Housing policy in the UK

Ebook Housing policy in the UK present the content: the origins of housing policy; housing under the conservatives, housing under labour, home ownership in transition, deregulating the private rented sector, transforming the governance, management and regulation of social housing, social housing finance, policies and problems...

Housing Policy in the UK David Mullins and Alan Murie Housing Policy in the UK Public Policy and Politics Series Editors: Colin Fudge and Robin Hambleton PUBLISHED Danny Burns, Robin Hambleton and Paul Hoggett, The Politics of Decentralisation: Revitalising Local Democracy Stephen Glaister, June Burnham, Handley M G Stevens and Tony Travers, Transport Policy in Britain Christopher Ham, Health Policy in Britain: The Politics and Organisation of the National Health Service (fifth edition) Ian Henry, The Politics of Leisure Policy (second edition) Peter Malpass and Alan Murie, Housing Policy and Practice (fifth edition) Robin Means, Sally Richards and Randall Smith, Community Care: Policy and Practice (third edition) David Mullins and Alan Murie, Housing Policy in the UK Gerry Stoker, The Politics of Local Government (second edition) Marilyn Taylor, Public Policy in the Community Kieron Walsh, Public Services and Market Mechanisms: Competition, Contracting and the New Public Management FORTHCOMING Rob Atkinson and Simin Davoudi with Graham Moon, Urban Politics in Britain: The City, the State and the Market (second edition) Robin Hambleton, Reinventing Local Governance Christopher C Hood and Helen Z Margetts, The Tools of Government in the Digital Age Public Policy and Politics Series Standing Order ISBN 0–333–71705–8 hardback ISBN 0–333–69349–3 paperback (outside North America only) You can receive future titles in this series as they are published To place a standing order please contact your bookseller or, in the case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and an ISBN quoted above Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England Housing Policy in the UK David Mullins and Alan Murie with Phil Leather, Peter Lee, Moyra Riseborough and Bruce Walker © David Mullins and Alan Murie 2006, except Chapter © Bruce Walker 2006; Chapter 11 © Moyra Riseborough 2006; Chapter 12 © Peter Lee 2006; Chapter 13 © Philip Leather 2006 All rights reserved No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 First published 2006 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries ISBN-13: 978–0–333–99433–7 hardback ISBN-10: 0–333–99433–7 hardback ISBN-13: 978–0–333–99434–4 paperback ISBN-10: 0–333–99434–5 paperback This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mullins, David, 1955– Housing policy in the UK / David Mullins and Alan Murie p cm — (Public policy and politics) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0–333–99433–7 (cloth) Housing policy—Great Britain Great Britain—Social policy I Murie, Alan II Title III Series HD7333.A3M82 2006 363.5′610941—dc22 2005056101 10 15 14 13 12 11 10 Printed and bound in China 09 08 07 06 Contents List of Tables viii List of Figures x Preface xi Introduction Housing policies and housing tenures Modernization and change Differences within the UK Policy structures and networks The Origins of Housing Policy 10 13 Housing policy prior to 1915 An evolving housing policy: 1915–45 A mature housing policy: 1945–79 Conclusion Housing under the Conservatives, 1979–97 The evolution of Conservative housing policies The structure of the housing market Conclusion Housing under Labour, 1997–2004 A new housing policy? Alternatives to housing policy? The return of housing policy A new comprehensive housing policy? Conclusion 14 19 27 36 38 40 49 62 66 66 73 76 81 85 Home Ownership in Transition 87 From renting to owning The role of taxation policies The sale of council houses Affordable housing Conclusions 88 92 93 102 110 v vi Contents Deregulating the Private Rented Sector The policy history Deregulation in the 1980s and 1990s Liverpool: long-term change and the impact of student housing Birmingham: immigration and differentiation Conclusions 112 113 115 121 126 127 Transforming the Governance, Management and Regulation of Social