A study on some phrasal verbs in business texts in english from cognitive semantic perspective

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES DEPARTMENT OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES NGÔ THỊ VIỆT ANH A STUDY ON SOME PHRASAL VERBS IN BUSINESS TEXTS IN ENGLISH FROM COGNITIVE SEMANTIC PERSPECTIVE (NGHIÊN CỨU NGHĨA CỦA MỘT SỐ CỤM ĐỘNG TỪ TIẾNG ANH TRONG NGỮ CẢNH TIẾNG ANH KINH TẾ DƯỚI GÓC ĐỘ NGỮ NGHĨA TRI NHẬN) M.A Minor Thesis Field : English Linguistics Code: 602215 Hanoi, October 2010 VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES DEPARTMENT OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES NGÔ THỊ VIỆT ANH A STUDY ON SOME PHRASAL VERBS IN BUSINESS TEXTS IN ENGLISH FROM COGNITIVE SEMANTIC PERSPECTIVE (NGHIÊN CỨU NGHĨA CỦA MỘT SỐ CỤM ĐỘNG TỪ TIẾNG ANH TRONG NGỮ CẢNH TIẾNG ANH KINH TẾ DƯỚI GÓC ĐỘ NGỮ NGHĨA TRI NHẬN) M.A Minor Thesis Field : English Linguistics Code: 602215 Supervisor: Dr Hà Cẩm Tâm Hanoi, October 2010 iv ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ESP: English for Specific Purposes VPC: Verb Particle Construction LM: Landmark TR: Trajector V: Verb Adv: Adverb Obj: Object Prep: Preposition AOF: Academy of Finance * : denote examples taken from online sources v TABLE OF CONTENT Declaration …………………………………………………………………… I Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………… ii Abstract ……………………………………………………………………… iii Abbreviations and Symbols………………………………………………… iv Table of Contents…………………………………………………………… v INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………… I Rationale of the study…………………………………………… AI Aims of the study………………………………………………… BI Scope of the study………………………………………………… IV Organization of the study…………………………………… DEVELOPMENT……………………………………………………… CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND……………………… 1.1 Background on Cognitive Linguistics……………………………… 1.2 Background on Cognitive Semantics………………………………… 1.2.1 Embodiment and conceptual structure …………………………… 1.2.2 Metaphors and metonymy………………………………………… 1.2.2.1 Metaphors……………… …………………………………… 1.2.2.2 Mappings……………………………………………………… 1.2.3.Image schemas……………………………………………………… 1.2.4.Trajector and Landmark…………………………………………… 1.2.5.Perspective and Construal ………………………………………… 1.3 An overview of English phrasal verbs and English particles………… 1.3.1 Phrasal verbs…………………………………………………… 1.3.1.1.Definitions of phrasal verbs……………………………… 1.3.1.2.Some main types of phrasal verbs…………………………… 1.3.2 Particles …………………………… ………………………… 1.4 Phrasal Verbs in terms of Cognitive Semantics……….…………… CHAPTER II: THE STUDY… …………………………………………… 2.1 Research Questions ……… ………………………………………… 4 7 10 11 12 12 13 13 13 14 15 16 18 18 vi 2.2 Methodology………………………………………………………… 18 2.3 Data…………………………………………………………………… 19 2.4 Analytical Framework………………………………………………… 19 2.5.Data Analysis, Findings and Discussion……………………………… 22 2.5.1 Meanings of Phrasal Verbs with Up and Path Metaphor………… 22 2.5.1.1.Up as a Path moving vertically 22 2.5.1.2.Up as a PATH into visual/perceptual field 23 2.5.1.3.Up as a PATH into mental field 24 2.5.1.4.Up as a PATH into a state of activity 25 2.5.1.5.Up means aiming at a goal 25 2.5.1.6.Up means More 26 2.5.1.7.Up means completion 27 2.5.2 Phrasal Verbs with Out and Container Metaphor 27 2.5.2.1.Out means accessible 28 2.5.2.2.Out means inaccessible 29 2.5.2.3.Out means expansion 31 2.5.2.4.Out means abnormal 32 2.5.2.5.Out means activation 32 2.5.3 Meaning Transference in Phrasal Verbs with Up………………… 33 2.5.4 Meaning Transference in Phrasal Verbs with Out……………… 34 CONCLUSION 36 3.1 Major findings of the study 3.2 Pedagogical implications 3.3.Limitations of the study and suggestions for further research 36 37 38 REFERENCES 39 INTRODUCTION I Rationale of the study Phrasal verbs are widely acknowledged as being a notoriously difficult area of language for both teachers and learners of English The tendency in the past, even until present has been to regard phrasal verbs as items that could be learnt by heart only The reason for this is that particles often change the meaning of verb in such a way that it is not possible to connect it any more with the dictionary definition of the individual words Moreover, the same combination of verb and particle seems to mean different things in different contexts, which supports the intuition that the final meaning is absolutely arbitrary Besides, as long as the expressions refer to spatial locations and movements, the meanings are quite transparent, but when they refer to more abstract concepts such as feelings or relations, the meanings are not so obvious (Rudzka-Ostyn, 2003) In many cases, a teacher of English who attempts to explain the meaning of phrasal verbs finds that s/he cannot give a reason why „turn up’ is translated to „happen‟ and the same goes for thousands of other phrases Yet, it is undeniable that phrasal verbs are so expressive that they are very widely used in native speech, especially in spoken English What is more, new phrasal verbs are constantly being created in many fields such