THÔNG TIN TÀI LIỆU
STRENGTHENING INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES LAW IN AN ERA OF CHANGING OCEANS This collection addresses the central question of how the current international framework for the regulation of fisheries may be strengthened in order to meet the challenges posed by changing fisheries and ocean conditions, in particular climate change International fisheries law has developed significantly since the 1990s, through the adoption and establishment of international instruments and bodies at the global and regional levels Global fish stocks nevertheless remain in a troubling state, and fisheries management authorities face a wide array of internal and external challenges, including operational constraints, providing effective management advice in the face of scientific uncertainty and non-compliance by States with their international obligations This book examines these challenges and identifies options and pathways to strengthen international fisheries law While it has a primarily legal focus, it also features significant contributions from specialists drawn from other disciplines, notably fisheries science, economics, policy and international relations, in order to provide a fuller context to the legal, policy and management issues raised Rigorous and comprehensive in scope, this will be essential reading for lawyers and nonlawyers interested in international fisheries regulation in the context of profoundly changing ocean conditions ii Strengthening International Fisheries Law in an Era of Changing Oceans Edited by Richard Caddell and Erik J Molenaar HART PUBLISHING Bloomsbury Publishing Plc Kemp House, Chawley Park, Cumnor Hill, Oxford, OX2 9PH, UK HART PUBLISHING, the Hart/Stag logo, BLOOMSBURY and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published in Great Britain 2019 Copyright © The editors and contributors severally 2019 The editors and contributors have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to be identified as Authors of this work All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers While every care has been taken to ensure the accuracy of this work, no responsibility for loss or damage occasioned to any person acting or refraining from action as a result of any statement in it can be accepted by the authors, editors or publishers All UK Government legislation and other public sector information used in the work is Crown Copyright © All House of Lords and House of Commons information used in the work is Parliamentary Copyright © This information is reused under the terms of the Open Government Licence v3.0 (http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/ open-government-licence/version/3) except where otherwise stated All Eur-lex material used in the work is © European Union, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/, 1998–2019 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data Names: Caddell, Richard, editor. | Molenaar, Erik Jaap, editor Title: Strengthening international fisheries law in an era of changing oceans / edited by Richard Caddell, Erik J Molenaar Description: Oxford, UK ; Portland, Oregon : Hart Publishing, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2018052063 (print) | LCCN 2018056239 (ebook) | ISBN 9781509923359 (EPub) | ISBN 9781509923342 (hardback) Subjects: LCSH: Fishery management, International—Law and legislation. | BISAC: LAW / International. | LAW / Environmental Classification: LCC K3895 (ebook) | LCC K3895 S77 2019 (print) | DDC 343.07/6922—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018052063 ISBN: HB: 978-1-50992-334-2 ePDF: 978-1-50992-336-6 ePub: 978-1-50992-335-9 Typeset by Compuscript Ltd, Shannon To find out more about our authors and books visit www.hartpublishing.co.uk Here you will find extracts, author information, details of forthcoming events and the option to sign up for our newsletters Preface T his book is the outcome of an interdisciplinary project on the theme of strengthening international fisheries law in the context of changing fisheries and ocean conditions The project was led by the Netherlands Institute for the Law of the Sea (NILOS) and the Utrecht Centre for Water, Oceans and Sustainability Law (UCWOSL) of Utrecht University, and was developed in the context of our involvement in the Nereus Program “Predicting Future Oceans”1 and the project “Allocation, Participation and the Ecosystem Approach in Polar Fisheries”, funded by the Netherlands Polar Programme administered by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO).2 The book features an array of contributions from specialists on aspects of international fisheries and their management, comprising a blend of senior and emerging researchers While it has a primarily legal focus, it also features significant contributions from specialists drawn from other disciplines, notably fisheries science, economics, policy and international relations, in order to provide a fuller context to the legal, policy and management issues raised The book is divided into five Parts Part I provides an introduction to the achievements, limitations and challenges of international fisheries law by the editors Parts II-IV cover the three substantive themes of the book, namely “Identifying Future Regulatory Challenges: Science, Law and Management”, “The Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management” and “Compliance and Enforcement” These three overarching themes canvas the main challenges and shortcomings of the domain of international fisheries law at present and in the foreseeable future Part II opens with Chapter 2: “Modelling Future Oceans: The Present and Emerging Future of Fish Stocks and Fisheries”, (William WL Cheung, Vicky WY Lam, Yoshitaka Ota and Wilf Swartz) a multidisciplinary contribution providing an overview of the current state of affairs in global fisheries from noted specialists in fisheries science, fisheries economics and fisheries policy This is followed by Chapter – entitled “Alternative Histories and Futures of International Fisheries Law” (Richard Barnes) – which provides a more theoretical perspective upon the regulatory trajectory of international fisheries law, using the technique of counterfactual reconsideration of the broad trends and regulatory context for the regulation of fisheries Chapter – entitled “Management Options for High Seas Fisheries: Making Regime Complexes More Effective” 1 For information see nereusprogram.org/ For information see www.nwo.nl/en/research-and-results/programmes/Netherlands+Polar+ Programme vi Preface (Olav Schram Stokke) – brings a political science perspective to the development of international commitments and the resilience of regional institutions The remaining two chapters in Part II focus on the regional element of international fisheries law, which is of paramount importance to the implementation and application of the global component Chapter – entitled “Key Challenges relating to the Governance of Regional Fisheries” (James Harrison) – provides an