Housing 129 Governance relationships and ideas New public management, managerialism and modernization Impacts of management reform on social housing Changing role of local authorities Regulation and audit Understanding regulation Conclusion 129 131 138 143 145 151 156 Social Housing Finance: Policies and Problems Consumer and producer subsidies: the principles Producer subsidies for council housing Producer subsidies for housing associations Rents and restructuring: harmonizing the local authority and housing association sectors? Housing Benefit: problems and proposals Incorporating the Non-Profit Sector Origins and growth of the non-profit sector State, market or third sector? Housing associations in Northern Ireland – voluntary action and state steering The impact of devolution on housing associations in the UK Sector restructuring in England Conclusion: changing relations with the state, market and civil society 158 158 160 163 168 173 178 179 187 201 204 207 210 10 Choice and Control: Social Housing Management and Access to Social Housing 212 Origins and development of housing management The changing tenant profile Consumerism and choice 213 217 220 Contents Involving hard to reach groups Choice-based lettings Conclusion 11 Housing, Social Care and Supporting People Changes in social welfare policies Institutional change and impacts Supporting People Conclusions 12 Social Exclusion, Housing and Neighbourhood Renewal Social exclusion and housing Housing tenure and social exclusion New Labour’s responses to social exclusion Sustainable communities Conclusion 13 Private Sector Housing Renewal History of housing renewal in the UK Implementing the regulatory reform order Measures to stimulate borrowing Dealing with private landlords Low and changing demand Changing standards Conclusion 14 A New Comprehensive Housing Policy: Overcoming Fragmentation or Managing Complexity? Fragmentation and coordination Complexity and change Places, markets and communities Differences within society What next? Complexity and future change vii 227 230 233 235 235 241 244 250 253 254 258 261 267 269 272 273 275 276 277 278 279 281 283 283 286 289 291 293 References 296 Index 317 List of Tables 1.1 Dwelling stock by tenure, selected European countries, 1980 and 1999 2.1 Principal housing and public health legislation, 1848–1914 2.2 Principal housing legislation, 1915–39 2.3 Principal housing legislation, 1945–77 2.4 Households unsatisfactorily housed, England and Wales, 1951–76 2.5 Housing tenure in Britain, 1914–79 3.1 Principal housing and related legislation, 1979–97 3.2 Activity in the home ownership sector, 1986–98 3.3 Dwellings by tenure, UK, 1971–2001 3.4 Housing performance and expenditure, UK, 1980–97 3.5 Homeless households accepted as in priority need, 1980–97 4.1 Principal housing legislation, related legislation and policy statements, 1997–2005 5.1 Profile of home ownership, England, 2001 5.2 Evolution of the Right to Buy scheme, 1970–2005 6.1 Profile of private renting, England, 2001 6.2 Number of private rented homes, England, 1988–2001 7.1 Impact of new public management and modernization on social housing 7.2 Interest representation in the regulation of housing associations, 1997–2005 9.1 Brief history of English housing associations 9.2 Local authority stock transfers, England, Scotland and Wales, 1988–2005 9.3 Evolution of stock transfer, England, 1988–2005 9.4 Size and share of the housing association sector, England, Scotland and Wales, 1991–2001 10.1 Profile of social renting, England, 2001 10.2 Selected examples of consumerist and citizenship initiatives in housing management 11.1 Housing, care and support: principal policies and legislation, 1997–2004 12.1 Direct and indirect impacts of housing on social exclusion viii 17 20 31 36 36 39 45 49 51 55 70 89 95 113 119 139 152 182 190 191 205 218 223 236 255 List of Tables 12.2 Socioeconomic group and economic activity by housing tenure of head of household 12.3 Percentage of all white and non-white deprived households living in council housing, 1991 13.1 Housing renewal policies in the postwar period ix 259 260 274 310 References National Federation of Housing Associations (1986) Inquiry into