 10 Draft Articles on Prevention (2001) 51 – 52, 60, 62 – 65 Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for International Wrongful Acts 56 due diligence 52 – 54 dumping: Helsinki Convention and 119; multilateral governance 176; ocean alkalinity addition 116 – 120; ocean fertilization and 98 – 100, 107; ocean upwelling and 112; stratospheric aerosols injection and 138 – 139 Earth Summit 4 EEZ see exclusive economic zone EIA see environmental impact assessment emissions gap 5 – 7 Emissions Trading Scheme 104 ENMOD Convention 43, 48 – 49, 80, 219; marine cloud whitening and 120; weather and climate modification 140 environmental impact assessment (EIA) 194 – 200, 221 – 222; Antarctic Treaty and 60, 195; comprehensive environmental impact assessment (CEIA) 195, 197 – 198; consultation 199 – 200; fundamental components of 59 – 61; initial assessment 195, 197; making a decision 200; post-project 66; preliminary environmental assessment (PEA) 195, 197; process 195 – 198, 196; risk categorization 198; systematic environmental assessment (SEA) compared 61; transboundary harm and 58 – 61, 194 – 195, 197, 199 – 200 258 Index environmental modification techniques, ENMOD Convention and 48 – 49 epistemological uncertainty 72 equity concerns, geoengineering and 163 – 165, 189 Espoo Convention 59 – 61, 66, 193, 197 – 198, 201 European Sea at Risk Conference, Final Declaration of the First 209 exchange of information 62 – 63 exclusive economic zone (EEZ): marine cloud whitening 121 – 123; ocean fertilization and 96; ocean pipe placement and use 110 – 111; ocean pipe removal 113 – 114; state jurisdiction over 101 experiments: large-scale 192, 203, 204; local field 170, 203 – 204, 206; small-scale 104 – 106, 191 – 192, 203 – 204, 204 FECCS see fossil-fuel energy with carbon capture and storage fertilization see ocean fertilization fossil-fuel energy with carbon capture and storage (FECCS) 12, 17 – 18, 18 Franklin, Benjamin 20 Gabcíkovo-Nagymaros Project case 54 – 55, 65, 208 – 209 gasification, for biochar production 18 General Food Law, EU 206 genetically modified organisms (GMOs) 74 geoengineering: adverse impacts of 21 – 27; definition of 7 – 9; international background of 4 – 7; research and tests on methods, status of 27 – 28 global average temperature, target of limiting increase 6, 47 global commons, significant harm in the 55 – 56 Global Risks Reports 5 GMOs see genetically modified organisms Gothenburg Protocol (1999) 136, 137 governance, geoengineering 157 – 179, 220 – 221; complementary regimes and institutions 175 – 176; environmental impact assessment and 194; long-term scenario 177; mid-term scenario 172 – 177; minilateralism 159 – 162, 176, 178; multilateralism 162 – 169, 178, 220; non-state 170, 178; purposes of 157; short-term scenario 171 – 172; unilateralism 158 – 159, 178 grassland, planting 11 greenhouse gases, Kyoto Protocol and 46 Haiyan, Super Typhoon 3 hard law 167 – 168 harm: precautionary approach 66 – 79; prevention principle 49 – 66; threshold of 51 – 52; see also transboundary harm hazardous activities 56 hazardous waste, carbon dioxide as 127 – 128, 132 Helsinki Convention (1992) 119 Helsinki Protocol (1985) 136 high-nitrate, low chlorophyll (HNLC) 13 high seas: ocean pipe placement and use 111 – 112; ocean pipe removal 114 ICAO see International Civil Aviation Organization ICJ see International Court of Justice ILC see International Law Commission IMO see International Maritime Organization Industrial Revolution 23 Indus Waters Kishenganga arbitration 50 information exchange 62 – 63 intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs) 6, 47 intergenerational equity 163 – 165, 189 Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission 171 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 171, 173; establishment of 4; Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) 3 – 4, 6 – 7, 12; Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) 7, 12; Second Assessment Report (SAR) 7; Third Assessment Report (TAR) 7 international background of geoengineering 4 – 7; attribution of climate change 5 – 6; changes