overview of the main challenges confronting regional fisheries governance, with particular attention to the international community’s preferred vehicles in this regard, namely regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) One of these key challenges is further considered by Chapter 6 – entitled “Participation in Regional Fisheries Management Organizations” (Erik J Molenaar) As is clarified in Part III, the ecosystem approach to fisheries management remains a fundamental guiding principle in international fisheries law, but has long remained a rather nebulous concept To this end, this Part seeks to articulate the substantive elements of this principle and to evaluate how, and to what extent, they have been implemented in current practices Chapter – entitled “International Fisheries Law and Interactions with Global Regimes and Processes” (Richard Caddell) – considers the impact of other global regimes and processes upon the development of standards for international fisheries, including the current negotiations towards an international legally-binding instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction Chapter – entitled “Bycatch Mitigation and the Protection of Associated Species” (Karen N Scott) – advances an overview of the current international framework for the regulation of incidental catches of associated species, an issue that remains one of most troublesome aspects of improving fisheries governance On an allied theme, Chapter – entitled “ Area-Based Fisheries Management” (Daniel C Dunn, Guillermo Ortuño Crespo and Richard Caddell) – focuses on fisheries closures, marine protected areas and other location-based tools in improving the ecological footprint of fisheries Improving this footprint is also the focus of Chapter 10 – entitled “Environmental Assessment and International Fisheries Law” (Simon Marsden) – which considers the array of assessment-related tools and their prospective application to fisheries development Part III concludes with Chapter 11 – entitled “Addressing Climate Change Impacts in Regional Fisheries Management Organizations” (Rosemary Rayfuse) – which examines the extent to which international fisheries law has responded to climate change and the emergence of mitigation and adaptation strategies Part IV considers the vexed issues of compliance and enforcement, which continue to dominate discourses on the further development of international fisheries law It opens with Chapter 12 – entitled “An International Relations Perspective on Compliance and Enforcement” (Áslaug Ásgeirsdóttir) – which considers, inter alia, the factors that inhibit and promote international Preface vii cooperation in this respect This is complemented by Chapter 13 – entitled “Problems and Progress in Combating IUU Fishing” (Eva R van der Marel) – which provides an overview of the international community’s response to illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing so far, and offers a more in-depth analysis of the contribution of the European Union (EU) in this regard Subsequently, Chapter 14 – entitled “International Trade Law Aspects of Measures to Combat IUU and Unsustainable Fishing” (Robin Churchill) – explores the interaction between the domains of international fisheries law and international trade law Chapters 15–17 deal with distinct actors in compliance and enforcement Chapter 15 – entitled “Strengthening Flag State Performance in Compliance and Enforcement” (Natalie Klein) – considers the efforts of the international community to enhance the performance of the primary actor in high seas fisheries In view of the persistent substandard performance of flag States in marine capture fisheries, however, the latter chapters explore alternative means of promoting compliance with these obligations Chapter 16 – entitled “Ensuring Compliance with Fisheries Regulations by Private Actors” (Carmino Massarella) – examines the increasing role of private military contractors and environmental activists in enforcement activities Meanwhile Chapter 17 – entitled “Emerging Regulatory Responses to IUU Fishing” (Richard Caddell, George Leloudas and Bariş Soyer) – explores the potential responsibility of those providing commercial and other services to fishing vessels and the prospective role of transnational criminal law in bolstering the response to fisheries infractions Finally, in Chapter 18 the editors draw together the lessons learned from the preceding contributions and identify options and pathways to strengthen international fisheries law in an era of changing oceans After extensive preparations and consultations with contributing authors, the project led to the convening of a workshop on 7–8 February 2017 at U trecht University At this workshop, authors presented the draft manuscripts that they had submitted beforehand, and designated commentators, the editors and other participants provided comments The authors then finalized their manuscripts based on the discussions and comments at the workshop, and multiple rounds of review by the editors In keeping with the obligations of cooperation promoted in many key instruments of international fisheries law, this volume thus represents a truly collaborative effort to re-examine fundamental issues in the regulation of fisheries resources The individual chapters of this volume not specify the last date of access of websites Links have been checked by the authors and are current as of 1 August 2018 This project would not have been possible without financial support from the Nereus Program “Predicting Future Oceans” – funded by the Nippon Foundation – and the Netherlands Polar Programme, administered by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) in the context of viii Preface the project “Allocation, Participation and the Ecosystem Approach in Polar Fisheries” Moreover, we are deeply grateful for the support and assistance of our colleagues in convening the workshop and, especially, to our families during the editing and preparation of this volume Richard Caddell is particularly appreciative of his wife Sasha, for facilitating and supporting his period of residence as a Senior Nereus Fellow at Utrecht University, where this project was substantively conducted Finally, our appreciation goes to Anne-Rose Stolk for her valuable editorial assistance, and to Sinéad Moloney, Savannah Rado and the team at Hart Publishing for their efforts towards the publication of this volume Richard Caddell Erik J Molenaar Cardiff and Utrecht, August 2018 Table of Contents Preface�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������v Richard Caddell and Erik J Molenaar List of Contributors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xi List of Abbreviations��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xix Table of Treaties����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xxv PART I INTRODUCTION International Fisheries Law: Achievements, Limitations and Challenges����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3 Erik J Molenaar and Richard Caddell