British Housing (London NFAA) National Federation of Housing Associations (1995) Submission to Commission on the Future of the Voluntary Sector (London: National Housing Federation) National Housing Federation (2002) Effects of Rent Reforms on Black and Minority Ethnic Registered Social Landlords – Comments (London: National Housing Federation) National Housing Federation (2003) In Business for Neighbourhoods (London: National Housing Federation) National Housing Federation (2004a) Code of Governance (London: National Housing Federation) National Housing Federation (2004b) In Business, In Practice In Business for Neighbourhoods One Year On (London: National Housing Federation) Neighbourhood Renewal Unit (2002) Changing Neighbourhoods, Changing Lives: The Vision for Neighbourhood Renewal (London: Neighbourhood Renewal Unit) Nentjes, A and Schopp, W (2000) ‘Discretionary profit in subsidised housing markets’, Urban Studies, 37 (1), pp 181–94 Nevin, B., Lee, P., Goodson, L., Murie, A and Phillimore, J (2001) Changing Housing Markets and Urban Regeneration in the M62 Corridor (Birmingham: University of Birmingham) Nevitt, A A (1966) Housing Taxation and Subsidies (London: Nelson) Nevitt, A A (1968) ‘Conflicts in British Housing Policy’, The Political Quarterly, 39, pp 439–50 Newcombe, R (1998) Not Too Big, Not Too Small: Strategies for Medium-Sized Housing Associations (York: University of York, Centre for Housing Policy) Newman, J (2000) ‘Beyond the New Public Management Modernising Public Services’, in J Clarke, S Gerwutz and E McLauglin (eds), New Managerialism, New Welfare? 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future change 293–5 modernization and 3–7 changing demand 266–7, 278–9 chaos theory 287 charitable trusts 16–18, 181 Chartered Institute of Housing 278 choice 69–72, 294 consumerism and 220–6 individual and collective 223 Tenants’ Choice 43, 57–8, 63, 155 choice-based lettings 72, 225–6, 230–3, 233–4 citizenship 221–2, 223 City University Housing Research Group 214 civil society 187, 210–11 Clydeside rent strike 114 collective choice 223 Commission for Social Care Inspection 240 Committee on Local Expenditure 25 commissioning 242–3 communication 229–30 communities 289–91 317 318 Index Communities Scotland (formerly Scottish Homes) 6, 206 Community Care (Direct Payments) Act 1996 252 community care policies 64, 238–9, 244 community empowerment networks 264 community gateway scheme 211, 294 Community Land Act 59 competition, regulated 155–6 complexity, and change 286–9, 293–5 complexity theory 230–3, 287 explaining policy shifts 287–9 compounding of social exclusion 253, 255 comprehensive housing policy 81–5, 285–6 comprehensive spending review 67 Compulsory Competitive Tendering (CCT) 48, 136, 215, 217, 241 Conference of Christian Churches on Christian Politics Economics and Citizenship (COPEC) 26, 213 Conservative governments 1950s 30 1970s 33–4, 96 1979–97 38–65; affordable housing 46, 61, 103–4; deregulation of private rented sector 115–21; evolution of housing policies 40–9; housing management 215; legislation 39–40; NPM 131–2; Right to Buy 42, 50, 54, 63, 94–5, 96–9; structure of housing market 49–62 1992 election manifesto 46 construction rates see building of new homes consultation 229–30 consumer subsidies 158–60 consumerism Best Value and 222 and choice 220–6 consumers 151–4, 155, 155–6 continuity 67–8, 85 convergence 10 coordination 285–6 corporate governance 197–8 council housing 2, 18, 36–7 approaches to lettings 219–20 changes 1971–2001 49–50 changing tenant profile 217–20 Conservative governments 1979–97 54–5 emergence 22–3 high-rise 32 interwar years 24–5 Labour government 1997–2004 84 producer subsidies for 19, 22, 23, 24, 29, 30, 34, 160–3; decline 161–3 quality 26–7, 32–3, 36 race, regional differences and 260 rents and restructuring 168–73 sale of 41–3, 50, 54, 63, 93–102; impact of sales on 101 stock transfers see stock transfers see also local authorities; social housing crime 215–16 Crosland, A 34 Cullingworth, B 26 Cullingworth Report 219 Davis, C 11, 195 Dean, Baroness 79 Decent Homes Standard 147, 193, 279–80 decentralization 133 deficit funding 161–2 demand changing 266–7, 278–9 low 170, 265, 266, 278–9 democratic deficit 188 demographic change 11–12 demolitions 279 see also slum clearance Department of Health 256 deregulation 41–3, 115–21 actual impact 119–21 expectations of impact 116–19 devolution 9–10, 75, 135, 148, 238 impact on housing associations 204–7 differentiation 291–3 direct payments 244, 252 discount rates 96, 98, 99 discretionary sales 94, 95–6 diversification 167–8, 209 downsizing 133 economic activity 258–9 economic change 11–12 economic recession 44–5, 63 economic regeneration 48, 61–2, 73–5, 244, 261–71 economy 78 Education Action Zones 262 efficiency drive 133 Egan review 82 employment 91 empowerment 228–9 England 7, 8, 10 housing associations 204–7; sector restructuring 207–9 private housing renewal 272 equity extraction 110, 293 Esping-Andersen, G Estates Renewal Challenge Fund (ERCF) 47, 48, 61, 68, 189 European countries 5–7 European Liaison Committee for Social Housing (CECODHAS) 207 European Union 207 evidence-based policy making 267–9 excellence 134 executive rentals 125, 127 ‘fair rents’ 33, 34 fallacy of detachment 80 Fenter, M 213, 219 Ferlie, E 133–4 Index financial mechanisms 109 first-time buyers initiative 82, 106–7 First World War 19, 113–14 fitness for human habitation 279–81 five-year plan 71, 81–5, 106, 285 fragmentation 142, 283–4 Franklin, B 215 ‘front line’ housing societies 26, 181 General Improvement Areas 33 Germany 5, Glasgow 114, 211 governance 129–30 Government Offices for the Regions (GORs) 238 Greater London Council 117–18 group structures 167–8, 208–9, 210 Guinness Trust 16 hard to reach groups 227–30, 233 Harrison, M 11, 196 health 256–7 Health Act 1999 237, 239 Health Action Zones 262 health care 235 see also social welfare policies Hickman, P 223 hierarchical influences on regulation 146–9 high-level involvement 228–9 high-rise council housing 32 Hill, O 213–14 Hills, J 185 home information packs 83 home ownership 2, 36–7, 87–111, 284, 285, 294 affordable housing 61, 102–7 changes 1971–2001 49–50 Conservative governments 1979–97 41–3, 61, 103–4; recession 44–5 divisions in 107–10 Labour government 1997–2004 78, 82–3, 104–7 problems in the 1990s 44–5, 63 role of taxation policies 92–3 sale of council houses 41–3, 50, 54, 63, 93–102 shift from renting to owning 88–92 Home Ownership Taskforce 79–80 Homebuy scheme 82, 105–6 homelessness 185, 294 Conservative governments 1979–97 55–7 and health 256–7 Labour government 1997–2004 67 interagency strategies 64, 137–8, 256 Homelessness Act 2002 71, 256 Homelessness Directorate 256 Homelessness (Priority Need for Accommodation) (England) Order 2002 68 ‘hostels initiative’ 56 Houses in Multiple Occupation (HMOs) 277, 278 Housing Act 1923 (Chamberlain Act) 20, 23, 89 319 Housing Act 1930 (Greenwood Act) 20, 23–4 Housing Act 1933 24 Housing Act 1935 20, 25 Housing Act 1949 30, 31 Housing Act 1961 31, 33 Housing Act 1969 31, 33 Housing Act 1974 31, 33, 37, 163, 185 Housing Act 1980 42, 52, 115, 120, 161 Housing Act 1985 39, 275 Housing Act 1988 40, 43, 57, 58, 185 Housing Act 1996 40, 48, 56, 58, 155 Housing Act 2004 48, 71, 81, 156, 178–9, 180 Housing Action Areas 33, 122 Housing Action Trusts 43, 58 Housing Association Grant (HAG) 163–4 housing associations 2, 6, 37, 43, 118, 178–211 activities and regulatory web 150–1 changes 1971–2001 49–50 changing relations with state, market and civil society 210–11 diversification of activities 167–8, 209 future change 293–4 historical roots 180–7 impact of devolution 204–7 Northern Ireland 201–4 organizational culture and structure 141–2 origins and growth 179–87 producer subsidies for 163–8 and rent restructuring 72–3, 172–3 representation in regulation 151–4 sector restructuring in England 207–9 state, market or third sector 187–201; corporate governance 197–8; independence 195–7, 198–9; market influences 187–8, 194–5, 210–11; state influences 187, 188–9, 210–11; third sector influences 195–7; values 199–201 Housing Benefit 10, 43, 64, 278 changes in 1990s 46 combined with housing subsidy 162–3 deregulation of private rented sector 119–20, 122, 122–3, 124 housing associations 166 local authorities’ refusal to pay 241 1982 reform 38, 52–3 reform under Labour government 72–3, 173–7 and support services 