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59 Fry, G. Higher Education in Vietnam. Education and Economic, Political, and Social Change in Vietnam.. international and regional cooperation and integration in th[r]
(1)INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIETNAM: NEW POLICIES NEEDED FOR NEW CONTEXT
Nguyễn Tnùy Ann, Dr.
U n iv e rs ity o f E c o n o m ic s a n d B u s in e s s - V N U H anoi, V ie tn a m
Abstract
Over the past decades, internationalization of higher education has accelerated in terms of both pace and magnitude, having impact on countries and institutions the world around Since its start of Doimoi policy in 1986, Vietnam has achieved remarkable development in higher education However, it is still faced with serious chronic and emerging problems Internationalization of higher education is therefore considered as one o f the necessary solutions for Vietnam and its institutions to enhance educational quality and thus catch up with regional and international standards The purpose of the paper is to investigate the policies for and current status of internationalization of higher education in Vietnam The paper will first analyze the legal and policy fram ework for Vietnam ’s internationalization of higher education Second, it will examine how this process is being implemented at the national level Finally, the paper will discuss issues and challenges that Vietnam has to face with during the process of higher education internationalization Data and information used to analyze in this paper were collected by the author from various sources such as the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), the UNESCO Institute for Statistics and the Institute for International Education (HE) The paper therefore provides an insightful and comprehensive understanding o f the current situation of higher education internationalization in Vietnam with a variety of facts and figures, highlighting its problems and challenges in this process and contributing to literature on this issue in Vietnam
1 INTRODUCTION
Over the last few decades, globalization has been drastically accelerated and become an irreversible and most influential process that permeates all aspects o f human life from economic, political to social and cultural fields and therein higher education is not an exception Together with globalization, internationalization is also a prominent process that is changing the scene of higher education34 According to scholars like Altbach, Teichler, internationalization of higher education is not a new phenomenon since universities have long been considered one of society’s most international institutions35 However, since the 1980s, under the impacts of globalization, there have been qualitative leaps36 in which the internationalization of higher education all over the world has been accelerated in terms of both pace and magnitude Universities globally have become more and more internationally active, promoting diverse internationalization activities, programs, policies and strategies ranging from traditional international activities, for examples, student and staff mobility, research collaboration,
34 Knight, J (2004) Internationalization Remodeled: Definition, Approaches, and Rationales Journal o f Studies in
In te rn a tio n a l Education, 8(1).
35 Altbach, P G.( & Teichler, u (2001) Internationalization and Exchanges in a Globalized University Journal o f Studies in International Education, 5(1).
(2)language study o r developm ent projects Higher education institutions can also carry out various more recent contents of internationalization, especially those related to cross-border education such as international double/joint degree programs, branch campus or the adoption of foreign curriculum The calls fo r internationalization have influenced not only the content of education and research but also the way university m anagement is organized Teichler argues that “international” is no longer essential for only a few, select sectors of higher education Instead, all higher education institutions have to be international, national and possibly local as defined by the terms “glocal” or "glonacal”37 Moreover, international activities in higher education institutions are not viewed anymore as ad hoc, fragmented or marginal ones but rather, as those that need to be systematized, embedded and taken up in all arenas of decision making and administration Similarly, international education is no longer confined to internationalization specialists but touches all areas of study and research to a certain extent
Although internationalization o f higher education has been intensified for the last three decades and has been subject to much discussion, there is still a lack of consensus about the meaning o f this concept, especially the distinction between internationalization and globalization is still an ongoing topic In many cases these two concepts are used interchangeably 38 39 40, whereas other scholars assert that these are two different processes having relations with each other Some researchers consider internationalization as a response to globalization 41 42; while others believe that this process has been going on quite independently with globalization and that these two processes have a dialectical relationship4344 For some analysts, internationalization of higher education is perceived as a steerable policy process in which national states are not questioned, whereas globalization is external to higher education and can hardly be influenced 45 46 o th e r researchers argue that the differentiation between these two processes “does not correspond to a national/global distinction”47 and that globalization should not be simply seen as a
37 Ibid
38 Altbach, P G., Reisberg, L, & Rumbley, L (2009) Trends in g lo b a l h ig h e r education: Tracking an academic
revolution Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College Center for International Higher Education.
39 Ebuchi, K (1996) Curriculum developm ent f o r in te rn a tio n a liza tio n fr o m a com parative perspective: In special
reference to the OECD/CERI p ro je c t on "h ig h e r education in a n e w in te rn a tio n s e ttin g " Paper presented at the
Fukuoka Seminar on Internationalization of Higher education
40 Scott, P (2000) Globalisation and Higher Education: Challenges for the 21st Century Journal o f Studies in
In te rn a tio n a l Education, 4(3), 7.
41 Knight, J (2008) H igher Education in T urm oil: the Changing W orld o f In te rn a tio n a liza tio n Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
42 Yang, R (2005) Internationalizing Chinese Higher Education: A Case study of a M ajor Comprehensive University In P Ninnes & M Hellstén (Eds.), In te rn a tion a lizin g Higher education: C ritical E xploration o f Pedagogy and Policy (pp 97-118) Netherlands: Springer Press.