PART II IDENTIFYING FUTURE REGULATORY CHALLENGES: SCIENCE, LAW AND MANAGEMENT Modelling Future Oceans: The Present and Emerging Future of Fish Stocks and Fisheries�������������������������������������������������������������������13 William WL Cheung, Vicky WY Lam, Yoshitaka Ota and Wilf Swartz Alternative Histories and Futures of International Fisheries Law�����������25 Richard A Barnes Management Options for High Seas Fisheries: Making Regime Complexes More Effective���������������������������������������������������������������������51 Olav Schram Stokke Key Challenges Relating to the Governance of Regional Fisheries�����������79 James Harrison Participation in Regional Fisheries Management Organizations������������ 103 Erik J Molenaar PART III THE ECOSYSTEM APPROACH TO FISHERIES MANAGEMENT International Fisheries Law and Interactions with Global Regimes and Processes��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 133 Richard Caddell 464 Index re-flagging 360 recent developments 356–366 record-keeping 361 registration and de-registration 351, 352, 358, 361 RFMO/As 121–122, 356, 357, 364–366 rules of origin 323–324, 337 straddling fish stocks 353–354 sustainability, obligations as to 294, 295 total allowable catch 354 transparency 361 UNGA Resolutions 356, 357–358 vessel seaworthiness 158 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) bottom-fishing guidelines 143, 195–196 bycatches and discards 8, 166, 170 catch documentation guidelines 8, 299, 304–306, 311, 317, 327–328, 330, 344 Code of Conduct see Code of Conduct Committee on Fisheries (COFI) 5, 71, 82, 98 Compliance Agreement see Compliance Agreement Deep-Sea Fisheries Guidelines 8, 358 discards, recommendations to reduce Ecolabelling Guidelines 346, 349 ecosystem approach guidelines 168 Flag State Performance Guidelines 8, 356, 359, 360–362, 364, 367–369 generally 71 Global Record of Fishing Vessels 8, 359–360, 371 IMO cooperation 136 IPOA-IUU 4, 8, 71, 292, 295–300, 302, 311, 319, 320 IUU fishing 136, 162 PSM Agreement 4, 71, 186, 296, 299, 300–301, 325–326, 338 regional fishery bodies 105–106 safety standards 161 seabirds, International Plan of Action 8, 166, 172, 177 sharks, International Plan of Action 8, 166, 172, 179–180, 181 Turtle Guidelines 8, 166, 172, 181 Unique Vessel Identifier 359–360 vulnerable marine ecosystems 195–196 forced labour 157, 160–161, 411–412 forum shopping pubic international law France 314 fraud 409 freedom of navigation 376, 377, 385–386 Gabon 389 Galapagos Islands 388 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) CDS, compatibility 343–345, 349 environmental window 60 import bans, compatibility 337–341, 348–349 IUU and unsustainable fishing 333–334 labelling requirements, compatibility 345–349 landing requirements, compatibility 341–343, 348, 349 provisions generally 331–334, 335–336 transhipment restrictions, compatibility 341, 349 General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) 100, 107, 108, 111, 184 bycatch mitigation 153, 182, 184, 185 deep-sea fisheries 195, 198 Fisheries Restricted Areas 198 members/participants 115, 116, 118–119, 124–125 Palestine 110 Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance 157, 185 geoengineering activities 224 ghost fishing 165, 167 global fisheries catch generally 13–14, 46 increase 46 projected decrease 16–17 proportion of stocks within sustainable levels 46, 272 Global Fishing Watch 74–75, 382–383 Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) 211 global warming see climate change Greenland 67, 111, 112, 255 Greenpeace 285, 375, 378–379, 381, 384–387 high seas area covered by 272 enforcement on 274, 277, 279, 281, 286–289, 361, 424 freedom of navigation 376, 377, 385–386 freedom to fish 354 Index 465 management see high seas management marine protected areas 286 vessel immunity 380–381 High Seas Fishing Convention 112–113 high seas management area-based tools see area-based management tools cognitional 51 compliance see compliance cross-institutional coordination 54–55, 63, 70, 75–77, 96–102 cross-regional interplay 67–72, 76–77 dynamic 190, 213–214 ecosystem approach see ecosystem approach to fisheries flag State responsibilities 51, 52, 53, 71, 351–372 highly migratory fish stocks 5, 79 institutional complexes 54–55 inter-sectorial area-based 154–157 LOS Convention 194 naming and shaming tactics 75–76, 77 non-fisheries bodies 57, 59–62, 73–74 obtaining adequate regulation 66–70 options for improving 51–77, 424–429 outsider problem 67 pelagic area 194, 199–202 private initiatives 57, 60–61, 63, 65–66, 69–70, 74–76 quotas 67, 70, 271 regulatory 51, 66–70 revising management measures 274–275 RFBs see regional fishery bodies RFMO/As see regional fisheries management organizations or arrangements scientific advice 63–66 straddling fish stocks 53, 79, 272 timeliness, importance 86 total allowable catch 273–274 transboundary fish stocks 53 UN bodies 57, 58 use and conservation 52–54 value chains and profitability 55–57 High Seas Task Force 315, 423–424 Honduras 304 hot pursuit rules 378, 379–380, 387 human rights as basis for direct action 376, 378–379, 385–386 breaches in fishing industry 157, 160–161, 393 extending to environment 392 hydraulic fracturing 225 Iceland 67, 70, 255, 256, 284, 287–288 illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing bycatches and discards 168 CDS see Catch Documentation Schemes conservation and management measures 295–297, 301–305 coastal State’s obligations 300 compliance and enforcement 271, 278 criminal law toolkit 408–419 de-registration of vessels 358 definition 292–298, 321–322 economic disincentives 395 EEZs, within 232–233, 300 EU carding system 161, 309–310, 313, 317, 383 EU Regulation 285, 299, 305–318, 329–330 evidential challenge 415–416 FAO measures 136, 162 fines 395 Fish Stocks Agreement 295, 299, 395 flag State’s obligations 232, 294, 295, 299–300, 358, 361, 363–364 generally 8, 291–292 global scale 291, 393 identification of non-cooperating countries 303–304 illegal fishing 293, 322 IMO measures 136, 162, 299 international trade law see trade measures IPOA-IUU 4, 71, 292, 295–300, 302, 428 joint measures to deter 97–98, 136 labour and welfare issues 158, 161 landing requirements 284–285, 325, 327, 341–343, 348, 349, 394 LOS Convention 295–296, 318 misreporting 297 monitoring see monitoring multilateral action to combat 298–306, 318, 319 organizational entities behind 408–409 overfishing see overfishing port measures 303, 307 PSM Agreement 296, 299, 300–301 port State’s obligations 300 publishing names of offenders 285 quotas 295 466 Index RFMO measures to combat 104 RFMO non-members 122, 295–297, 322 stateless vessels 322, 358, 376 trade measures see trade measures transhipment to avoid detection 326–327 tuna 297, 303–304 unilateral action to combat 306–317 unregulated fishing 293–297, 322 unreported fishing 293, 322 unsustainable fishing 294 US measures to combat 314–315 vessel lists 71, 76, 97–98, 301, 302, 308, 311, 326, 365, 394, 407–408, 425 vessel safety 158 import bans 325–326, 328, 337–341, 