as English for Computing, Medical English, etc Working as a lecturer of English at Faculty of English for Finance and Accounting at Academy of Finance, I find that phrasal verbs make up a huge amount of verbs in business texts and course books that I am using and want to find out a reasonable explanation for the use of phrasal verbs which cause troubles in comprehending for students and teachers as well Apparently, what makes phrasal verbs so unpredictable is the meaning of the particles, since they seem to be quite arbitrary themselves, whereas the meaning of the verbs is usually less controversial Over the past few years, a cognitive approach to meaning of English particles has produced good results in explaining numerous possible uses of English particles and how they are related to one another Also a lot of attempt has been made by many linguists to find out whether phrasal verbs are purely idiomatic, less idiomatic or newly metaphorised or whether they consist related and transparent meaning so that they can be used in a logical way From the above facts, I want to apply some recent findings about the meaning of particles up and out in Cognitive semantics perspective to the meaning of phrasal verbs with up and out in Business context Aims of the study AI This study is aimed at  classifying semantic description of the English phrasal verbs with up and out basing on contribution of the particles‟ meaning in light of cognitive semantics,  investigating meaning transference of phrasal verbs with up and out  and drawing out pedagogical implications for teaching and learning English phrasal verbs Hoping that this study may provide teachers and student of English for Special Purpose (ESP), namely English for Business with a better understanding of meaning of phrasal verbs Scope of the study BI The study is limited to investigating senses of the English phrasal verbs formed with up and out found in business texts within semantic theoretical framework Up and out are chosen as they are highly frequent and have a wide range of meanings This analysis is based on a manual collection of 46 up-phrasal verbs and 42 out-phrasal verbs, taken from course books that I am using for my current teaching at the AOF, namely, Intelligent Business (Intermediate, Upper Intermediate), Market Leader (Pre-intermediate), Management and Marketing, and from a website that provides online business lessons I often use for teaching and suggest as a source of reference for my students at the Academy, namely, http://www.business-english.com/phrasalverbs/ Basing on the orientational Path and spatial Container metaphors, 46 up-phrasal verbs and 42 out-phrasal verbs are analysed and grouped in terms of meaning to explore their major senses, respectively IV Organization of the study To achieve the aims mentioned, the study consists of main parts including introduction, development and conclusion The introduction presents rationale to the study, aims, scope and organization of the study The conclusion briefly summarizes the main findings of the study, draws out some pedagogical implications and suggests further study in the field The development of the study is divided into chapters Chapter gives a brief theoretical background of the study with important concepts Chapter first presents the method of the study, data collection, analytical framework, data analysis and discussion References and appendices of phrasal verbs taken for analysis are also included DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND This chapter gives some brief background on cognitive linguistics, its relation to particles‟ meaning, phrasal verbs‟ meaning and introduces important concepts for the study 1.1 Background on Cognitive Linguistics Cognitive linguistics (CL) refers to the school of linguistics that is primarily concerned with investigating the relationship between human language, the mind and socio-physical experience (Croft & Cruse, 2004; Evans & Green, 2006; Langacker, 1978) It understands language creation, learning, and usage as best explained by reference to human cognition in general It is characterized by adherence to three central hypotheses identified in Cognitive Linguistics (2004: 1-4) by Croft & Cruse First, it denies that there is an autonomous linguistic faculty in the mind; second, it understands grammar in terms of conceptualization; and third, it claims that knowledge of language arises out of language use This section will clarify the three mentioned hypotheses that guide the cognitive approach to language The first hypothesis argues that language is not an autonomous cognitive faculty It suggests that knowledge of language is not different from other knowledge in general To put it another way, process of language acquisition works in the same ways as other mental process Although cognitive linguists not necessarily deny that part of the human linguistic ability is innate, they deny that it is separate from the rest of cognition Thus, knowledge of linguistic phenomena