43 Anneke, L (2002) Europeanisation, internationalisation and globalisation in higher education (Publication Retrieved May 25, 2009: http://docs.glotta.ntua.er/lnternational/W TO/susulub.pdf
44 Teichler, u (2009) Internationalisation of higher education: European experiences Asia Pacific Education
Review, 10(1), 13.
45 Luijten-Lub, A., Van der W ende, & Huisman, J (2005) On Cooperation and Competition: A Comparative Analysis of National Policies fo r Internationalisation of Higher Education in Seven Western European Countries Journal o f
Studies in In te rn a tio n a l Education, 9(2), 16.
45 Van der Wende (2001) The international dimension in national higher education policies: W hat has changed in Europe over the last five years? European Journal o f Education, 36(4).
(3)higher form of internationalization48 Scholars like Marginson49, Teichler50 and Knight51 refer to internationalization as the increase of relations and cross-border activities between and among nations, while globalization means the worldwide scope and level and the blurring or even disappearance of national borders52 It can be stated that there have been a variety of definitions fo r internationalization of higher education In this context, the paper uses the definition proposed by Knight53 which is a neutral one and has been w idely accepted in the domain of international education54 "Internationalization at the national/sector/institutional levels is the process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery o f higher education at the institutional and national levels”55
Internationalization of higher education can take place through a variety o f activities, programs, policies and strategies carried out by countries and higher education institutions, which can be categorized into two main groups according to Jane Knight (2004) The first set o f internationalization elements consists of those related to academic/program content which include academ ic programs, research and scholarly collaboration, external relations domestically and cross-border and extracurricular The second group pertained to organizational strategies composes o f governance, operations, services and human resource There are various rationales and reasons as to why a country or a higher education institution wants to promote internationalization As Knight and de W it cluster it, there are four groups of possible rationales for internationalization including political, economic, academic and social/culture56 The political rationale relates to issues concerning a country’s position and role as a nation in the world, or a university’s desire to strengthen strategic alliances with other institutions and association The economic rationale refers to either long-term economic effect where internationalization of higher education is considered to contribute to building up human resources and competitiveness of an economy, or the revenues generated from cross-border education or the recruitment of international students The academic rationale for internationalization is related to the aims and functions of higher education itself where nations and institutions, by integrating international dimensions into their activities, programs, policies and strategies, try to upgrade the quality of education, research and services in order to achieve international standards or to be recognized internationally The cultural/social rationale concerns with issues such as the maintenance and spreading of one country’s own culture and language or on the
48 Scott, P (2000) Globalisation and Higher Education: Challenges for the 21st Century Journal o f Studies in
In te rn a tio n a l Education, 4(3), 7.
49 Marginson, s (2006) Notes on glo b aliza tio n a n d hig h er education w ith some reference to the case o f A ustralia Paper presented at the Internationalizing Canada' s Universities-Practices, Challenges and Opportunities: A symposium from http://www.vorku.ca/vorkint/global/conference/canada/papers/Sim on-Marginson.pdf
50 Teichler, u (2009) Internationalisation of higher education: European experiences Asia Pacific Education
Review, 10(1), 13.
51 Knight, J (2008) H igher Education in Turm oil: th e Changing W orld o f In te rn a tio n a liza tio n Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
52 Teichler, u (2009) Internationalisation of higher education: European experiences A sia Pacific Education
Review, 20(1), 13.
53 Knight, J (2004) Internationalization Remodeled: Definition, Approaches, and Rationales Journal o f Studies in International Education, 8(1).
54 Beerkens (2004) G lobal o p p o rtu n itie s and in s titu tio n a l embeddedness: H igher education consortia in Europe and
Southeast Asia CHEPS, Enschede.
55 Knight, J (2004) Internationalization Remodeled: Definition, Approaches, and Rationales Journal o f Studies in
In te rn a tio n a l Education, 8{1).