348–349 Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC) climate change impact 259 generally 6, 108, 111, 153, 175, 177–178, 180, 181, 184 members/participants 117, 118–119, 120, 121, 125 pelagic closures 201 port measures against IUU fishing 303 indigenous management areas 190 Indonesia 417 innocent passage regime 378 insurance adjusting underwriting practices 407–408 generally 56, 76 global IUU fishing agenda 405–407 hull 400–401 IPOA-IUU 406 liability 396–400, 404 Protection and Indemnity (P&I) Clubs 396–400 role combating IUU fishing 395–408 Integrated Regional Oceans Management Organizations proposals for 100 Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) AIDCP 184 climate change impact 260 generally 87, 108, 153, 166, 175, 177–178, 180, 182, 201 members/participants 116, 120, 121, 125 WCPFC and 96–97, 254 Inter-American Turtle Convention 166, 182 International Commission on the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) ACAP 153 Bluefin Tuna Action Plan 303–304 catch documentation scheme 328 climate change impact 260–261 ecosystem approach 148 generally 89, 108, 175, 177–178, 180, 201, 281, 365 members/participants 115, 117, 119, 125 Swordfish Action Plan 303–304 ICRW 166, 173 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) 28–29, 54–55, 58, 59, 197 scientific advice 63–65, 66, 261 International Court of Justice (ICJ) 9, 245 Certain Activities/Construction of a Road 226, 228, 233–234, 245 Estai 36 Gabcíkovo-Nagymaros Project 231 Land Reclamation 232 MOX Plant 231, 232 Nicaragua 9, 311 Nuclear Tests II 226 Pulp Mills 228, 231, 232, 363 Southern Bluefin Tuna 232 Whaling in the Antarctic 226 international fisheries law ancillary matters 134 cooperation and coordination 425–426 development 27–31, 38–50, 133–134 environment and conservation 28–29 environmental impact assessment 26, 225, 226, 231–234 FAO see Food and Agriculture Organization Fish Stocks Agreement see Fish Stocks Agreement highly migratory species 30 historical background 28–29 ILO 157–161 IMO 157, 159, 161–162 interaction with global regimes and processes 133–163 LOS Convention implementation agreements 134, 145–150, 424 multilateral environmental agreements 134, 150–157, 426 precautionary approach environmental management 226–228, 229 primacy of consent 27 RFMO/As and 128–129 transboundary fish stocks 30 UNGA Resolutions 134, 135–145 Index 467 International Labour Organization (ILO) 60, 134, 157–161 safety standards 161 Work in Fishing Convention 159–161 international law consensual nature 428 criminal law 419–420 customary 231–234, 376 environmental see environmental law environmental impact assessment 26, 225, 226, 231–234 Espoo Convention 221, 224, 234–238, 242, 244–246 freedom of navigation 376, 385–386 international fisheries law and 27–31, 133–163 organized crime 409–415 trade law see trade measures International Maritime Organisation (IMO) areas beyond national jurisdiction 155, 204 Automatic Identification System 74–75, 210, 286 cooperation with FAO 136 generally 156, 194 IUU fishing 136, 162, 299 labour and welfare rights 134, 157, 159 Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas 154–155, 204 resolution on direct action 381, 392 safety and seaworthiness standards 161–162 Ship Identification Number 359 Torremolinos Convention 162 vessel management 134 International Organization for Migration (IOM) 60 IPOA-IUU definition of unregulated fishing 322 flag State’s obligations 295, 299–300, 354 generally 4, 8, 71, 292, 295–300, 302, 319, 428 influence 299 insurance-related measures 406 international trade law compatibility 320 market power, utilization 300, 311 voluntary nature 298 International Seabed Authority (ISA) area-based management tools in areas beyond national jurisdiction 203–204 Areas of Particular Environmental Interest 155, 204 environmental assessment 242 environmental Management Plans 203–204 Mining Code 48 mining management 155, 156, 194, 203–204, 222 International Seafood Sustainability Foundation (ISSF) 285 international trade law see trade measures International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) Deep-Sea Mining Advisory Opinion 222, 231–232 dispute settlement 95–96, 245, 341 flag States 362–364, 368–369 M/V Virginia G 352, 377 Seabed Advisory Opinion 369 SRFC Advisory Opinion 232–233, 293–294, 356, 362, 363 International Whaling Commission (IWC) non-user States 114 INTERPOL 60, 74, 388 Fisheries Crime Working Group 74, 415 Project Scale 414–415 Purple Notices 415 invasive species 165 isolationism Italy 140, 314 Japan 140, 256, 370, 381, 387–388, 391 RFMO/As 115, 116, 128 UNGA driftnet fishing Resolutions 138–139 Joint Norwegian-Russian Fisheries Commission (JNRFC) 64, 106, 109 membership 115, 117, 119, 125 quota cards 67 Kobe Process 68, 99 Korea 116, 122, 128, 139, 180, 256 krill climate change 249 MSC certification 65–66 La Jolla Agreement 183–184 labelling ecolabelling 57, 66, 70, 77, 346, 347, 349 labelling requirements 325, 330, 345–349, 394 468 Index labour and welfare issues Code of Safety for Fishermen and Fishing Vessels 162 international law 134, 157–162 LOS Convention 158 MLC 159 monitoring for compliance 378 UNGA Resolutions 158 Work in Fishing Convention 159–161 yellow card system 161 land reclamation 223 landing requirements international trade law 284–285, 325, 327, 341–343, 348, 349 LOS Convention 343, 349 larval sources 192 law of the sea flag State jurisdiction 39, 353–354, 376 freedom of the high seas 39 Geneva Conventions 38–39, 40–42, 47 international fisheries law 27 zonal allocations of authority 39 LOS Convention archipelagic sea lanes passage 377, 380 area-based management tools 193–194 areas beyond national jurisdiction 134, 149, 163, 222 BBNJ see Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction bycatches and discards 165–166, 170 coastal States 3–4, 29, 353 conservation of living resources 211, 272, 293, 294 dispute settlement regime 369–370 ecosystem approach to fisheries 4, 163, 258 environmental assessment 220, 221–222, 242, 245–246 environmental issues 38–50, 134, 163 evolution 42 exclusive economic zone 4, 29, 43–44, 133, 193, 272 failings 27–28, 29 Fish Stocks Agreement and 146–147 flag States 3–4, 39, 351, 354, 356, 360, 363–364 framework instrument, as 39, 133–134, 146 general obligations high seas management 194 implementation agreements 134, 145–150, 424 import bans 341 innocent passage regime 378 intra-generational focus 42–43 IUU fishing 295–296, 318 jurisdiction and control of vessels 4, 44–45, 351 labour conditions 158 landing requirements 343, 349 maritime zones 272, 278 Maximum Sustainable Yield 4, 42–43, 293 non-participating States non-self-governing territories 110–111 optimum utilization of stocks 4, 29 over-exploitation of stocks 4, 29 Palestinian accession 110 participatory decision-making 45 piracy 386, 387 pollution 193 precautionary principle 258 private actors 376–382 proposed International Legally-Binding Instrument (ILBI) 149–150, 163, 190, 216, 220, 238, 244, 245–246 RFMO/As 112–113 States Parties to (SPLOS) supplementation and