in climate system 4 – 5; complement to traditional mitigation methods 6 – 7; emission reduction 6 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 133 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling 164 Index 259 International Court of Justice (ICJ) 50, 52, 54, 56, 58, 62, 133, 207 International Law Commission (ILC) 51 – 52, 56, 200 International Maritime Organization (IMO) 114 International Seabed Authority (ISA) 56 International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) 52 – 53, 58 – 59 IPCC see Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change iron fertilization 13 – 14, 22, 24, 98 – 101, 104, 187 – 188 iron hypothesis 13 ISA see International Seabed Authority ITLOS see International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea Joint Implementation 103 – 104 Keith, David 8 Kyoto Protocol 43, 45 – 46; Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) 46, 103 – 104; Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP) 46; ocean fertilization 103 – 104, 107 Lac Lanoux arbitration 50, 57, 64, 66 land, adverse impacts of geoengineering on 23 – 24 land-use management 10, 10, 16 – 17; deployment within territorial jurisdiction of one state 29; unintended impacts on biosphere 26 large-scale experiments 192, 203, 204 lime 15 – 16, 118 – 120 limestone 15, 118 – 120 local field experiments 170, 203 – 204, 206 London Convention 8, 43, 75, 129; dumping provisions 98 – 100, 112, 116 – 120, 139; ocean alkalinity addition 116 – 120; ocean fertilization and 96, 98 – 102, 106 – 107; stratospheric aerosols injection 139; transboundary movement of carbon dioxide 129 – 130 London Protocol 8, 43, 75, 129, 203; assessment framework and 193 – 195, 199 – 201, 221; carbon dioxide storage 130 – 131; dumping provisions 98 – 100, 112, 116 – 120, 139; governance of geoengineering and 167; imprecision and 169; on legitimate scientific research 203; monitoring geoengineering projects 200 – 201; ocean alkalinity addition 116 – 120; ocean fertilization and 96, 98 – 102, 106 – 107; precautionary approach 98, 219; stratospheric aerosols injection 139; transboundary movement of carbon dioxide 129 – 130; UNCLOS as complementary to 175 Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate (MEF) 161 – 162 Marchetti, C. 8 margin of safety 73 marine biodiversity, ocean fertilization and 102 – 103 marine cloud whitening 11, 21, 120 – 125; adverse impacts of 26; air-related conventions and 123 – 125; assessment 193 – 194; governance and 176; impact on biosphere 26; impact on climate and weather 27; scientific uncertainty 188; status of research on 28; UNCLOS and 120 – 123 marine geoengineering, moratorium on 75 – 76 marine pollution: defined 22; from geoengineering 22 marine scientific research 106, 108 – 113, 115, 121 – 122 MARPOL Convention 158 Martin, John 13 MCW see marine cloud whitening MEF see Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate methane, increase from geoengineering 24 minilateralism 159 – 162, 176, 178; emergence of 159 – 160; legitimacy and feasibility of 160 – 162 mitigation: definition 12; geoengineering different from 12 mobile offshore drilling units 122 – 123 monitoring geoengineering projects 200 – 201 Montreal Protocol 59, 167, 220; marine cloud whitening 124; stratospheric aerosols injection 137 – 138, 175 – 176 MOX Plant case 57 – 58, 65, 208 Mt Pinatubo, eruption of 20 – 21 multilateral environmental agreements 55 260 Index multilateral governance 162 – 169, 220; dealing with deficits in 176 – 177, 179; equity concerns 163 – 165; international institutions 165 – 167; proper form of legal framework 167 – 169 Murase, Shinya 200 nationally determined contributions (NDCs) 47 – 48, 104, 107, 174 negative emission technologies 6, 17, 163 negotiation, obligation for 63 – 64 nitrogen fertilization 14, 98 – 100 nitrous oxide, increase from geoengineering 24 non-binding instruments 167 – 169, 179, 221 Nuclear Tests case 55 – 56 Nuclear Weapon Advisory Opinion 50 Obama, Barack 161 ocean acidification, from geoengineering 22 – 23 ocean alkalinity addition 15 – 16, 26, 115 – 120; assessment 194; ocean