(4)importance o f understanding those o f other countries57 One notable point here is that prioritized contents of and rationales for internationalization of higher education can differ from countries to countries, from institutions to institutions and from time to time
Since the adoption of the “Doi Moi” policy in 1986, Vietnam, a developing country, has undertaken a dual process of transitioning from a centrally planned economy to a socialist-oriented market economy and integration into a rapidly changing world Along with the open door policy and market-oriented reforms, Vietnam in recent years, especially from 1991, with the introduction o f the policy fo r multi-lateralization and diversification of international relations, has accelerated international integration in many fields Vietnam is now strongly promoting socio-economic development with an aim to become an industrialized and modernized country by the year 2020 and education is identified as a crucial means to achieve the set goals for national development In 2001, with the issuance of the “Socio-economic strategic Development Plan 2001-2010” the Communist Party of Vietnam identified that “in order to meet the demand for human resources which is a decisive factor in the country's development plan in the period of industrialization and modernization, it is necessary to create radical and overall changes in education and training"58 In response to changes in the socioeconomic policies, since 1987 Vietnam has implemented some important reform policies to renovate of the old higher education system which was heavily influenced by the Soviet education59 One o f the most fundamental renovations was the move away from a fragmented higher education structure consisting of narrowly specialized institutions and insufficient research embedded universities, to one with broader and diversified academ ic fields and institutional types 60 61 In the past two decades, Vietnam ’s higher education has gained rem arkable progress in terms of magnitude, quality and efficiency o f its system, narrowing the gap between itself and neighboring countries However, like many other systems in the region, the system o f higher education in Vietnam is still struggling with a range of chronic and emerging problems It is now left with a challenging question of how to preserve and enhance core functions o f the universities which are teaching, research and service, in the face of limited resources as well as the escalating and conflicting demands of the society for higher education In this context, internationalization is considered an im portant approach to secure the development arid progress o f V ietnam ’s higher education sector at both national and institutional levels, while striving to achieve international standards and greater regional cooperation
3 LEGAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR VIETNAM’S INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION
Internationalization, as a strategy for the development of higher education, has been used in several policy documents at both national and institutional levels as well as in a number of academic papers However, there has not been a general understanding of this concept within the context of Vietnam Generally, the internationalization of higher education in Vietnam is interpreted as an enhancement of
57 Qiang, z (2003) Internationalization of higher education: towards a conceptual framework Policy fu tu re s in
education, 1(2).
58 Communist Party of Vietnam (2001) Socio-economic S trategic D evelopm ent Plan 2001-2010 Retrieved, from http://www.unaids.org.vn/sitee/images/stories/documents for resources/socia economic dev v.pdf.
59 Fry, G w (2009) Higher Education in Vietnam In Y Hirosato & Y Kitamura (Eds.), The P olitical Economy o f
Educational Reforms and Capacity D evelopm ent in Southeast Asia, Netherlands: Springer Netherlands.
60 Huong, N T L (2008) V ietnam H igher Education - Reform f o r the N a tio n 's D evelopm ent Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Sub-regional Preparatory Conference for the 2009 World Conference on Higher Education: "Facing Global and Local Challenges: the New Dynamics for Higher Education".
61 Pham, L H., & Fry, G w (2004) Education and Economic, Political, and Social Change in Vietnam Educational
(5)international and regional cooperation and integration in the field of higher education In some policy documents, internationalization is narrowly understood and referred to as the integration o f international dimensions into the curricula at higher educational institutions62 This process is also seen merely as "the establishment of foreign education programs run either entirely by foreign universities or through cooperation between a foreign and Vietnamese institution”63 Some contents o f internationalization such as international standards, international cooperation, international ranking and recognition, student mobility, international curricula have been broadly carried out and considered indispensable to the development of higher education in Vietnam Among the most important legal and policy frameworks for the country’s tertiary education improvement in general and its internationalization in particular are the Strategy fo r Educational Development 2001-2010, the Education Law 2005 and the Vietnam Higher Education Renovation Agenda 2006-2020
In order to meet up with the specific goals in educational and national development, the strategy for Educational Development 2001-2010 approved by the Prime Minister by Decision No 201/2001/QD-TTg on December 28, 2001 emphasizes the encouragement, expansion and acceleration of collaborative relations in training and research with prestigious institutions in the world, with the purpose o f exchanging good practices and experiences suitable for the conditions o f Vietnam and improving educational development resources for the country To this end, the strategy has proposed a package o f measures to promote international cooperation in education at all levels, especially in higher education
Another important legal framework for the internationalization of higher education in Vietnam is the Education Law 2005 which was approved by the National Assembly in June of 2005 Article 107, 108, 109, and 110 o f the Law provide the legislative basis for various international dimensions of higher education including international cooperation in education, encouragement o f cooperation in education with other countries, encouragement of cooperation in education with Vietnam, recognition of foreign degrees/diplomas
The third corner-stone policy fram ework worth mentioning here is the Vietnam Higher Education Renovation Agenda Period 2006-2010 (HERA) promulgated by the Vietnamese Government along with Resolution No, 14/2005/NQ-CP adopted on November 2, 2005 The agenda puts up an objective to make by 2020 “fundamental changes in quality and scale, responding to the human resource requirements for the cause of socio-economic development and national intellectual improvement, accessing to the advanced levels in the region and the world, upgrading several universities to international level, making contributions to improving the com petitiveness o f human resources and the country’s economy”64 The docum ent proposes some solutions in order to contribute to the im provement in competitiveness of higher education system in international integration process as follows:
a) Developing an international integration strategy for the national higher education system within the context o f the Vietnamese-American Bilateral Trade Agreem ent (BTA), the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and the General Agreem ent on Trade in Services (GATS);
b) Launching a strategy on teaching and learning in foreign languages, especially in English; using advanced foreign training programs, curricula and materials, which are suitable fo r Vietnam's
62 MOET (2008) 2009-2020 Vietnam Educational Development strategy, 14th Edition Draft.
63 Ngo, D D (2007) H igher education developm ent in V ietnam b y 2010: Goals, s tra te g ic measures, im p le m e n ta tio n
a n d challenges Paper presented at the 2007 Vietnam Update.