periodic development 133–134, 135, 145–150 total allowable catch 4, 293 transboundary fish stocks 272 transit passage 377 vessel seaworthiness 158 zonal allocations of authority 39, 43–44 life cycle assessment (LCA) 229 MAC Convention 232 Mackerel Industry Northern Sustainability Alliance (MINSA) 70, 284 Malaysia 180 mammals, marine see also cetaceans bycatch mitigation 169, 172, 176, 183–186 conservation generally 191 Pelagos Sanctuary 194 management accuracy of management advice 19–21 area-based tools see area-based management tools bias of necessity 25, 33–34 bycatches see bycatch mitigation climate change, challenges posed by 17–23, 250, 257–268 Index 469 cognitional 51 community 190 compliance 51, 70–76, 271–275 cross-institutional coordination 54–55, 63, 70, 75–77, 96–102, 253 cross-regional interplay 67–68, 71–72, 76–77 dynamic 190, 213–214 EAs see environmental assessments ecosystem approach see ecosystem approach to fisheries effectiveness of management strategies 19–21 EIAs see environmental impact assessments environmental issues 30–31 exclusive economic zones (EEZs) 53 extreme events affecting 21 flag States 51, 52, 53, 71, 351–372 highly migratory fish stocks 5, 79 historical background 28–29 indigenous 190 inequality between fishing States 21–22 institutional complexes 54–55 inter-sectorial area-based 154–157 naming and shaming tactics 75–76, 77 non-fisheries bodies 57, 59–62, 73–74 obtaining adequate regulation 66–70 options for improving 51–77, 424–429 outsider problem 67 pelagic area 194, 199–202 precautionary approach 226–228, 229, 258 private initiatives 57, 60–61, 63, 65–66, 69–70, 74–76 privately managed areas 190 quotas 67, 70, 271 regional fisheries 80–83 regulatory 51, 66–70 RFBs see regional fishery bodies RFMO/As see regional fisheries management organizations or arrangements scientific advice 63–66 straddling fish stocks 53, 79, 272 timeliness, importance 86 transboundary fish stocks 17–19, 53 UN bodies 57, 58 value chains and profitability 55–57 marine mammals see mammals marine protected areas (MPAs) Antarctic 107, 266 area-based management tools 190–191, 193–194, 214, 286 high seas 286 OSPAR Commission 59, 155–156 vessel identification 286 marine spatial planning (MSP) 190, 206, 214–216 Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certification 61, 62, 65–66, 69–70, 282–284, 285, 324–325 MLC 159 market power see trade measures market transparency 300, 317 MARPOL 73/78 173 Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas 204 maximum sustainable yield (MSY) 4, 17, 20, 29, 42–43, 66–67, 258, 293 Mediterranean Barcelona Convention 157 GFCM see General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean Pelagos Sanctuary 194 Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance 157, 185 Mexico 335, 339–340, 346–348, 389 migratory species areas beyond national jurisdiction 191 climate change impact 255–256 CMS 152, 166, 172–173, 179, 182, 186 coastal States 353 compliance issues 272, 273, 289 conservation and management 5, 79, 152, 173, 179, 271, 272 distributional changes 18, 253–257, 286–289 Fish Stocks Agreement 6, 114, 146, 147, 255, 272 flag States 353–354 Rio Earth Summit 30 sharks 179 mining Areas of Particular Environmental Interest 204 deep-sea 225 Deep-Sea Mining Advisory Opinion 222, 231–232 Deep-Seabed Mining Agreement 48 environmental impact assessment 225, 233–234 ISA Mining Code 48 ISA powers 155, 203–204, 222 sectoral closures 190 470 Index money laundering 62, 393, 409, 410–411, 417, 418–419 monitoring fishing gear 378, 383, 394 generally 74–75, 210, 274, 278, 279, 280, 285, 286, 289, 364–365, 366–367 monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS) systems 394, 395 nuclear testing 384 pollution 384 ports 382, 383 private actors, by 374, 377–378, 382–384, 391–392 radar 382 ship-riders 388–389 transhipments 383 vessel monitoring systems 71, 74, 210, 286, 366–367, 382 vulnerable marine ecosystems 196 multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) bycatch mitigation 152–154, 157 strengthening international fisheries law 134, 150–157, 426 Namibia 304 negotiating international agreements 273–274 Netherlands 122, 385–386 Nordic Convention 234 North Atlantic climate change impact 18 redfish 68 North Atlantic Fisheries Intelligence Group 74 North-East Atlantic Commission for the Protection of the Marine Environment of (OSPAR Commission) 31, 59 distributional changes in fish stocks 18, 255, 287–289 herring 287–289 ICES 54–55, 58, 59, 63–65, 66, 261 mackerel 287–289 MINSA 70, 284 MSC certification 69–70 quotas 69–70, 255 rebuilding fish stocks North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC) climate change impact 261, 264, 267 compliance measures 282, 284 cooperation with NAFO 97–98, 253 cross-regional interplay 68, 70 decision-making process 89 deep-sea fisheries 195, 197–198 Denmark 111, 112, 126 dispute settlement 93, 94 distributional changes in fish stocks 255 generally 31, 64, 198, 205 IUU vessel lists 71, 72–73, 97–98 members/participation 115, 117, 119, 121, 126 non-members 72–73 OSPAR Commission and 59, 68–69, 100, 155–156, 207, 426 performance review 82–83 port measures against IUU fishing 303 sectoral closures 267 North Pacific climate change impact 18 distributional changes in fish stocks 18 drift-net fishing 138 North Pacific Fisheries Commission (NPFC) 81, 85, 109 deep-sea fisheries 195, 198 dispute settlement 95 membership 115, 117, 120, 121, 122–123, 128, 129 protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems 145 Vanuatu 122 North Sea 3, 20–21, 112, 384 Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organisation (NAFO) climate change impact 261, 264, 265, 266, 268 compliance measures 282, 284 cooperation with NEAFC 97–98, 253 cross-regional interplay 68, 70 deep-sea fisheries 195, 197–198 dispute settlement 93 ecosystem approach 148 generally 108, 175 IUU vessel lists 71, 97–98 membership 117, 119, 121, 125 sectoral closures 266–267 Norway 255, 379 Barents Sea Loophole 56–57, 67, 287–289 compliance measures 279, 285 Project Scale 414–415 Norwegian Sea 52 nuclear testing, monitoring 384 Index 471 nuclear waste 384 nursery grounds 192 Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS) 210–211 Oceana 407 offal, discharge 169 offshore infrastructure 223 oil and gas exploration 223–224, 225, 385–386 open registry States 352–353 Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) Castries Declaration 138 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 62, 73, 406, 424 Oslo Declaration 256 OSPAR-HELCOM Statement 185 outsider problem 67 overcapacity balloon problem 273 Fish Stocks Agreement 147 state subsidies and 321 overfishing/over-exploitation areas beyond national jurisdiction 191 delay in identifying 274 enforcing compliance 281–282 estimated global rate 272 Fish Stocks Agreement 147 generally 8, 191–192, 248, 272 import bans 338 LOS Convention 4, 29 oxygen levels, impact of climate change 15 Pacific Small Island Developing nations (SIDS) 303 pacta tertiis principle 9, 251, 312, 428 Palestine 110 Panama 304 Paris