i.e., phonemes, morphemes, and syntax is essentially conceptual in nature Moreover, they argue that the storage and retrieval of linguistic data may processes in the same way as the storage and retrieval of other knowledge and use of language in understanding employs similar cognitive abilities as used in other nonlinguistic tasks The second hypothesis recognizes that it is not within the area of semantics that a cognitive approach to language is relevant Its main content is embodied in Langacker‟s slogan „grammar is conceptualization‟ This slogan refers to a more specific hypothesis about conceptual structure, namely, that conceptual structure cannot be reduced to a simple truth-conditional correspondence with the world, all grammar is seen as symbolic The third hypothesis of the cognitive linguistics approach assumes that knowledge of language is derived from our conception of specific utterances, actual use That is, categories and structure in semantics, syntax, morphology and phonology are built up from our cognition of specific utterances on specific occasion of use Therefore, language is both embodied and situated in a specific environment As Croft & Cruse (2004:4) note: “cognitive linguists argue that the detailed analysis of subtle variations in syntactic behaivor and semantic interpretation give rise to a different model of grammatical representation that accommodates idiosyncrasies as well as highly general patterns of linguistics behavior.” 1.2 Background on Cognitive Semantics As part of the field of cognitive linguistics, cognitive semantics represents an approach to the study of mind and its relationship with embodied experience and culture It proceeds by employing language as a key tool for uncovering conceptual organization and structure As one of the original pioneers of cognitive linguistics, Leonard Talmy (2000: 4) describes cognitive semantics as “Research on cognitive semantics is research on conceptual content and its organization in language” Cognitive semantics is not a single unified framework Different cognitive semanticists have a diverse set of foci and interest However, there are a number of principles that collectively characterizes a cognitive semantics approach According to Talmy (2000), Lakoff & Johnson (1980), and Geerearts (1999), cognitive semantics is characterized by four guiding principles These principles can be stated as follows: i) Conceptual structure is embodied; ii) Semantic structure is conceptual structure; iii) Meaning representation is encyclopedic; iv) Meaning construction is conceptualization This part of the study is written to provide a preliminary overview of how these principles are reflected in the concerns addressed by cognitive semantics The first guiding principle represents a fundamental concern of cognitive semantics It reveals the relationship between conceptual structure and the external experience of the world This idea holds that the nature of conceptual organization arises 27 (27) Our lobby group really started to affect change when we joined up with UNITE, the textile workers’ union…(Trappe & Tullis, 2005: 173) 2.5.1.7.Up means completion One last identifiable derived sense of up indicates that a whole object/an abstract concept has been affected by an action or an action being done to completion (28) In business situations, it is better to follow up a telephone conversation by an email or letter.* (29) They don’t seem to realize how much they mess up all our projects (Mackenzie, 1997: 84) (30) Interview every single person leaving every store, ask them to write up a merchandising plan and call suppliers to arrange deliveries… (Trappe & Tullis, 2005: 95) (31) I’m typing up the report this morning (Mc Intosh, 2006) Up in this sense also points to an end or limit which can be considered as a results of series of events or actions (32) Of many ways in which companies can end up owing vast sums of money in litigation, six currently stand out (Trappe & Tullis, 2006: 61) (33) But the project would take longer and might finish up having less money to spend on protecting the environment (Trappe & Tullis, 2005: 43) 2.5.2 Meanings of Phrasal Verbs with Out and Container Metaphor The container image schema as pointed out in The Body in Mind (Johnson, 1987), structurally made up of an INTERIOR, a BOUNDARY and an EXTERIOR is a simple, basic cognitive structure which is derived from our everyday interaction with the world It functions as a constituent of more complex notions and provides the structure projected metaphorically to more abstract domains such as domain of time, thought, social relations and any state or situation Basing on this schema, 42 out-phrasal verbs collected for this analysis are grouped according to their meanings motivated from particle out and the classification of their meanings is presented in the table 28 Out (out of Containers) Accessible Inaccessible Expansion Abnormal Activated Total Table 3: Frequency and percentage of senses conveyed by out-phrasal verbs First it should be noted