(6)development needs, especially in the areas of natural sciences, engineering, technology and economic management;
c) Improving the quality o f research and training programs with specific national features in order to attract foreign researchers and students, while maintaining national identity and traditional values; d) Exchanging lecturers and students, implementing joint training and research programs and continuing to send teaching staff and students overseas to study in key areas by using state funding; e) Ratifying the "Regional Convention on the Recognition of Studies, Diplomas and Degrees in Higher education in Asia and the Pacific", and signing similar bilateral treaties and establishing organizations for the promotion of related activities;
f) Establishing clear principles and simple procedures to facilitate foreign countries or qualified foreign universities to provide 100 percent capital investment or open branch campus; Exercising quality control in training services (including on-line programs) provided by foreign training institutions; participating in regional and international quality accreditation organizations;
g) Developing on-site (in-country or regional) overseas training centers with the participation of highly qualified international experts, or providing "sandwich" training programs in order to minimize the brain leakage;
h) Attracting highly qualified experts from foreign countries to provide training and research support, while formulating systematic policies to attract overseas Vietnamese and Vietnam ese citizens trained abroad to come back and make contributions to nation-building;
i) Participating in the international human resource training market, and aiming at exporting skilled labor.65
Table shows the cornerstone events which have direct or indirect impacts on the internationalization of higher education in Vietnam These events will be discussed in detail in the following sections of the paper
3 THE PROCESS OF HIGHER EDUCATION INTERNATIONALIZATION IN VIETNAM 3.1 Staff and student mobility
3.1.1 S tu d y a b ro a d
Since the implementation of the Open door policy in 1986, especially from 1991 when the Vietnam Communist Party Central Committee decided the policy of multi-lateralization and diversification of international relations, there has been a significant growth in the number of outbound mobile Vietnamese students Between 1990 and 2005, this number increased by 22.4 tim es from 1,139 to 25,505 6B UNESCO statistic data show a sim ilar picture of the flow which sharply increased from 7,853 in 1998 to 47,938 by 2011 as shown in Figure
65 Ibid
(7)Table Im portant events, strategies and policies having im pacts on the internationalization o f higher education in Vietnam
Year 1992
1999
2000
2001
2004 2005
_2.CLQZ_
2008
Events
Board of Minister’s Instruction on Sending Vietnamese citizens abroad for training in the new circumstance
MOET's Regulation on foreigners studying in Vietnam
Government's Decree on foreign investment in education, health care, and scientific research Establishment of RMIT-first 100% foreign investment university in Vietnam
MOET's Project 322: Vietnamese Government Scholarship Government’s strategy for Education Development 2001-2010
Government's Decree on stipulating the Setting Up and Operation of Vietnam-Based Foreign Cultural and/or Educational Establishments
Government's Official document “About the continuation of university and college network improvement" Education Law 2005
MOET's “Vietnam Higher Education Renovation Agenda, 2006-2020"
MOET's Circular on Guidelines on investment cooperation with foreign partners in the fields of healthcare, education and training, and research
2006 MOET's "Advanced programs" Pilot project
Prime Minister’s Decision on policy and main guidelines to construct international standard universities of Vietnam
Vietnam becoming the 150th WTO member _ Establishment of the Vietnamese-German University
MOET's proposal 20,000 PhDs Plan
Government's Decision on “Advanced programs”
MOET’s drafted strategy for Education Development 2009-2020 2009 Vietnam made commitment to GATS in education sector
Establishment of the University of Science and Technology of Hanoi (USTH) in partnership with France 2011 Human Resource Development Plan for the Educational Sector 2011-2020
2012 Discontinuity of Project 322
(8)Figure 1: Number of Vietnamese students studying abroad at tertiary level
60000 50000 40000 30000
2000D 10000
u
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 E Number of students 7853 8164 9140 9835 12183 14871 17015 20781 23310 28005 36519 43871 47979 47938
Note: Compiled b y author based on data from UNESCO Institute fo r Statistics Online database http://stats uis unesco org/unesco/Table Viewer/table View.asDX?Reportld=3968
There are now figures showing that the number of Vietnamese students studying overseas has been as high as 60,000 o f which the largest proportion is privately-funded students67 According to the 2011 “Open doors” report issued by the ÍIE, Vietnam ranks 8lh among the 20 leading countries of origin in the USA with 14,888 students now studying at various us higher educational institutions As o f March 2012, Australia has been hosting 15,727 Vietnam ese students With this number, Vietnam is the fifth among the top sending countries to Australia Meanwhile, statistics from UNESCO show that France, Japan and Russia are among the five most favorite countries for overseas study of Vietnam ese students Some Asian countries such as Japan, China, South Korea and Thailand have also become popular destinations for students from Vietnam during the recent years For example, in 2011, Vietnam ranked fourth among the major sending countries of international students to Japan with 4,033 enrolments, lower than only China, South Korea and Taiwan Vietnamese students were among the top four largest bodies of foreign students in South Korea in 2010 with a number o f 1,818