Agreement 16, 248 Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSAs) 154–155, 204 pelagic species area-based management tools 194, 199–202, 214–216 bycatch mitigation 200 drift-net fishing 8, 137–140, 142, 163, 173 increasing fishing for 19 Pelagos Sanctuary 194 Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) Arctic Sunrise case 377, 381, 385–387 South China Sea award 293–294, 369–370 Pew Charitable Trusts 382, 414 pH see acidification Philippines 21, 370, 417 pipelines 223 piracy 60, 62, 73–74, 374, 376, 377, 385–386, 387, 409 Polar Code 162 pollution chemical waste 384 ecosystem approach to fisheries exclusive economic zones 193 Fish Stocks Agreement 30, 147, 171 garbage from vessels 173 generally 8, 249 LOS Convention 193 MARPOL 173 monitoring 384 nuclear testing 384 nuclear waste 384 plastics 8, 173, 176 PSM Agreement 4, 71, 186, 296, 299, 300–301, 325–326, 338 flag States 356 ports compliance-oriented access restrictions 72 GATT freedom of transit provisions 332 IPOA-IUU 300 landing requirements or sanctions 284–286, 325, 327, 341–343, 348, 349, 394 measures against IUU fishing 303, 308 monitoring 382, 383 port State measures 4, 71, 186, 296, 299, 300–301, 321 Portugal 314 precautionary principle climate change impact and 258 environmental assessment 226–228, 229 Fish Stocks Agreement 4, 30, 31, 226–227, 229, 258 generally 37, 46–47, 258, 356 LOS Convention 258 RFMO/As 258, 263 predator-prey relationships primacy arrangements private actors intervening to ensure compliance authority and legitimacy 374–376 coastal States 377–378 constructive presence regime 378 contiguous zone 378 enforcement by 374, 379–381, 387–389 472 Index generally 373–374, 428 high seas 376–377 innocent passage regime 378 liability 381–382 litigation by 374, 389–391, 392 LOS Convention 376–382 monitoring and evidence-gathering 374, 377–378, 382–384, 391–392 port States 378 protest and direct action 374, 376–377, 378–379, 381–382, 385–387, 392, 394 territorial sea 378 private initiatives certification schemes 57, 60–61, 62, 65–66, 69–70, 282–284, 285, 324–325 labelling schemes 394 traceability schemes 394 private maritime security companies (PMSCs) 375 privateers 374–375 privately managed areas 190 profitability high seas management and 55–57 private initiatives 57 Project Scale 414–415 Protection and Indemnity (P&I) Clubs 396–400 quotas allocation 67, 70, 271 balloon problem 273 bycatch mitigation 169 coastal States 67, 70, 271 compliance and enforcement 280 distributional changes and 255 European Union 273 fishing without 295 North-East Atlantic 67 Ramsar Convention 31 regional economic integration organizations (REIOs) 104–105, 111 regional fishery bodies (RFBs) cooperation and coordination 83–84, 96–102 dispute settlement 93–96 FAO 105–106 functions 79–81, 105–106 gaps in coverage 81–82 generally 30–31 institutional status 83–86 performance reviews 82–83 proposed Integrated Regional Oceans Management Organizations 100 regional fisheries management organizations or arrangements (RFMO/As) accession procedures 119–121, 122–123 allocation of fishing rights 194, 263 benefits of membership 104 bilateral arrangements 96–97 biodiversity and conservation measures 30 bottom-fishing 81, 144–145, 194–198 bycatches and discards 152–154, 171, 172, 173, 174–176, 179–181, 182, 184, 186 Catch Documentation Schemes 344 climate change, implications of 250–268 closed membership 103–104 conservation and management measures 79, 90–91, 106, 134, 251, 295–297, 301–305 consensus decision-making 88–89 cooperating non-members 280, 281 cooperating status 104, 127–128 cooperation and coordination 83–84, 96–102, 425–426 decision-making procedures 86–92, 103–104 deep-sea fisheries 195–198 definitions 85, 105–106 dispute settlement 93–96 distributional changes in fish stocks 248–257, 268 ecosystem approach 258, 263, 426–427 EIAs see environmental impact assessments eligibility requirements and criteria 118–123 enforcement by 279–282, 364–366 establishment 81, 96 European Union 104–105, 111–112, 115, 118, 123–127, 128 Fish Stocks Agreement 147–148, 272, 279 fish stocks covered by, generally 105–106 flag States 121–122, 356, 357, 364–366 founding fathers 110, 119, 121 funding 280 gaps in coverage 5, 81–82, 254–255, 279 generally 423 global framework instruments 112–115 highly migratory species import bans 339 Index 473 initiating 110, 119 institutional status 83–86 inter-sectorial management 154–157 intergovernmental instruments and bodies and 109–115, 119 international fisheries law and 128–129 IPOA-IUU 299, 322 IUU fishing 104, 122, 295–297, 322 joint working groups 68 key features 84–86, 106 Kobe Process 68, 99 legal personality 84 limited competence 251 non-members 121–122, 127–128, 280, 281, 295–297, 322 non-self-governing territories 110–111 non-tuna 108–109 non-user States 104, 114–115, 122 opt-out from 90–91 original signatory States 110, 119, 121 overlapping areas of competence 96–97, 252–254 participation in 103–129 performance reviews 82–83 practices 115–128 precautionary approach 258, 263 regulation through 4–5, 6, 57, 58, 81 RFMO and RFMA distinguished 85–86 role generally 251, 272 rules 115–128 secretariats 84–85 stateless vessels, IUU by 322, 376 stock assessments 263, 268 structure 84–85 Taiwan 104, 105, 110, 115, 118, 123–127 timeliness, importance 86 trade-related measures 318 transboundary fish stocks 5, tuna 108, 115, 251, 260–261, 280 vessels licensed by 56 vulnerable marine ecosystems 144–145, 195–198 withdrawal from 90–91 WTO Dispute Settlement Understanding 337 Regional Fishery Body Secretariats’ network 98–99 Regional Seas Agreements 166 Regional Seas Organizations 155, 194 regulation international trade law see trade measures outsider problem 67 private initiatives 69–70, 74–76 quota cards 67, 70, 271 regulatory lenience problem 67, 70 RFMO/As see regional fisheries management organizations or arrangements research and data-gathering area-based management 192 CCAMLR Special Areas for Scientific Study 266 Code of Conduct 230 drones, vessel-launched 378 environmental assessment 228–230 Fish Stocks Agreement 229–230 flag States 357–358 innocent passage regime 378 vulnerable marine ecosystems 196 Reykjavik Declaration 168 right of visit 379–380 Rio+20 220 Rio Declaration 311 Rio Earth Summit 29–30, 39, 40–42, 45, 48–49, 71, 80, 81 Ross Sea region Marine Protected Area (RSRMPA) 266 rules of origin 323–324, 337 Russian Federation Arctic Sunrise case 377, 381, 385–387 North-East Atlantic herring stock 287–288 salmon distributional changes 18 Pacific Salmon Commission (PSC) 18 São Tomé and Príncipe 389 satellite remote sensing 200 vessel monitoring systems 71, 74, 210, 286, 366–367, 382 scientific advice funding 63 high seas management 63–66 ICES 63–65, 66, 261 private initiatives 63, 65–66 Sea Shepherd 375, 383–384, 387–389, 392, 415 seabed bottom-set fishing gear 192, 194–195, 239, 297, 322 exclusive economic zones 272 ITLOS Deep-Sea Mining Advisory Opinion 369 mining see mining 474 Index seabirds ACAP 153–154, 172, 173 bycatch mitigation 168, 172, 173, 176, 