fertilization compared 119; scientific uncertainty 188; unintended impacts on biosphere 26 ocean downwelling 10, 10 ocean fertilization 9, 10, 10, 13 – 15, 96 – 107; adverse impacts on atmosphere 24 – 26; assessment 193 – 194; climate change regime and 103 – 104; direct fertilization 13 – 14; environmental impact assessment (EIA) 59; governance and 176; indirect fertilization 14 – 15; large-scale implementation 106 – 107; obligation to conserve marine biodiversity 102 – 103; obligation to prevent marine pollution 96 – 101; ocean alkalinity addition compared 119; precautionary approach and 75 – 76; scale and purpose of activities 104 – 107, 190; scientific uncertainty 187 – 188; small-scale scientific research 104 – 106, 191 – 192; state jurisdiction over 101 – 102; status of research on 28; unintended impacts on biosphere 26 ocean pipes: as “installations” or “equipment” 109; placement and use of 109 – 112; removal of 112 – 114 oceans, adverse impacts of geoengineering on 22 – 23 ocean temperature, typhoon link to 3 ocean upwelling 10, 10, 107 – 115; assessment 194; indirect fertilization 14 – 15; marine environment and 114 – 115; ocean pipe placement and use 109 – 112; ocean pipe removal 112 – 114; ocean pipes as “installations” or “equipment” 109 olivine 16 Oslo Protocol (1994) 136 – 137 ontological uncertainty 72 opportunity benefits 75 OSPAR Convention 112 – 113, 175; “best available techniques” 53; carbon dioxide storage 127, 131; dumping provisions 112, 117 – 118, 120 ozone depletion 24, 27; as obligation erga omnes 200; stratospheric aerosols injection 137 – 138; Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 59, 124, 137 – 138, 175 – 176, 220 ozone hole, Antarctic 138 Paris Agreement 6, 43, 46 – 48; carbon dioxide removal (CDR) and 47 – 48, 219, 222; common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR) principle 163; governance and 174; ocean fertilization and 104, 107; solar radiation management (SRM) and 48, 210 Paris Climate Change Conference (2015) 159 PEA see preliminary environmental assessment phosphorus fertilization 14, 98 – 100 phytoplankton, growth enhancement with fertilization 13 – 15 pipes see ocean pipes pollution: BECCS and 126; Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP) 63, 124 – 126, 135 – 137, 141, 167, 175 – 176, 220; marine 22; ocean alkalinity addition 116; ocean fertilization and 96 – 101; stratospheric aerosols injection 134 – 137; transboundary 134 – 137; watercourse 24 precautionary approach 66 – 79, 219; ambiguity of 67; balancing Index 261 benefits and negative effect 77 – 78; balancing risk of climate change against geoengineering 186; current application to geoengineering 75 – 78; disagreements concerning 67 – 68; implementing for geoengineering 202 – 209; incoherence of application to geoengineering 78 – 79; ocean alkalinity addition 116, 120; ocean fertilization and 97 – 98; precautionary actions 72 – 75; risk of harm 70 – 71; stratospheric aerosols injection (SAI) 205; terminology 68 – 69; timing and 77; trigger of 69 – 72, 204, 204 – 205, 212 – 213; uncertainty 71 – 72, 202, 205, 212; UNFCCC and 44 – 45; versions of precautionary approach 72 – 75 precautionary approach implementation for geoengineering 202 – 209; burden of proof 207 – 209; clarifying scope of application 203 – 204; code of conduct 206; deliberate process 206; flexible threshold for triggering 204, 204 – 205; local filed experiments 206; proportionate actions 205 – 207 preliminary environmental assessment (PEA) 195, 197 prevention principle 49 – 66, 219; activities that cause significant harm 54 – 56; activities that create risk of significant harm 56 – 58; balancing risk of climate change against geoengineering 186; consultation and negotiation 63 – 64; due diligence 52 – 54; environmental impact assessment and 194; exchanging information 62 – 63; notification of risks 62; obligation to assess transboundary environmental impacts 58 – 61; obligation to authorize activities and monitor environmental impacts 64 – 65; obligation to balance interests 65 – 66; procedural obligations 58 – 66; significant harm between states 54 – 55; significant harm in the global commons 55 – 56; threshold of harm 51 – 52; UNFCCC and 44 proof: burden of 73 – 74, 207 – 209, 212; standard of 207 – 209 proportionate actions 205 – 207 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty 60, 102, 134, 136, 195 Pulp Mills case 50, 52 – 53, 57 – 59, 62, 207 pyrolysis, for biochar production 18 radiative forcing 5 Ramsar Convention 139 Rao, Pemmaraju Sreenivasa 52 reasonable grounds for concern 205 reflective roofs 11 reflectors see space-based reflectors reforestation 6, 10, 10, 16; deployment within territorial jurisdiction of one state 29; Kyoto Protocol and 46; unintended impacts on biosphere 26 regulatory gaps 141, 157, 164, 219 – 220 research: on geoengineering methods, status of 27 – 28; legitimate scientific 203; ocean fertilization 104 – 106, 191 – 192; precautionary approach and 203 – 204, 204; UNCLOS and marine scientific research regulation 106, 108 – 113, 115, 121 – 122 Rio Declaration 60, 62, 68, 78, 164 risk: activities that create risk of significant harm 56 – 58; assessment framework for geoengineering 192 – 201; balancing risk of climate change against geoengineering 185 – 213, 221 – 222; categorization 198; consultation and negotiation, obligation for 63 – 64; cost of reduction in 57; countervailing 186 – 187, 202, 209; notification of risks 62; precautionary approach 66 – 79; proportionate actions 205 – 206; reasonable grounds for concern 205; social 198 – 199; target 186 – 187, 202, 209; worst case scenario 205 risk-risk trade-off 186 – 187 rock powder 16, 26 Rotterdam Convention 175 Sakaio, Vete Palakua 4 Sano, Yeb 3 SBI see Subsidiary Body for Implementation SBSTA see Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advices scientific uncertainty 72, 187 – 188, 202 SEA see strategic environmental assessment seawater droplets see marine cloud whitening 262 Index SIA see stratospheric aerosols injection silicate minerals: ocean alkalinity addition 118 – 120; spreading on land 16 small-scale experiments/research 104 – 106, 191 – 192, 203 – 204, 204 social impacts 198 – 199 soft law 167 – 168, 206 soil: adverse impacts of geoengineering 23 – 24; silicate minerals spread on 16 soil acidification 23 – 24, 139 solar radiation management (SRM) 7 – 8; as adaptation 12; carbon dioxide removal (CDR) distinct from 11; debate on benefit and risk of 209 – 211; definition 10 – 11; future of 222; governance 159, 161, 163 – 165, 171 – 172, 175 – 178, 221; location of techniques 11, 11; minilateralism 161; multilateralism 163 – 165; Paris Agreement and 48, 210; precautionary approach and 79; scientific aspects of 20 – 21; scientific uncertainty 188; social risks 198 – 199; UNFCCC and 44 – 45; unilateral implementation 159; see also specific techniques solubility pump, ocean carbon cycling and 13, 15 Southern Bluefin Tuna case 53 – 54, 69, 208 – 209 Southern Ocean, ocean fertilization and 102 space-based reflectors 20, 28, 29 SRM see solar radiation management standard of proof 207 – 209 Stockholm Convention 175 Stockholm Declaration (1972) 50 strategic environmental assessment (SEA) 61, 201, 209 stratospheric aerosols injection (SAI) 7, 11, 20 – 21, 132 – 141; assessment 193; climate modification 140; dumping and 138 – 139; environmental impact assessment (EIA) 59; governance 175 – 176; impact on atmosphere 24; impact on biosphere 26; impact on climate system 27; impact on ecosystem 139 – 140; intergenerational equity 189; legality 133 – 134, 220; obligations to prevent adverse environmental impacts 134 – 140; precautionary approach 205; scientific uncertainty 188; soil acidification from 23 – 24; status of research on 28 Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI) 173 Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advices (SBSTA) 173 sulphate see stratospheric aerosols injection (SAI) sunshades see space-based reflectors Synthesis Report on the Aggregate Effect of the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions 47 target risk 186 – 187, 202, 209 territorial sea: marine cloud whitening 121; ocean pipe placement and use 110; ocean