The rapid growth in the num ber of Vietnamese students seeking overseas study and the variety in destinations can be due to the following reasons:
Firstly, unlike the period prior to 1990 when Vietnam only had educational cooperation with socialist countries, in the past 18 years, MOET has expanded its relations with a wide range o f nations, international organizations and institutions all over the world Many o f these countries and organizations provide scholarships to Vietnam ese students to study in their countries or overseas Among the countries which offer the greatest number of scholarships annually for Vietnamese students are Australia, Russia, Japan, China and India, followed by other countries, such as the Netherlands, France, Germany, USA, the UK, Korea, Singapore and Thailand, to name but a few68
67 Vietbao (2008) Retrieved from http://vietbao.vn/Giao-duc/60000-du-hoc-sinh-nguon-nhan-luc-tuone- la i/6 /2 /
(9)Figure 2: Number of Vietnamese students in some major destinations for overseas study
5
XI
E z
18000 16000 14000
12000 10000 8000 6000 4000
2000
0 Number of students
France
(2011)
Japan
(2011)
4033
Russian F e d (2009)
3518
Korea
(2010)
1817
Thailand (2009)
1141
Note: Complied by author based on data from various sources69
Secondly, cognizant of the country’s urgent need fo r qualified human resources, in 1992 the Board of Ministers issued the “ Instruction No 270/CT on sending Vietnamese citizens abroad to study in the new circumstance" This important docum ent which emphasizes the necessity to diversify the countries of destination, types of training and financial resources to send students abroad, is a cornerstone for other later policies relating to student mobility Accordingly, privately funded students who w ant to study abroad would be considered and allowed by MOET Under this green-light, together with the increase in family incomes, more and more Vietnam ese students have pursued studies abroad outside the official financial help ever since
Thirdly, in 2000, the MOET’s project “Training Scientific and Technical Cadres in Institutions Overseas with the State Budget” known as “Project 322" started to train and cultivate leading science and technology staff in key sectors This is the first time that the Vietnamese governm ent uses its own budget to send its staff overseas for training In order to provide Vietnamese universities and colleges with qualified-leeturersrin-late^OOSrMOET-pFomulgated-a-plan-tQ-tPain-BOyOOO-RhDs-by^^-Ohalf-of-whom-will- pursue their study abroad This target is once again reaffirmed in the Human Resource Development Plan fo r the Educational Sector 2011-2020 Project 322 is one of the policies to achieve this goal Up to October 2008, 3,106 students and cadres had been sent abroad to study with state funds, of which 2,366 were postgraduate students and 740 are undergraduate ones 70 According to Decision No.356/QD-TTg issued by the Prime M inister in 2005, the second phase of Project 322 has been extended until 2014 with VND 260 billion spent each year to dispatch students abroad However, recently in May 2012, this project
Data for Australia retrieved from https://www.aei.gov.au/research/lnternational-Student- Data/Pages/defauIt.aspx: Data fo r USA retrieved from http://www.iie.org/Research-and-Publlcations/Qpen- Doors/Data/lnternational-Students/Leading-Places-of-Oriein/2009-11: Data for China, France, Japan retrieved from http://www.iie.org/Research-and-Publications/Proiect-Atlas.aspx; Data for Russian Federation (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2011); Data for South Korea (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, 2010); Data for Thailand (Office of the Higher Education Commission, 2009)
(10)has been discontinued due to different reasons and applicants for Vietnamese government scholarships are encouraged to seek for alternative sources of financial support for their abroad study71.
The Government and many Vietnam ese institutions are now introducing policies to attract graduates from foreign countries back to Vietnam to contribute to the country, especially those who are privately-funded or sponsored by foreign governments and organizations Hitherto, there have not been official records on the number of students returning home after finishing their study abroad However, there are estimations that there is a large proportion of students remain in the host countries after graduation
3 F o re ig n s tu d e n ts in V ie tn a m
In the past ten years, Vietnam has welcomed an increasing number of foreign students to its higher education sector Between 1998 and 2001, there were 568 students from 12 countries under different agreement schemes and more than 2,000 students from 18 other countries studying in Vietnam through various other streams72 According to UNESCO online statistic data, the number of inbound mobile students in Vietnam in 2008 was 3,362, of which 3,333 came from Asian countries, making up more than 99 percent of the total international student bodies, see Figure
Figure 3: International students at tertiary level in Vietnam by countries of origin
Í/1 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 c
01 Tl 3
c/> K jg f c M—
o
M l H a a g i y p i i s s