177–178, 186 conservation generally 191 FAO International Plan of Action 8, 166, 172, 177 Ramsar Convention 31 seals Bering Fur Seals case 3, 26, 28, 38 bycatch mitigation 185 seasons, fishing 192 sectoral closures generally 190, 200–202, 214–216, 239–240, 266–267 non-compliance 280 Senegal 389 sharks bycatch mitigation 169, 172, 176, 178–181, 186 conservation generally 191 FAO International Plan of Action 8, 166, 172, 179–180, 181 MOU on the Conservation of Migratory Sharks 179 sanctuaries 180–181 ship-riders 388–389 slavery 157, 160, 298, 383, 411–412 social impact assessment (SIA) 224 SOLAS 74 74–75, 161, 162 South-East Atlantic Fisheries Organisation (SEAFO) climate change impact 261, 267 cooperation with other organisations 97–98 deep-sea fisheries 195, 197–198 dispute settlement 94–95 generally 109, 153 IUU vessel lists 71, 97–98 membership 117, 120, 121, 126 port measures against IUU fishing 303 sectoral closures 267 South Pacific Tarawa Declaration 138 tuna management 58, 72 Wellington Convention 138 South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) 205–206 South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organization (SPRFMO) ACAP 153 bottom-fishing 144, 145, 240 climate change impact 261 deep-sea fisheries 195, 198 dispute settlement 95 generally 81, 91–92, 109, 111, 148, 174–175, 177–178, 227 members/participants 118, 120, 121, 122, 127 South-West Atlantic 81–82 Southern Indian Ocean Fisheries Agreement (SIOFA) 109, 154 deep-sea fisheries 195, 198 membership 117, 120, 121, 122, 126 Southern Ocean fisheries management 52 krill, MSC certification 65–66 Spain 314 Ley Orgánica del Poder Judicial 418–419 Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance (SPAMIs) 157, 185 state subsidies 8, 272, 321 WTO Agreement 321 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment 29 Stockholm Declaration 26 straddling fish stocks areas beyond national jurisdiction 191 climate change and 17–19, 255 coastal States 353 compliance issues 272, 273, 289 distributional changes 18–19, 286–289 exclusive economic zones 5, 6, 272 Fish Stocks Agreement 5, 6, 114, 146, 147, 255, 272 flag States 353–354 management generally 53, 79, 271–275, 353–354 Rio Earth Summit 30 strategic environmental assessment (SEA) 224, 225–226, 229, 234, 235, 238, 241–244 Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission (SRFC) 232–233 Subsidiary Body for Scientific, Technical, and Technological Advice (SBSTTA) 207 supply chain, Catch Documentation Schemes 327–328 Suppression of Unlawful Acts (SUA) Convention 382 sustainability see also ecosystem approach to fisheries bottom-fishing UNGA Resolutions 137, 140–145, 163, 190, 356, 357–358 Index 475 Brundtland Commission 48 bycatches see bycatch mitigation CDS see Catch Documentation Schemes climate change see climate change decline in sustainable fisheries 272 discards see discards environmental assessment 220 EU Non-Sustainable Fishing Regulation 307 Fish Stocks Agreement 147 flag State’s obligations 294, 295 generally international trade law see trade measures IUU fishing see illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing LOS Convention Maximum Sustainable Yield 4, 17, 20, 29, 42–43, 66–67, 258, 293 highly migratory fish stocks 289 proportion of fish stocks within sustainable levels 46, 272 Rio Earth Summit 80, 81 straddling fish stocks 289 total allowable catch 322 UN Sustainable Development Goals 173 UNGA Sustainable Fisheries Resolutions 136–137, 158, 227–228, 357–358, 405, 423, 426 unsustainable fishing, meaning 322–323 WTO environmental window 60 Taiwan Fish Stocks Agreement 105 RFMO/As 104, 105, 110, 115, 118, 123–127 UNGA driftnet fishing Resolutions 139 Tarawa Declaration 138 TBT Agreement 331, 334–336, 344, 345–347, 349 temperature, seawater 15, 20, 22–23 Thailand 180, 383 migrant workers 161 Thunder incident 383–384, 396, 400, 415, 418, 428 tickler chains 168–169 Togo 313 Torremolinos Convention 162 total allowable catch (TAC) allocation 67 IUU fishing 295 LOS Convention 4, 293 Maximum Sustainable Yield 4, 17, 20, 29, 42–43, 66–67, 258, 293 optimum utilization 4, 29 setting 19, 253, 273–274, 289, 354, 427 surplus, access to 4, 114 unsustainable fishing 322–323 total effort limits 322–323 Trade Documentation/Information Schemes (TDSs) 304–305 trade measures CDS see Catch Documentation Schemes certification schemes see certification schemes compliance-oriented 72, 76, 284–285, 306–317 effectiveness 315, 428 environmentally motivated 71 European Union 307–310, 311, 317, 318, 324, 325–326, 329–330 export restrictions 326, 327, 332, 341–343, 349 GATT see General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade import bans 325–326, 328, 337–341, 348–349 international trade agreements 59–60 international trade law 319–349 IPOA-IUU 319, 320 IUU fishing 284–285, 300, 303–318, 319–349 labelling requirements 325, 330, 345–349, 394 landing requirements 284–285, 325, 327, 341–343, 348, 349 market transparency 300 meaning of trade measure 320–321 multilateral action 319, 324, 325 percentage of catch traded internationally 320 port State measures 321 RFMO/As 318, 324 rules of origin 323–324, 337 state subsidies 272, 321 TBT Agreement 331, 334–336, 344, 345–347, 349 transhipment restrictions 325, 326–327, 341 unilateral action 306–317, 324, 325, 339–341, 349 United States 314, 324 unsustainable fishing 319–349 476 Index when fish is traded 323–324 WTO compatibility 59–60, 72–73, 311, 318, 331–349 trafficking in persons generally 157, 160–161, 409, 411–412 law enforcement 60, 62, 73–74 UN Trafficking Protocol 412 Trail Smelter case 40 transboundary fish stocks see also highly migratory species; straddling fish stocks climate change and stock management 17–19 distributional changes 18–19 exclusive economic zones 5, 6, 272 Fish Stocks Agreement 5, 6, 272 LOS Convention 272 management generally 17–19, 53 Rio Conference on Environment and Development 30 transhipment restrictions 325, 326–327, 341, 348 monitoring transhipments 383 transit passage 377 Trinidad and Tobago 313 Trump, Donald tuna CCSBT 108, 116, 120, 124, 153, 177–178, 252, 261, 262, 281–282, 328 climate change impact 252–253, 259, 260–261 compliance in tuna fishing sector 280, 281–282 distributional changes 252–253 dolphin bycatches 183–184 IATTC 87, 96–97, 108, 116, 120, 121, 125, 153, 166, 175, 177–178, 180, 184, 201, 260, 303–304 ICCAT 89, 108, 115, 117, 119, 125, 148, 153, 175, 177–178, 180, 201, 281, 303–304, 328, 365 increasing fishing for pelagic resources 19 ISSF 285 IOTC 6, 108, 111, 117, 118–119, 120, 121, 125, 153, 175, 177–178, 180, 181, 184, 201, 259, 303 IUU fishing 297, 303–304 Kobe Process 68, 99 La Jolla Agreement 183–184 management in South Pacific 58, 72, 81 migratory habit misreporting 297 register of vessels 68 RFMO/As 108, 115, 251, 260 sectoral closures 200–201, 214 US Dolphin Protection Consumer Information Act 330, 346–348, 349 WCPFC 95, 96–97, 118, 120, 121, 123, 127, 254, 259, 263–264, 267, 303 turtles bycatch mitigation 168–169, 172–173, 176, 181–183, 186 CMS 173, 182, 186 conservation generally 191 FAO Turtle Guidelines 8, 166, 172, 181 Inter-American Turtle Convention 166, 182 turtle excluder devices (TEDs) 169, 340 Tuvalu 313 United Kingdom Fogg v Secretary of State for Defence 380–381 Insurance Act 398 Marine Insurance Act 397, 400 Royal Boskalis Westminster v Trevor Rex Mountain 400–401 Sea Shepherd UK v Fish & Fish Ltd 387 United Nations BBNJ Resolution 220, 241 bottom-fishing Resolutions 6, 137, 140–145, 163, 190, 239–240, 356, 357–358 Charter, negotiation 110 Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) see Rio Earth Summit Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC) 409–413, 415, 420 Environment Programme (UNEP) 219 environmental impact assessment 219, 220 FAO see Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) fisheries management generally 57 flag States 356, 357–358 UNFCC 248 General Assembly (UNGA) Resolutions 4, 5, 6, 81, 82, 134, 135–145, 162–163, 173–174 international fisheries law 134, 135–145 international law and 27, 134 Index 477 legal status of Resolutions 135–136 LOS Convention see LOS Convention Oceans Resolutions 136, 158, 298–299 Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 60, 73–74, 414 pelagic drift-net fishing 137–140, 142, 163, 173 proposed International Legally-Binding Instrument (ILBI) 149–150, 163, 190, 216, 220, 238, 244, 245–246 Sustainable Development Goals 174 Sustainable Fisheries Resolutions 136–137, 158, 227–228, 356, 357–358, 405, 423, 426 Trafficking Protocol 412 UNICPOLOS 413–414 vulnerable marine ecosystems 137, 140–145, 163, 190, 194–198 World Charter for Nature 375 WHC 205, 208 United States Alien Tort Statute 387, 389–390 Bering Fur Seals case 3, 26, 28, 38 Dolphin Protection Consumer Information Act 330, 346–348, 349 environmental assessment 219 High Seas Driftnet Fisheries Enforcement Act 390 import bans 325, 334, 337, 338, 339, 340–341 isolationist stance IUU imports 393 Kiobel v Royal Dutch Petroleum Co. 389–390 Lacey Act 57, 417–418, 429 measures to combat IUU 314–315, 324, 325, 390 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 219, 225 rebuilding fish stocks RFMO/As 116, 128 Sarbanes-Oxley Act 416 Sea Shepherd case 387 Seafood Import Monitoring Program 314 ship-riders 388 Shrimp/Turtle case 334, 337, 338, 339, 340–341 Tuna/Dolphin cases 335, 339–340, 346–348, 349 United States v Bengis 418 Yates v United States 416–417 unregulated fishing see also illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing generally 272 meaning 293–297, 322 unreported fishing see also illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing meaning 293, 322 unsustainable fishing see also sustainability meaning 322–323 value chains high seas management 55–57, 73, 76 profitability and 55–57 Vanuatu 122, 184 vessels ancillary service providers 428 Automatic Identification System 74–75, 210, 286 bunkering 56–57, 400 Code of Safety for Fishermen and Fishing Vessels 162 compliance see compliance confiscation 395 de-registration and disbarring 358, 395 destroying IUU vessels 395 detention 71 discharge of garbage from 173 excess capacity 273 Fish Stocks Agreement 279 flag of non-compliance State 352–353 flag State see flag States flags of convenience 56, 75, 278, 279, 352–353 fleet communication 170 global number 272 Global Record of Fishing Vessels 8, 359–360, 371 high seas management 71 identification 71, 74–75, 210 IMO 134 IMO Ship Identification Numbers 359 increasing size and capacity 272–273 inspection 71, 355 insurance see insurance IUU vessel lists 71, 76, 97–98, 301, 302, 308, 315–316, 326, 365, 394, 402, 404–405, 407–408, 435 jurisdiction and control 51, 56, 76, 351–353 478 Index licensing 56, 364 LOS Convention 4, 51, 158 misreporting by 278 monitoring for compliance see monitoring open registry States 352–353 operating costs 271 outsider problem 67 ownership 274–275 Polar Code 162 re-flagging 360 records and logbooks 133, 230, 415 reefers 396 refrigerated transport vessels 8, 359 registration 76, 351, 352, 358, 361 safety and seaworthiness 134, 157–162 sectoral closures 190, 200–202, 214–216, 239–240 self-reporting compliance 278 state subsidies 272, 321 stateless 322, 358, 376 support and supply vessels 8, 357, 359, 396, 419 Torremolinos Convention 162 tuna vessels register 68 Unique Vessel Identifier 359–360 Work in Fishing Convention 160 Viarsa I arrest 415–416, 418 Vietnam 121 vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs) bottom-fishing in 140–145, 194–198, 239–240 database 196 FAO Guidelines 143, 195–196 Fish Stocks Agreement 148 generally 216 identification criteria 144, 195–196 monitoring 196 move on rule 197 research activities 196 RFMO/As 144–145, 195–198 sectoral closures 190, 200–202, 214–216, 239–240, 266–267, 280 significant adverse impact (SAI) on 142, 196–197 UNGA Resolutions 137, 140–145, 163, 190, 194 use of term 141 Weeramantry, J 231 Wellington Convention 138 Western Central Atlantic Fishery Commission (WECAFC) 6, 208 Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) 108, 111, 153, 174–175, 177–178, 180, 181–182, 184 climate change impact 259, 263–264, 267 dispute settlement 95 disputed area 121 IATTC and 96–97, 254 members/participants 118, 120, 121, 123, 127 pelagic closures 200–201 port measures against IUU fishing 303 wetlands, Ramsar Convention 31 whales see cetaceans windfarms 223 Work in Fishing Convention 159–161 World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) High Seas Task Force 315, 423–424 World Heritage Convention (WHC) 205, 208 World Trade Organisation (WTO) Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures 321 CDS, compatibility 343–345, 349 Chile – Measures affecting the Transit and Importation of Swordfish 340–341 compatibility of trade measures with 59–60, 72–73, 311, 318, 331–349 Dispute Settlement Understanding 320, 337, 339 environmental window 60 export restrictions, compatibility 326, 327, 332, 341–343, 349 GATT see General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade import bans, compatibility 337–341, 348–349 labelling requirements, compatibility 345–349 RFMO measures 337, 338 Seal Products 335, 343–344 Shrimp/Turtle 334, 337, 338, 339, 340–341 sustainable development 60 TBT Agreement 331, 334–336, 344, 345–347, 349 Tuna/Dolphin I cases 335, 339–340, 346–348, 349 US – Tuna II (Mexico) 335, 346–348 World Wildlife Fund 282 yellow card system 161, 309–310, 313, 317, 383 ... Leloudas and Bariş Soyer PART V OPTIONS AND PATHWAYS TO STRENGTHEN INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES LAW IN AN ERA OF? ?CHANGING OCEANS 18 Options and Pathways to Strengthen International Fisheries Law in an Era. .. outcome of an interdisciplinary project on the theme of strengthening international fisheries law in the context of changing fisheries and ocean conditions The project was led by the Netherlands Institute... variety of international law topics, including human rights, law of the sea and trade law, as well as EU law His main research interests are international environmental law, human rights and law of
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