that among all senses conveyed in phrasal verbs constituted from out, the senses denote a change from inaccessibility to accessibility and vice-versa are the most common in which inaccessible and accessible states are seen as containers The semantic contribution of particle out is also linked with the idea of expansion, the change from normal to abnormal state There is a small number of phrasal verbs denoting the process of activation 2.5.2.1.Out means accessible The change from private/inaccessible to public/accessible can be marked by the conventional metaphor POSSESSION IS CONTAINMENT which underlie phrasal verbs such as give out, lend out, rent out, and hand out that generally mean “out of my possession” and into the recipient‟s possession From our experience of containers, we know that something inside a container is usually hidden from sight, so being unknown or being inaccessible is being inside of a container as illustrated in Figure In Out TR LM Figure BEING UNKNOWN IS BEING INSIDE A CONTAINER Consider the following examples: (1) Our whole communication strategy is based on keeping the public informed by sending out press releases outlining our policies and intentions (Trappe & Tullis, 2005: 162 29 (2) We handed out the brochures.* (3) Their first commercial product came out one year later (4) If this information of the new product leaks out, we are in serious trouble.* As seen from these sentences, possession of concrete objects like in (2) and (3) or abstract thing in (1) and (4) denotes containment Out of that containment means being publicly accessible In this sense of out the notion of movement into the observer‟s visual field is also extended to the notion of movement into the observer‟s domain of awareness or understanding as in (5), (6) and (7): (5)…but we need to some basic research to find out more about the product that are already being used (Trappe & Tullis, 2006: 165) (6)… you should have the basic information to allow you to map out what the best strategy might be (Trappe & Tullis, 2005: 163) (7) The driving fear of failure, points out Mr Collins, is not unique to corporate life (Trappe & Tullis, 2006: 51) In the below examples, PROBLEM is seen as CONTAINER, when problems are solved, it means TR moves out of that container (8) She played back that she really understood my problems and concerns and then we worked out a way together quickly (Cotton, Falvey & Kent, 2002: 150) (9) She had a way of working that I wasn’t comfortable with…and we sorted the conflict out in a very constructive way…(Cotton, Falvey & Kent, 2002: 150) In this category of out’s meaning, the TR moves into the observer‟s visual field/perception and the LM may be only vaguely specified The TR may be physical objects which are clearly defined (brochures, commercial product) or abstract concepts (information, strategy or fear) The metaphorical landmark may refer to no concrete object at all, expressing possession, non-existence, ignorance, invisibility, unavailability 2.5.2.2.Out means inaccessible In this sense of out TR leaves the LM and becomes inaccessible to the viewer or to perception The following examples imply ACCESSIBILITY AS CONTAINER 30 (10) Cutting the price tage by leaving out the peripherals is a shrewd way of minimizing two risks…(Trappe & Tullis, 2006: 103) (11) At that point, we weeded out about 20 per cent of the applicants (12) We cleared out the old storeroom and turned it into an office.* (13) Every month, his paycheck cancels out his debts, so he cannot save any money.* It seem to be quite contradictory for out to convey apparently opposed meaning when using with different verbs coding processes leading to opposite states (accessibility and inaccessibility) The notions of perspective and construal introduced in the previous chapter account for opposite meanings in certain phrasal verbs with Out In this case the trajector which can be a product, an item, a situation or an action, etc., moves out of the observer‟s visual field/awareness and be inaccessible The schema in Figure makes this clearer In visual field/ awareness Out of visual field/awareness Figure BEING ACCESSIBLE IS BEING INSIDE OF CONTAINER Inaccessibility may express a gradual process, a decrease of intensity to the point of disappearance Take the following as example: (14) Sales bottom out in December* (15) I have slipped out of the meeting for a few minutes but I must get back.* (16) I tried to buy it but I couldn’t My friend heard that it was in one shop and he queued up for ages, but they’d run out by lunch (Cotton, Falvey & Kent, 2002: 147) (17) The new computer game was sold out in one hour.* The next metaphorical sense of Out in this sense points to an extreme case of nonfunctioning, i.e inexistence as in: 31 (18) The engineers have found a problem with the power supply It keeps cutting out and they don’t know why (Trappe & Tullis, 2006: 171) (19) I have to close out my bank account.