-Q ig P H l smalw ívcsĩể 1 1 ft*tv fiijd H
ir 3
z 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2007 2008
a o th er 32 50 54 109 43 113 126 236
a Laos 233 358 370 455 700 1448 2251 2435
a China 53 26 46 2 102 445 303
as Cambodia 191 214 211 326 303 ■ 390 408 388
Note: Compiled by author based on data from UNESCO Institute for Statistics Online database http://stats.uis.unesco.orq/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx In 1999, MOET issued the “ Regulation on Management of Foreigners studying in Vietnam" in which it required international students to have an appropriate level of Vietnamese language in order to pursue study in Vietnam Partly due to this requirement, the study-field options for foreign students are mostly constrained to Vietnamese language and Vietnamese studies73 Recently the 14th version draft
“2009-71 Vietnam International Education Development (2012) Retrieved from
http://vied.vn/vn/content/thonebao/thongbaochung/thone-bao-bo-sune-danh-cho-ung-vien-da-trung-tuven-hoc- bong-nsnn-chua-di-hoc-o-nuoc-ngoai 26663.aspx
(11)2020 Vietnam Educational Development strategy" has set up an objective number of 15,000 foreign students by 2020 In order to reach this target, MOET and Vietnamese higher educational institutions have made strong efforts to increase the attractiveness of the system generally and each individual institution particularly The international joint training programs and the advanced curricula project to be discussed in detail in the following sections are among the main ways to realize this plan These programs are supposed to significantly boost the academic quality, broaden the options for language of instruction and diversify the fields of study for international students
3.2 International training programs and institutions
Since the year 2000, there has been tremendous development in the establishm ent of international training programs in Vietnam which are run either entirely by foreign universities or through some forms of joint ventures Two important policies creating platform for this process are the Governmental Decree No 06/2000/NĐ-CP dated March 6, 2000 “ Decree on Foreign Co-operation and Investment in Fields of Medical Examination and Treatment, Education and Training and Scientific Research" and especially, the Governmental Decree No 18/2001/ND-CP dated May 4, 2001 “Stipulating the setting up and operation of Vietnam-based foreign cultural and/or educational establishments” These two policy frameworks have significantly provided incentives fo r foreign cooperation and investment in the education sector in general and higher education sector in particular In 2005, MOET issued Circular No 14/2005/TTLT-BGD&ĐT- BKH&ĐT, which required foreign organizations wishing to operate in Vietnam to submit an establishment license from their home country to the Ministry o f Foreign Affairs and MOET This was done to protect domestic learners and assure the quality of educational services of these programs
A cornerstone event which has had important impact on the development of international training programs and institutions in Vietnam is Vietnam entering the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2007 and later in 2009 signing commitment to the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) in which educational sector and higher educational subsector are included Accordingly, since January 1, 2009, training institutions with 100% foreign investment are allowed to establish in Vietnam In the higher education sector, Vietnam has committed to open the private sector in such sectors as technical, natural science and technology, business management and business science, economics, accounting, international laws and linguistic t r a in in g _ Thanks to the opening up the educational market, the last years have witnessed a rapid growth in international collaborated programs which are operated jointly by a Vietnamese institution and a foreign partner(s) According to MOET’s statistical data, by March 2012, there have been 178 programs of this kind in Vietnam the majority o f which have partners from Western countries such as France, Australia, the UK and the u s 74 (see Figure 5) This figure has not included, the number o f international joint degree programs being operated by the two national universities in Hanoi As of Septem ber 2010, there had been 81 international collaborated programs in Vietnam National University, Hanoi75, This number was 37 in Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City in 200776 Therefore, if the two national universities are counted, the number of programs of this kind would be much higher in Vietnam It is noted that since 2007 when Vietnam joint WTO, the number of these programs have drastically and steadily increased from in 2006 to 22 in 2007 and 46 in 2011 (see Figure 4) This partly shows MOET’s policy in encouraging Vietnamese universities to further develop these joint programs as a way to enhance the educational quality and achieve regional and international standards
(12)Figure 4: Number of joint programs ratified by MOET as of March 2012
Note: Compiled by author based on data from MOET, 2012, List o f collaborated training programs ratified by M O E T as o f March 2012.
Figure 5: Number of joint programs r a t i f i e d by MOET as of March 2012
35 30 25 20 .15 10 5
0 -Bl- -EB-.E31
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ró • cT3 cc “O c _ro u <D ■p u "O c _ra ro a5 M sz Ị—
Note: Compiled by author based on data from MOET, 2012, List o f collaborated training programs ratified by M O E T as o f March 2012.