pipe removal 113 tests on geoengineering methods, status of 27 – 28 tipping points 210 – 211 toxic algal bloom 22, 25 – 26, 97 Trail Smelter arbitration 50 – 51, 65 transboundary harm 43, 168; balancing risks 189; BECCS and 127, 131; CBD and 116, 139; environmental impact assessment (EIA) and 58 – 61, 194 – 195, 197, 199 – 200; prevention principle 49 – 66; significant harm between states 54 – 55; threshold of harm 51 – 52 transboundary movement of carbon dioxide 127 – 130, 132; Bamako Convention 128; Basel Convention 127 – 128; London Convention/ London Protocol 129 – 130; UNCLOS 128 – 129 Turn Down the Heat: Why a 4°C Warmer World Must be Avoided (World Bank report) 5 typhoon 3 uncertainty: epistemological 72; governance of geoengineering and 169, 171; ontological 72; precautionary approach and 71 – 72, 202, 205, 212; proportionate actions 205 – 206; risk categorization 198; scientific 72, 171, 187 – 188, 202, 205 – 206 UNCLOS see United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNECE see United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UNEP see United Nations Environmental Programme Index 263 UNFCCC see United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change unilateralism 158 – 159, 178 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) 4 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 22, 43, 59, 158, 175, 220; applicability to geoengineering activities 220; carbon dioxide storage 131; cooperation requirement 199; dumping provisions 98, 100, 116 – 120, 139; marine cloud whitening 120 – 123; marine scientific research regulation 106, 108 – 113, 115, 121 – 122; ocean alkalinity addition 116 – 120; ocean fertilization 96 – 103, 106 – 107; ocean upwelling 108 – 115; stratospheric aerosols injection 134, 139; transboundary movement of carbon dioxide 128 – 129 United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) 59, 124, 193 United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP): definition of significant effect 51; Emissions Gap Report 5; governance of geoengineering under 166 – 167; Provisions for Cooperation between States regarding Weather Modification for Peaceful Purposes 140 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 4 – 6, 43 – 45; collaborations 175; governance of geoengineering under 165 – 166, 171 – 175, 220 – 221; on intergenerational equity 164; as London Protocol complement 175; precautionary approach 44 – 45, 78 – 79; prevention principle 44; Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI) 173; Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advices (SBSTA) 173; uncertainty and 169; see also Kyoto Protocol upwelling see ocean upwelling variability, uncertainty due to 72 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 59, 175 – 176, 220; CLRTAP compared to 137; marine cloud whitening 123 – 124; stratospheric aerosols injection 137 – 138, 141, 175 – 176 Vietnam War 48 volcanic eruptions 20 – 21, 27, 137 Warsaw Climate Change Conference 3 watercourses: Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Use of International Watercourses 52; pollution, geoengineering and 24 weather, climate differentiated from 26 – 27 weathering, enhanced 10, 10, 15 – 16, 29 weather warfare 48 wet scrubbing technique 19 Whaling in the Antarctic case 105 – 106 Wingspread Consensus Statement on the Precautionary Principle 73 WMO see World Meteorological Organization World Heritage Convention 140 World Meteorological Organization (WMO) 4, 140, 171, 173 worst case scenario 205 zooplankton 13 – 14, 187 – 188 .. .An International Legal Framework for Geoengineering Geoengineering provides new possibilities for humans to deal with dangerous climate change and its effects but at the... management Afforestation, reforestation and land-use management are traditional means of ecosystem management Afforestation refers to planting or seeding on lands that have not been forested for a period... Ocean Ocean Chemical Chemical & physical Afforestation, reforestation and land-use management Biochar/ biomass burial BECCS Biological Ocean or land CO2 Capture: land CO2 sequestration: ocean