241 transitional scheme 244 housing cooperatives 224 Housing Corporation 57, 147, 148, 155–6, 179, 185, 204, 206 diversification of housing associations 168 extensions for policy implementation 173 Housing Market Package 45 inspection function 145 involvement policy 226 producer regulation role 150–1 registration with 164 regulation and private finance 167 and stock transfer 190 Housing Finance Act 1972 31, 33–4 320 Index Housing (Financial Provisions) Act 1924 (Wheatley Act) 20, 23, 160–1 Housing (Financial Provisions) (Scotland) Act 1972 33–4 Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 40, 275 Housing Health and Safety Rating System 280–1, 282 Housing (Homeless Persons) Act 1977 31, 55 housing investment 51–2, 53–4, 66–7, 81 Housing Investment Programmes 35 Housing Investment Trusts 47 housing management 81, 212–34 changing tenant profile 217–20 choice-based lettings 230–3 consumerism and choice 220–6 involving hard to reach groups 227–30 from 1997 215–17 origins and development 213–17 see also management reform housing market 108–9 activity 1986–98 44–5 late 1990s 75 price booms 44, 75 price slump 1989–93 121 Housing Market Package 45 Housing Market Renewal Areas (HMRAs) 267–9, 270–1, 278–9, 281 Housing NI Order 1976 202 Housing (NI) Order 2003 204 Housing Plans 35 ‘housing plus’ agenda 216 housing register 56 Housing Rents and Subsidies Act 1975 31, 34 Housing Revenue Accounts (HRAs) 25, 160, 161, 162–3 housing societies 178, 181 Housing Subsidies Act 1956 30, 31, 160 Housing Subsidies Act 1967 31, 33 Housing Support Grant (HSG) 53 housing tenure see tenure Housing and Town Planning Act 1909 17, 18 Housing and Town Planning Act 1919 (Addison Act) 20, 22 Housing for Wales 57 housing white paper 67–9, 70 Housing of the Working Classes Act 1890 17, 18 immigration 126–7 Improved Industrial Dwellings Company 16 Improvement Areas 23 improvement grants 102 ‘In Business for Neighbourhoods’ 200–1 income support 46 Increase of Rent and Mortgage Interest (War Restrictions) Act 1915 20 independence housing associations 195–7, 198–9 social care and supporting people 244 Index of Local Deprivation (ILD) 262, 268 individual choice 223 industrialization 13, 14 inequality 107–10, 291–3 informal care 244 Institute of Housing 214 institutions impact of NPM and modernization on institutional structure 142–3 institutional capacity 199 institutional reform and social welfare 241–4 international variations international context 5–7 interwar period 19–27 Investment Partnering 144, 195, 209, 210 ‘joined-up’ government 62, 130, 137–8 Kendall, J 185 key worker living scheme 82, 106–7 Kleinman, M 116–17, 118 Labour governments 222 1964 33 1970s 34–5 1997–2004 66–86; affordable housing 78, 104–7; alternatives to housing policy 73–5; housing management 215–17; modernization 43, 135–8, 145, 156–7; new comprehensive housing policy 81–5, 285–6; new housing policy 66–73; responses to social exclusion 261–7; return of housing policy 76–81; Right to Buy 99–100 postwar 28–30 Large-Scale Voluntary Transfer (LSVT) see stock transfers larger households 292 lavatories 27 Lawson, N 201 leasehold properties 94, 98–9 Leasehold Reform, Housing and Urban Development Act 1993 40, 59 legislation Conservative governments 1979–97 39–40 1848–1914 16, 17 housing, care and support 235–7 impact of NPM on 138–41 Labour government 1997–2004 68–9, 70–1 1915–39 19, 20 1945–77 31 public health 16, 17 see also under individual Acts Leigh, E 148 lettings outside Rent Acts 117–18 licensing 278 Liverpool 121–6, 127–8, 209, 260 current structure of rented sector 125–6 increasing differentiation in 1990s 124–5 student housing 122, 123–4, 125–6 Lloyd George, D 22 local authorities 18 changing role 10, 43, 143–5 Index discretionary sales 94, 95–6 planning 60–1 private sector renewal 275; loan mechanisms 276–7 refusal to pay Housing Benefit 241 and rent restructuring 172 restructuring 241 Right to Buy 42, 50, 54, 63, 93–102 and stock transfer: impact 80; personnel and practices 193–4; see also stock transfers see also council housing Local Delivery Plans 237 Local Government Act 1888 16 Local Government Act 1988 119 Local Government Act 2000 237 Local Government Board 16 Local Government and Housing Act 1989 40, 53, 162–3 Local Housing Allowance (LHA) 73, 175–7 Local Housing Companies 48, 66 local reference rent 125, 174 Local Strategic Partnerships (LSPs) 264 low-cost home ownership 102–7 low demand 170, 265, 266, 278–9 low-level involvement 229–30 Mallinson, S 219 Malpass, P 4, 29, 188, 196 management reform 130, 131–45 Best Value 67, 136, 216, 217, 222 changing role of local authorities 143–5 impacts of reform 138–43; housing legislation 138–41; institutional structure 142–3; organizational behaviour 141–2 joined-up government and social inclusion 137–8 managerialism 132, 135 modernization 135, 145, 156–7 new public management 131–4, 136, 145, 156–7, 220 managerialism 132, 135 Mandelson, P 74 market housing associations and 187–8, 194–5, 210–11 housing market see housing market places, communities and markets 289–91 relationships 142–3 Marsh, A 69, 177 McGrath, T 202 means test 174–5 Merrett, S 14–15, 18 mixed economy of welfare 179 mixed funding regime 164–5 model dwelling companies 16–18, 178, 181 Modernising Social Services 239, 240 modernization 3–7, 135–8, 145, 156–7 impact on social housing 138–43 Morris, J 11 Mortgage Interest Tax Relief (MIRAS) 35, 47, 67, 92–3 321 mortgage rescue schemes 45 mortgages 44–5, 82–3 changes in lending 42–3 local authority provision of 103 Mullins, D 198 mutuality 294 National Asylum Support Service (NASS) 292 National Audit Office 147–8, 193 National Care Standards Commission (NCSC) 240, 243–4 National Health Service (NHS) 241 National Housing Federation 179, 190, 197, 200–1 national service frameworks (NSFs) 242 negative equity 45 neighbourhood renewal 74–5, 224, 261–71 neighbourhood renewal teams 264 Neighbourhood Renewal Unit (NRU) 137, 264 neighbourhoods 290 Netherlands 5, networks influences on regulation 149–51 management reform and institutional structure 142–3 policy 10–12, 147 New Deal for Communities 75, 137, 262, 263 New Deal for Young People (NDYP) 261–2 new public management (NPM) 131–4, 145, 156–7, 220 Best Value and 136 impact on social housing 138–43 key features 132–4 Newman, J 132, 135, 222 NHS Plan 239 non-profit sector see housing associations Northern Ireland 7–9, 49, 291 housing associations 201–4 Legislative Assembly private housing renewal 272 regulation 148 Northern Ireland Housing Executive (NIHE) 6, 8, 157, 202, 238 Northern Ireland Housing Trust (NIHT) 8, 201–2 Office of the Deputy Prime Minister 171, 172 Office of Public Services Reform (OPSR) 225 Old Houses into New Homes 33 older people 249–50, 257, 292 option appraisal 227–8 organizational behaviour 141–2 organizational culture 193–4 origins of housing policy 13–37 evolution 1915–45 19–27 mature housing policy 1945–79 27–36 policy before 1915 14–19 Our Future Homes 47 overcrowding 24, 35–6, 256 owner-occupation see home ownership 322 Index Parker Morris Report 32–3 participation, tenant 224–6 hard to reach groups 227–30 pathfinder neighbourhoods 262, 263 Peabody Trust 16 performance assessment framework 240 Performance and Innovation Unit 151 performance standards regime 151–4 persistence of social exclusion 253, 255 philanthropy 16–18, 180–1, 201 Phillips, D 196 places: markets, communities and 289–91 planning 242 Barker Review 78–80 for housing and regeneration 59–61 merging with housing 85 points system for rents 168–9 Policy Action Teams 263, 264 policy networks 10–12, 147 policy shaping 199 policy shifts 287–9 policy structures 10–12 political action 13 pooling rents 25, 169 poorer households 24–5 Portugal 5, poverty trap 254 prefabricated dwellings (‘prefabs’) 29 primary care 239–40 Primary Care Trusts (PCTs) 239–40, 243 primary market 125 Priority Estates Project 214 priority need 55 private finance housing associations and 165–7, 185–6 stakeholder in regulation 151–4, 156 Private Finance Initiative (PFI) 68, 156, 157, 180, 227–8, 229, 241 private rented sector 2, 4, 36–7, 112–28, 284 Birmingham 126–7 building rate 1934–39 24 changes 1971–2001 49–50 Conservative governments 1979–97 54; deregulation 115–21 Liverpool 121–6 policy history 113–15 slums before 1915 14–15 private sector renewal 272–82 changing standards 279–81 dealing with private landlords 277–8 history of housing renewal 273–5 implementing regulatory reform order 275 low and changing demand 278–9 measures to stimulate borrowing 276–7 privatization 41–3, 50, 54, 63, 93–102 producer subsidies see subsidies property values 171 public administration 131–2 public choice theory 131–2, 220 public expenditure 38 cash limits 35 Conservative governments 1979–97 51–2, 53–4, 64 Labour government 1997–2004 66–7 social security 46 public health 14–16 Public Health Acts 16, 17 public provision phase 60 public rented housing see council housing Public Service Agreements (PSAs) 135, 147, 237 public service orientation 134 Quality and Choice Green Paper (2000) 67–9, 70, 225, 230 race housing deprivation and tenure 260 see also Black and minority ethnic groups Rachman, Peter 33 rationalization 209 Ravetz, A 214 Raynsford, N 66 recession, economic 44–5, 63 ‘redlining’ 109 reference rents 125, 174 refugees 126–7, 292 refurbishment 273 regeneration, economic 48, 61–2, 73–5, 244, 261–71 regional assemblies 77, 85 Regional Housing Boards 76–8, 78, 79, 84, 144, 237, 247 Regional Housing Strategies 77, 80 regional planning bodies 79 regional planning executive 79 regionalization 80–1, 135, 237–8, 290–1 registered social landlords 47–8 ‘regulated’ rents 33 regulated competition 155–6 regulation 143, 145–56, 283–4 care services 240 hierarchical influences 146–9 housing associations 150–1, 203; representation 151–4 networks and 149–51 social welfare policy and 243–4 who regulates social landlords 145–6 regulatory burden 154 regulatory capture 154–5, 295 regulatory code regime 151–4 regulatory impact assessments 148 Regulatory Impact Unit 148, 151 Regulatory Reform (Housing Assistance) (England and Wales) Order 2002 71, 275, 281 regulatory web 149–51 Reid, B 223 Rent Act 1957 30–2 Rent Act 1965 31, 33, 34 rent allowances 46 rent caps 50 Index rent controls 19–21, 112, 114–15 rent freeze 34 rent to mortgage scheme 59, 63 rent pooling 25, 169 rent rebates 30, 34, 42, 46 rented housing see council housing; housing associations; private rented sector; social housing rents ‘fair’ 33, 34 and poorer tenants in 1930s 25 ‘regulated’ 33 social rented sector 168–73; restructuring 72–3, 170–3 repossessions 44–5 residual approach 30–6 resistance 253, 255 resource dependency 198 Revenue Deficit Grant 164, 165 Right to Buy 42, 50, 54, 63, 93–102 right to compensation for improvements 59 right to manage 59 right to repair 59, 63 Ronan Point flats 32 Room, G 253, 255 Rough Sleepers Initiative 46, 57, 256 Royal Commission on the Future of Long Term Care 239 Royal Commission on the Housing of the Working Classes 18 Royal Sanitary Commission 15 sale of council houses 42, 50, 54, 63, 93–102 discretionary sales 95–6 policy impacts 100–2 Right to Buy 94–5, 96–7 second wave 98–9 third wave 99–100 sanitation 14–16 Schedule A tax 92 Scotland 7, 8, 9, 238, 239, 291 housing associations 204–6 private housing renewal 272 regulation 148 Scottish Homes (later Communities Scotland) 57, 119, 204, 205 Scottish Special Housing Association 119 Second World War 28, 114 secondary market 125–6 segregation 292, 294 service planning 242–3 shared ownership 105–6, 107 Shelter 33, 185 sheltered housing 185, 250 shorthold/short tenancies 43, 116, 120 Single Regeneration Budget (SRB) 62, 262 Challenge Fund 48 single room rent 174 slum clearance 23–4, 121–2, 273, 274 slums 14–15, 18 Smith, S 219 323 social exclusion 253–71, 294 and housing 254–8 housing tenure and 258–61 New Labour’s response 261–7; changing demand for housing 266–7; key changes of approach 265–6 Sustainable Communities see Sustainable Communities Plan Social Exclusion Unit (SEU) 74, 137, 261, 263, 264 social groups 11 social housing 212–34, 284, 285 changing tenant profile 217–20; approaches to lettings 219–20 choice-based lettings 72, 225–6, 230–3, 233–4 Conservative governments 1979–97 43, 48–9, 54–5, 56 consumerism and choice 220–6 future policy 293–4 governance relationships 129–30 housing management see housing management international context 6–7 involving hard to reach groups 227–30 Labour government 1997–2004 83–5 management reform see management reform origins and development of management 213–17 registered social landlords 47–8 see also council housing; housing associations social housing finance 158–77 Housing Benefit see Housing Benefit principles of subsidies 158–60 producer subsidies for council housing 19, 22, 23, 24, 29, 30, 34, 160–3 producer subsidies for housing associations 163–8 rents and restructuring 168–73 Social Housing Grants (SHG) 61, 164, 179, 180, 207 social inclusion 137–8 social security expenditure 46 reform in late 1980s 56–7 Social Security and Housing Benefits Act 1982 39, 52 social welfare policies 235–52 changes 235–41; care in the community 238–9; finance for support services 240–1; performance and regulation 240; primary care 239–40 institutional change and impacts 241–4 Supporting People 64, 216, 235, 244–50, 251–2 Society of Women Housing Estate Managers (SWHEM) 213 socioeconomic groups 258–9 Spain 5, specialization of staff 216 stamp duty 67 324 Index standards 35–6, 243 changing and private sector renewal 279–81 council housing 26–7, 32–3, 36 Decent Homes Standard 147, 193, 279–80 unfit dwellings 254–6, 280 starter homes initiative 82, 106–7 state housing associations and 187, 188–9, 210–11 role of central government 10–11 state intervention stock investment options 227–8 stock transfers 189–94, 205–6, 207–8, 211 Conservative governments 1979–97 47–8, 50, 63 involving hard to reach groups 227–8 Labour government 1997–2004 68, 144 student housing 122, 123–4, 125–6 subsidiaries 167–8 subsidies 158–68 Conservative governments 1979–97 51, 52–3 and high-rise housing 32 and lower rents for the poor 25 principles 158–60 producer subsidies for council housing 19, 22, 23, 24, 29, 30, 34, 160–3 producer subsidies for housing associations 163–8 support services, finance for 240–1 Supporting People 64, 216, 235, 244–50, 251–2 concerns and uncertainties 247–9 impacts on older people 249–50 implementation structures 246–7 policy process 245–6 Sustainable Communities Plan 71, 76–8, 106, 156, 157, 285, 290 five-year plan 71, 81–5, 106, 285 and neighbourhood renewal 267–9 Tai Cymru 204, 205 taxation MIRAS 35, 47, 67, 92–3 role in home ownership 92–3 tax credits 159 taxpayers, representation of 151–4 temporary accommodation 55, 256–7 Tenant Management Organizations (TMOs) 59 tenants changing profile 217–20 involvement and social housing 224–6; involving hard to reach groups 227–30 rights 57–9 tenants’ charters 57, 58 Tenants’ Choice 43, 57–8, 63, 155 tenants’ incentive scheme 58 Tenants’ Rights (Scotland) Act 1980 42 tenure age, household type and employment 91 changes 1971–2001 49–50 differences within the UK 7, 8, 9–10 dwelling age and type 90 fragmentation 284 international context 5–6 modernization 1914–79 36–7 and party allegiance 64–5 and social exclusion 258–61 see also under individual forms of tenure third sector 187–8, 195–201 Tower Hamlets 260 transitional phase of planning 60–1 Tudor Walters Committee 22 turning points 14 Ulster Garden Villages 202 unfit dwellings 254–6, 280 unpopular housing 263, 266–7 Urban Development Corporations 59 urban policy review 1994 62 urban regeneration 48, 61–2, 73–5, 244, 261–71 Urban Task Force 75 urbanization 13, 14 user empowerment 130 values 199–201 voluntarism, housing associations and 195–6, 197–8 voluntary sector 16–18, 180–1 vouchers 159 Waldegrave, W 115 Wales 7, 8, 9, 291 housing associations 204–6 National Assembly 206 private housing renewal 272 regulation 148 Walker, B 171, 172, 177 Walker, R M 138–41 Weaver, M 137 welfare state 28–30 see also social welfare policies Whitehead, C M E 116–17, 118 whole systems approach 235, 251, 286–7 Wilding, P 19 William Sutton Trust 26 Williams, P 168 Winn, M 11 ‘worst estates’ 262–3 Young, Sir G 56 ... explanations of policy change in the increasingly fragmented public policy environment in Chapter 14 Chapter The Origins of Housing Policy Most accounts of housing policy in the UK link its development... than policy on the shape and functioning of the housing system This is exemplified by the ‘Right to Buy’ scheme (Chapter 5), the 12 Housing Policy in the UK growing dependence of the social housing. .. on housing have been maintained In the 1950s and 1960s housing in Northern Ireland was more distinct from the rest of the UK than it is today, although the existence of the Northern Ireland Housing