However, the quality o f these joint programs greatly varies depending on the host institution and its partner(s) Some training programs have been set up in collaboration with prestigious partner institutions while there is a variety of other programs in which both providers and students not put quality as the highest priority but care more about income generation and getting the degrees
(13)academically advanced countries such as Germany, France, Japan and the United States77 The Vietnamese-German University (VGU) opened in September 2008 following the German model and standards is the first to be realized by the Vietnamese government In 2009, the creation of the University o f Science and Technology o f Hanoi (USTH), the second university o f this kind, was formalized through an intergovernmental agreement between the Vietnamese and French governments
It can be said that during the past ten years, Vietnamese students have been able to enjoy a more diversified higher education system with various types of educational services, programs and institutions which have better served the escalating demands for higher education o f the society
3.3 Internationalization of curricula
Curriculum development is an important ingredient in improving the overall quality of higher education Cognizant of this, in 2004, the Vietnam ese government issued Official docum ent N0.1269/CP-KG “About the continuation o f university and college network improvement", which assigned MOET to instruct higher education institutions to carry out advanced curricula and programs Advanced curricula refer to those which are “properly designed and established by universities on the basis o f the curricula currently used at prestigious universities in the world, including the content, teaching method, organization and training management process and are instructed in English”78
In academic year 2006/2007, MOET allowed universities to start 10 advanced programs as pilot attempts After two years, in 2008 MOET decided to realize these programs in a larger number of Vietnamese universities and officially proposed the Project: “Training by advanced programs at some Vietnamese universities in period 2008-2015” which was then approved by Prime Minister in Decision No 1505/QD-TTg dated October 15, 2008 The overall target of this project is to “put into operation some advanced programs at higher education level in order to establish and develop a number of fields, faculties and universities which reach the regional standards and international ranking; contribute to the enhancement of educational quality and the fundamental and com prehensive renovation of Vietnam’s higher education; endeavor to have some Vietnamese universities being ranked in the top 200 of the world universities by 20201’79 By November 2008, there have been 17 universities nationwide offering 23 advanced programs80 See Table fo r details
In this on-going project, the advanced curricula are entirely “imported" from prestigious universities which are listed among the top 200 universities in the world However, these curricula must be suitable with Vietnam ’s socio-economic development orientation Apart from the Marxist-Leninist science courses in Vietnamese compulsory for Vietnam ese students, all other courses are delivered in English by invited professors from partner universities and/or by Vietnamese lecturers MOET has proposed that by 2020 advanced programs will be implemented in at least 30 percent of the Vietnam ese universities81 By means of these programs which are instructed in English and considered to have high quality, MOET expects to attract 3,000 international students and at least 700 international scholars to Vietnam by 201582
77 MOET (2008) 2009-2020 Vietnam Educational Development strategy, 14th Edition Draft.
78 MOET (2008) "P roject f o r Training b y Advanced Curricula in Some Vietnamese U niversities: Period 2008-2015"
issued to g e th e r w ith Decision No, 1505/QD-TTg o fO c to b o r 15, 2008 o f the Prime M inister.
79 Ibid 80 Ibid
81 MOET (2008) 2009-2020 Vietnam Educational Development strategy, 14th Edition Draft.
82 MOET (2008) "P roject f o r Training b y Advanced Curricula in Some Vietnamese Universities: Period 2008-2015"
(14)Table Advanced programs being implemented in Vietnam ese Universities Partner University
No Vietnamese University Program/Starting year 1 University of Architecture of
HCM City 2 Hanoi University of
Technology*
3 University of Transport and Communications
4 Water Resources University 5 Thai Nguyen University of
Tecnology
6 Nong Lam University 7 Hanoi Architectural University 8 Can Tho University*
9 National Economics University*
10 Foreign Trade University 11 Hanoi University of
Agriculture*
12 Da Nang University*
13 Hue University* 14 Hanoi University of
Technology*
15 Ho Chi Minh University of Science*
16 Ho Chi Minh University of Technology*
17 University of Information Technology
Urban Design/2008
Biomedical Engineering/2008 Mechatronics Engineering/2006 Materials Science and Engineering/2006
Civil and structural Engineering/2008
Water Resources Engineering/2008
Mechanical Engineering/2008
Food Science and Technology/2008 Architecture/2008
Aquatic Culture/2008 Biology Technology/2006 Finance/2006
International Economics/2008 Agricultural Business Administration/2008 Crops Science/2006
Embedded computing System/2008 Electronics Engineering/2006 Physics/2006
Mathematics/2008 Chemistry/2006
Computer Science/2006
Electrical and Computer Engineering/2006 Information System/2008
Oxford Brookes University (UK)
Duke University (USA)
California State University-Chico (USA) University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign (USA)
University of Leeds (UK)
Colorado state University (USA) State University of New York at Buffalo (USA)
University of California - Davis (USA) University of Nottingham (UK)
Auburn University, Alabama state (USA) Michigan state University (USA) California state University - Long Beach (USA)
Colorado state University (USA) University of Wisconsin -Madison (USA)
University of California - Davis (USA) University of Washington (USA) University of Washington (USA) University of Virginia (USA)
University of Washington , Seattle (USA) University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign (USA)
Portland state University (USA)
University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign (USA)
Oklahoma state University (USA)
(15)However, during the first two years o f piloting, universities had encountered a number of problems in implementing these programs as identified by MOET in its project proposal These difficulties include the insufficient English ability of the Vietnamese teaching staff and their students as well as the lack of both domestic and foreign faculty83 Besides the problems identified by MOET, questions have been raised about the appropriateness and attractiveness of these programs in comparison with joint or double degree ones which are operated by a Vietnamese institution and a foreign partner Graduating from these joint programs, students are guaranteed to receive degrees from the foreign universities which are internationally recognized Meanwhile most of the current advanced programs now can just offer Vietnamese domestic degrees to their graduates The high and selective entrance requirements of these programs are also an obstacle for a vast number of students to benefit from good quality education Moreover, the higher tuition fees that students have to bear may also discourage them and their families to take part in these advanced programs even when they are academically qualified to Another question can be raised is whether the target to attract 3,000 international students into these advanced programs by 2015 is feasible or not MOET and Vietnamese universities need to have concrete strategies and plans to realize this ambitious target