* In all examples above, TR can be physical objects (items, computers, applications) or person and abstract concepts (peripherals, sales, debt) The metaphorical landmark expresses existence, knowledge, visibility, availability and accessibility 2.5.2.3.Out means expansion This group of meanings of out is linked with the idea of increasing/expanding to maximal boundaries BOUNDARIES ARE CONTAINERS, so objects with a minimal shape when not in use expand to their maximal shape when used with out, like a map in Spread out the map on the table, it’ll make it easier to find the place Expansion in abstract, non-spatial domains in business is very common (as market growth, company development is an essential trend in doing business) For example: (20) The company now has to decide whether to expand its current market base or risk branching out and reaching a new client (Trappe & Tullis, 2005: 56) (21) I set it up a year ago and we are still subcontracting most of our activities out to other smaller independent suppliers (Trappe & Tullis, 2005: 162) (22) The network problems have meant we’ve had to contract a lot of work out to meet the deadlines…(Trappe & Tullis, 2005: 165) (23) Under the T5, BAA carries the risk, putting a precautionary sum into a fund that will be shared out among all its suppliers if the project finishes on time budget (Trappe & Tullis, 2006: 17) Rudzka-Ostyn (2003) argues that in the same manner, the same can be done with abstract or figurative verbs + OUT relating to time periods and physical properties with a potential for stretching This stretching potential is manifested in the following examples that express a durative aspect, that is, they last some time and time is often viewed as a surface which can extend (search out, draw out, drag out, etc.) (24) You can spread the payments out over several months.* (25) The speaker dragged out all the details during the presentation.* 32 (26) After this project, we can draw out the week end by taking Monday off.* So phrasal verbs with out can denote expansion in concrete object, occupied space or abstract and non-spatial domains and even in time domain 2.5.2.4 Out as abnormal As discussed in previous chapter, both Lakoff(1987) and Johnson (1987) argue that Container image schema can be projected onto abstract conceptual domains of states In this sense the metaphorical container is what has been called STATES which includes psychological and emotional states like happiness and solidarity Such states are desirable and canonical and their opposites - states beyond normal ones as depressed (put out, psyched out, fall out) are therefore out (27) During the negotiation, he really psyched his opponent out by acting confident.* (27) I was really put out when he turned down the job.* (28) They fell out over the arrangements for the meeting.* Further, the LM may represent other business situations/states related to human, namely, being normal, controlled Therefore out metaphorically codes departure from normal states, that is, difference from the other, at different speed or acting differently, like: (29) Every time something goes wrong, legal haggling breaks out among suppliers and between them and contractor, and work shuts down for weeks on end (30) It (brand) has to stand out in the crowd, not be easily confused with competing brands (Trappe & Tullis, 2005: 166) (31) For some time they have been churning out imitation designer fashion, software and CDs (Trappe & Tullis, 2005: 87) This category, out pointing to an abnormal state is also related to the previous group of extensions of out, which involves expansion 2.5.2.5.Out means activation As regards phrasal verbs such as carry out, set out or start out found in the collection of the phrasal verbs, metaphorically when an activity has not been started or when an 33 action has not been done, it is in a container Normally, when an activity starts, it come into our visual field/awareness Thus, the idea that something is done, or an activity starts, it is out of CONTAINER accounts for meaning of phrasal verbs above (33) The leader organizes locations and times for meetings and is responsible for for providing resources required by the team to carry out their tasks (34) I’m thinking of selling up and starting out as a venture capitalist, or rather a business angel (Trappe & Tullis, 2006: 171) (35) They said they'd set out at about o'clock, so they should be here soon.* 2.5.3 Meaning transference in phrasal verbs with up Just as Morgan (1977) deals with out in four different verbs, the phrasal under analysis are closely examined to work out the possibility of meaning extensions in the phrasal verbs‟ constituents, i.e the main verbs and the particles As the analysis results in previous section has shown, particle up codes path either literally or metaphorically in meaning of phrasal verb To put it plainly, this section examines the transference in meaning of the verbs and decides whether the particles are use literally or metaphorically The extension possibility with up-phrasal verbs can be summarized in the following tables: Metaphorical extension in None Verb only Path only Verb and Path Total Table 4: Possibilities of meaning extensions of phrasal verbs with up EXAMPLES If we hadn‟t bought up so many companies we 34 wouldn‟t be so short of cash (Trappe & Tullis, 2005: 36) This has open up many new markets for the Metaphorical Metaphorical logistics industry (Trappe & Tullis, 2005: 136) Table 5: Examples of meaning extension of phrasal verbs with up Two types of meaning extensions are identified for phrasal verbs with up, in which the meaning of the main verbs can be transferred or used literally and the path coded by particle up is always a metaphorical one The investigation shows that more than four fifths (80.44 %) of the up-phrasal verbs are transferred in meaning regards both the verbs and the particle, which suggests that most of phrasal verbs with up in business context must be understood metaphorically In other cases, the verbs are understood literally No case is found to have its verb and particle in literal use among the collection To put it clearly, in (3) the verb start denotes literal beginning of a business, but there is no literal path coded by up In (4), the verb does not refer to the actual opening of any object and the paticle does not code any perceptible path at all 2.5.4 Meaning transference in phrasal verbs with out Analysis of out-phrasal verbs in previous section has point out that the particle out presupposes the prior existence of a container 42 phrasal verbs with out under the study have been analyzed to work out meaning transference in their constituents and the results are presented as follow: Metaphorical extension in None Verb only Container only Verb and Container Total Table 6: Possibilities of meaning extensions of phrasal verbs with out 35 EXAMPLES We cleared out the old storeroom and turned it into an office * I have slipped out of the meeting for a few minutes but I must get back * I‟m supposed to send my monthly report out today (Trappe & Tullis, 2005: 165) At that point, we weeded out about 20 per cent of the applicants (Trappe & Tullis, 2005: 77) Table 7: Examples of meaning extension of phrasal verbs with out As can be seen from the tables above, four types of meaning extension are identified for phrasal verbs with out, in which the meaning of the main verbs can be transferred or used literally and the container presupposed by particle out can be literal or metaphorical one The investigation shows that nearly two thirds (69.04%) of the phrasal verbs analyzed are used metaphorically regards both the verbs and the particle; nearly one third (26.19%) are used with literal verb and metaphorical container Only in one case (2.38%) are the verb and particle are used with literal senses; in another case (2.38%) the verb is metaphorically used with a literal container In (2) there is a physical container, i.e the room where the meeting is taking place, however, the verb “slip” must be understood with its figurative sense The verb send in (3) might denote an actual action - giving the report to someone else, but there is no literal container from which the report might be taken More interestingly, the process of selecting the right applicants is likened to the action of removing wild plants in the last example Note: All sentences marked (*) are taken from online lessons Source:Caroline and Pearson Brown (2006, 2007) Business English Lesson Retrieved Dec, 2009, from http://www.business-english.com/phrasalverbs/ 36 CONCLUSION Major findings This study has so far been carried out to deal with two research questions, one is to convey the logical meanings of phrasal verbs and the other is to investigate meaning transference of their constituents by applying Cognitive Linguistics insights, namely, image schemas and metaphorical meaning extension which have been used as means to explain different meanings conveyed by up and out when combining with different verbs Thus, phrasal verbs with up and out have been found to have their meanings motivated by meaning of particle going with them and thus to be logical in their meaning First, semantic analysis of phrasal verbs with up and out has shown that basing on meaning the particles, all senses conveyed by those phrasal verbs appear to be related and can be classified in different groups which can be comprehended in a logical way Specially, particle up codes paths in different abstract domains when combining with different verbs From schema vertical path coded by literal meaning of particle up, other abstract meanings of phrasal verbs with up are worked out, in which such processes as visualization and conceptualization or progresses as increases in quality and quantity or goal approaching and completion are seen as paths with initial and final points Particle out is found to presuppose the existence of a literal or metaphorical container which reveals meaning of phrasal verbs with out in other abstract domains In business situations, many abstract domains such as accessibility, inaccessibility, visibility, boundaries and states are conceptualized in terms of containers Also, the investigation of metaphorical extension possibilities among phrasal verbs with up and out in context of Business English has proved that most of phrasal verbs are used metaphorically regarding both the main verbs and the particle Thus, phrasal verbs cannot be interpreted by the mere addition of the meanings of their constituents with in literal senses but they must be understood with regard to meaning transference of both verb and particle As it is known, phrasal verbs not enjoy a good reputation in foreign language learning as they are believed to be a difficult part of the lexicon These findings lend me strong reasons to argue that phrasal verbs are difficult to understand only because foreign 37 learners of English not usually notice that their meanings go from the concrete to the abstract basing on the meaning of particle Therefore, the seemingly abstract senses of phrasal verbs not develop at random but logically relate to meaning of particle Pedagogical implications As a teacher of English to university students, I strongly believe that cognitive semantic perspective is crucial in language teaching and learning For the matter of acquiring English vocabulary in general and learning English phrasal verbs in particular, it would be a shortcoming for anyone to disregard semantic description of a vocabulary item Traditionally, the semantics of English phrasal verbs has been considered largely arbitrary A long list of possible uses in different contexts is often provided by textbooks and dictionaries without any apparent relation to one another This poses a particular problem for students of English as a foreign language Having not acquired cognitive semantic skills, I also saw English phrasal verbs as idiomatic expressions that must be learnt one by one without a reasonable explanation of their uses and I had a lot of difficulty in teaching phrasal verbs to my students Cognitive approach to phrasal verbs with particle out and up in context of Business English to some extent has offered an explanation for the uses of phrasal verbs in business context I hope that it helps learners of other general fields of English not feel overwhelmed or confused with phrasal verbs they encounter in learning and encourage them to study and to use phrasal verbs logically with regard to metaphorical extensions of both verb and particle The following points are suggested for better teaching and learning English phrasal verbs In the part of learning, English learners first always learn phrasal verbs in context It is useless to memorize lists of phrasal verbs and their definitions out of context - always notice how they are being used in different contexts Besides, learners must understand the main senses of important particles because they make contribution to the meaning of a phrasal verb Very often the meaning of a phrasal verb is the meaning of main verb plus the meaning of particle However, the analysis of English phrasal verbs with up and out has proved that phrasal verbs cannot be interpreted by the mere addition of literal meanings of their constituents but they must be understood with regard to metaphorical extensions of 38 both verb and particle For teachers of English, beside explaining grammar of English phrasal verbs, it is noteworthy to employ cognitive approach in explaining the meaning of phrasal verbs to students They should explain why a phrasal verb has that meaning from cognitive perspective They should provide learners with the most basic concepts in cognitive approach as mentioned in this study such as image schemas, metaphorical extensions, etc in order to make learners aware that there is some logic behind the meaning of a phrasal verbs and make learners feel more confident in learning and using them Limitations of the study and suggestions for Further Research This paper has aimed at showing how cognitive semantics can explain the meaning of the phrasal verbs and how a unitary view of their meaning can account for a better knowledge of phrasal verbs in the chosen specific fields However, further research related to other particles, other metaphors and, obviously other ESP branches would be of great interest to this field The present thesis is just a small contribution to the study of phrasal verbs from cognitive semantics perspective Due to the limit of time and scope of the study and other factors, this thesis cannot go further Therefore, it is better for further research to - investigate the meanings of phrasal verbs with other particles in business context to work out more profound understanding of phrasal verbs in this ESP, namely English for Business - investigate the meanings of phrasal verbs with up and out in other branches of ESP such as English for Medical or English for Computer - investigate the meaning of particles up and out in other vocabulary items, such as compound nouns where the particle occuring as the first part or as the second 39 REFERENCES Acklam, Richard et al (1992), Help with Phrasal Verbs Oxford: Oxford University Press Bolinger, D (1971), The Phrasal Verb in English Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Cook, S & Stevenson, S (2006), Classifying Particle Semantics in English Verb-Particle Constructions Toronto: University of Toronto Cowie, A P and Mackin, R (1993), Oxford Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs Oxford: Oxford University Press Croft, W & Cruse, A (2004), Cognitive Linguistics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Crystal, D (1995), Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press Cuyckens, H & G Radden (eds.) (2002), Perspectives on Prepositions Tübingen: Niemeyer Dudley-Evans T., Jonh, M (1998), Developments in English for Specific Purposes.Cambridge University Press Evan, V & Green, M (2006), Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction Edinburgh: Edinburgh Uiversity Press 10 Fillmore, C 1985, “Frame and the semantics of understanding” Quaderni di Semantica VI, 2: 222-254 11 Fraser, B (1976), The Verb Particle Combination in English New York: Academic Press 12 Geeraerts, D (1999), Cognitive Linguistics: Foundations, Scope, and Methodology, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter 13 Halliday, M A K (1985), An Introduction to Functional Grammar London: Edward Arnold 14 Hartmann, D (1999), “Particles” The Concise Encyclopedia of Grammatical Categories Eds K Brown and J Miller Oxford: Elsevier 271-277 15 Huddlestone R and G Pullum (2002), The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 40 16 Johnson, M (1987), The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason University of Chicago th 17 Kolln, Martha and Funk, R (1998), Understanding English Grammar ed Boston: Allyn and Bacon 18 Lakoff, G and Johnson, M (1980), Metaphors We Live By Chicago, University of Chicago Press 19 Lakoff, G (1987), Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind Chicago: University of Chicago Press 20 Lakoff, G (1990), The Invariance Hypothesis is Abstracted Reason Based on Image – Schema Cognitive Linguistics 21 Lakoff, G (1993), The contemporary theory of metaphor In A Ortony (Ed.) Metaphor and Thought (Second Ed.) 202–51 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 22 Langacker, R W (1987), Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, Volume I: Theoretical Prerequisites, Stanford: Stanford University Press 23 Langacker, R W (1990), Concept, Image, and Symbol, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter 24 Langacker, R (1991), Concept, Image and Symbol The Cognitive Basis of Grammar Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter 25 Leezenberger, M (2001) Context of Metaphor University of Amsterdam, the Netherland Elsevier 26 Lindner, S (1983), A Lexico-Semantic Analysis of Verb-Particle Constructions with UP and OUT Indiana University Linguistics Club 27 Lindstromberg, S (1997), English Prepositions Explained Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins 28 McArthur, T (1992), The Oxford Companion to the English Language Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press 29 McIntosh, C (2006), Oxford Phrasal Verbs New York Oxford University Press 41 30 Morgan, P S (1997): “Figuring out figure out: Metaphor and the semantics of the English verb-particle construction”, in: Cognitive Linguistics (4), 327-357 31 Peña Cervel, S (1998), “The prepositions in and out and the trajector landmark distinction” RESLA 13: 261-271 32 Rudzka-Ostyn, B (2003), Word Power: Phrasal Verbs and Compounds A Cognitive Approach Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter 33 Talmy, L (2000), Toward a Cognitive Semantics Volume I: Concept Structuring System The MIT Press Cambridge, Mass 34 Taylor, J R (2002), Cognitive Grammar, Oxford: Oxford University Press SOURCES OF DATA Books: Cotton, D., Falvey, D & Kent, S (2002), Market Leader (Course Book) Pre- Intermediate Longman Pearson Education Mackenzie, I (1997), Management and Marketing London: Cengage Learning McIntosh, C (2006), Oxford Phrasal Verbs New York Oxford University Press Trappe, T & Tullis, G (2005), Intelligent Business (Course Book) Intermediate Longman Pearson Education Trappe, T & Tullis, G (2006), Intelligent Business (Course Book) Upper Intermediate Longman Pearson Education Websites: Caroline and Pearson Brown (2006, 2007) Business English Lesson Retrieved Dec, 2009, from http://www.business-english.com/phrasalverbs/ ... of English at Faculty of English for Finance and Accounting at Academy of Finance, I find that phrasal verbs make up a huge amount of verbs in business texts and course books that I am using and... meaning in light of cognitive semantics,  investigating meaning transference of phrasal verbs with up and out  and drawing out pedagogical implications for teaching and learning English phrasal. .. verbs in business contexts taken from course books for business students and business online lessons Sentences containing phrasal verbs up and out are extracted manually and classified according