Another notion with regard to the internationalization of curricula is that Vietnam is very much influenced by the Anglo-Saxon tradition of higher education, especially the American higher education experience In order to achieve international standards in higher education quickly, Vietnam aims to develop similar curricula, materials, teaching methods and educational management as those used in developed countries An Asian dimension is rarely found in this aspect of internationalization of higher education, because Vietnam wants to access and capture the so-called "source technology” in higher education, which is believed to belong to W estern countries
4 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
The internationalization of higher education in Vietnam has been significantly promoted during the past 20 years This process has brought about important opportunities for Vietnam to develop its higher education system However, the country is also faced with a number of challenges that are not easy to solve
Cultural diversity
The internationalization o f higher education, on the one hand, heips to promote Vietnam ’s culture and values to the world as well as improve the awareness and understanding o f other cultures However, on the other hand, this process may erode national cultural identities and homogenize native cultures - by which, in many cases, they mean Westernization The internationalization o f curricula, specifically the import of foreign curriculum, the use of foreign language, particularly the increase in English, ạs language of instruction, and the teaching/learning process in international education, all raise the question of the relevance to the national and local development as well as culture and traditions, and need to be taken into careful consideration at both national and institutional levels during this process
Commercialization o f higher education
In the past years, Vietnam has gradually opened up its educational market to foreign providers, especially since 2009 when Vietnam started to implement its commitments to the General Agreem ent on Trade in Services (GATS) to which higher education subsector is also subjected This has important impacts on the higher education subsector On the one hand, the import of foreign programs and providers is
(16)considered a way fo r Vietnam to complement the limited capacity and ability of the domestic higher education system to satisfy the unmet domestic demand for this level of education as well as to provide training in specialized skills and knowledge required by the changing needs of the market In addition, Vietnam can also learn from the advanced management and curricula brought in by prestigious foreign providers which can help upgrade and update the higher education sector On the other hand, opening up the domestic market to foreign providers, Vietnam has to face with the risk of losing competitiveness within her own marketplace of knowledge products and education service Equity of access is another issue related to the mobility of programs and students across borders The question is raised as to whether these m ovements are really expanding higher education opportunities fo r more and more students or are they only welcoming and available to those who can afford i t Disparity can also occur when it comes to the quality of education and the employability upon graduation that students can attain when attending different types of programs provided by domestic institutions, joint ventures or foreign universities and their branches
Quality assurance and accreditation
Another problem is the quality assurance and control of the blooming international joint programs, foreign institutions and branch campus in Vietnam The abundance in number and diversity in types of them have made it more difficult fo r MOET and the government to manage, especially when Vietnam has not had an effective system of quality assurance and accreditation Similar to many other countries in the world, Vietnam ’s national quality assurance system has generally focused only on domestic programs and institutions without paying attention to assessing the quality of imported programs The question for Vietnam now is to, deal with the increase in cross-border education provided by foreign traditional higher education institutions and by the new private commercial providers who are not part of the national quality assurance and accreditation schemes
Brain drain
With the dramatic increase in the number of Vietnamese students pursuing study abroad, brain drain has become one of the most concerned problems in Vietnam A large number of students choose to remain abroad after graduation many of whom are qualified professional experts with advanced knowledge and high capacities crucial for Vietnam ’s development in general and higher education reform in particular The Vietnamese governm ent has been making efforts to deal with this issue; however, the results so far have not been impressive
Effectiveness o f internationalization strategies and plans
(17)5 CONCLUSION
Since 1986, Vietnam ’s higher education sector has made remarkable progress However at present, the system is still faced with a wide range o f problems and challenges Internationalization is considered an important approach to secure the development and progress of Vietnam ’s higher education sector, while striving to achieve regional and international standards The Vietnamese government has provided an enabling legal and policy fram e w ork for the internationalization of higher education This process has been accelerated since 2000, with diverse strategies and programs such as staff/student mobility, international training programs and institutions, and internationalization o f curricula It can be said that academic rationales are the top driver fo r higher education internationalization Vietnam This process is expected to bring about radical reforms in many aspects of higher education Especially, it is considered a good way for Vietnam and its institutions to increase the teaching and research quality with an aim to win regional as well as international standards and recognitions However, at the same time, the international integration strategy of Vietnam ’s higher education is also subjected to develop within the context of existing commercial and trade frameworks This marks a significant change in the conception of the Vietnamese Governm ent on the nature o f higher education in which this sector is seen as a tradable commodity This notes the trend o f liberalization and commercialization o f higher education which is emerging in Vietnam
http://docs.glotta.ntua.er/lnternational/W TO/susulub.pdf http://www.vorku.ca/vorkint/global/conference/canada/papers/Sim on-Marginson.pdf http://vietbao.vn/Giao-duc/60000-du-hoc-sinh-nguon-nhan-luc-tuone- http://stats.uis.unesco.orq/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx