Ebook Housing, the state and the poor – Policy and practice in three Latin American cities is concerned with the housing and service needs of the poor in Latin America and how they are articulated and satisfied. It examines the aims and implementation of government policies towards low-income housing dwellers and tries to relate those policies to the wider interests of the state. It discusses how the poor perceive the constraints on barrio servicing and improvement, their involvement in community organisations and the role the community and its leaders play in influencing state action. Since housing and servicing issues directly impinge on the interests of politicians, bureaucrats, landowners and real-estate developers, as well as on those of the poor, patterns of provision mirror closely the nature of the relationships between the poor and the wider urban society. The main theme of this book is thus the allocation of resources within urban society and the operation of political and administrative power at city level. The book will interest not only those concerned with housing and planning but also those who wish to understand social and economic policies towards the poor in most kinds of Third World city.
CAMBRIDGE LATIN AMERICAN STUDIES GENERAL EDITOR SIMON COLLIER ADVISORY COMMITTEE MARVIN BERNSTEIN, MALCOLM DEAS CLARK W REYNOLDS, ARTURO VALENZUELA 50 HOUSING, THE STATE AND THE POOR For a list of other books in the Cambridge Latin American Studies series please see page 320 HOUSING, THE STATE AND THE POOR POLICY AND PRACTICE IN THREE LATIN AMERICAN CITIES ALAN GILBERT University College and Institute of Latin American Studies, London and PETER M WARD University College, London The right of the University of Cambridge to print and sell all manner of books was granted by Henry VIII in 1534 The University has printed and published continuously since 1584 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge London New York New Rochelle Melbourne Sydney CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo, Delhi Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www Cambridge org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521104548 © Cambridge University Press 1985 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 1985 This digitally printed version 2009 A catalogue recordfor this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 84-9521 ISBN 978-0-521-26299-6 hardback ISBN 978-0-521-10454-8 paperback Contents List of List of tables Acknowledgements Abbreviations figures page vi vii viii ix Introduction: the research issues and strategy Bogota, Mexico City and Valencia: the social, economic and political backcloth 28 Access to land 61 Servicing low-income settlements 130 Community organization: participation or social control? 174 Conclusions 240 Appendix The methodology in detail 255 Appendix Description of the survey settlements 271 Notes Bibliography Author index Subject index 284 293 311 314 Figures 10 11 12 13 14 Locations of the study cities Page 20 Locations of the study settlements 26 Administrative and political boundaries of Mexico City 55 Distribution of settlement by housing submarkets in Bogota 63 Distribution of settlement by housing submarkets in Mexico City 64 Distribution of settlement by housing submarkets in Valencia 66 Forms of illegal settlement in Bogota, Mexico City and Valencia 78 113 Price of land in survey barrios in Bogota by year of purchase Residential construction permits in Bogota, 1969, 1973 and 1977 116 Tenure distribution by income group, UK, 1976 123 Tenure distribution by income group, Bogota, 1973 125 Matrix of responsibility for housing and servicing - Bogota DE 136 Matrix of responsibility for housing and servicing - Mexico City 138 Matrix of responsibility for housing and servicing - Valencia 141 VI Tables Comparative data for the barrios sampled in each city page 24 Growth of real gross national product and population, 1965-80 29 Colombia, Mexico, Venezuela: key economic and social indicators 31 Structure of employment in Bogota, Mexico City and Valencia 48 Economic, housing and servicing conditions in the three cities 50 Costs of land acquisition by city and settlement 106 Land acquisition costs relative to incomes 110 Costs of land by city according to other studies 111 Evolution of real land prices by rings and radial sector in Bogota 114 10 Average size of lot for owners in Bogota, Mexico City and Valencia 118 11 Lot size according to other studies 119 12 Tenure structure by city, 1978 120 13 Percentage of dwellings owned and rented by city 121 14 Economic and social variables by city and by tenure 122 15 Ideal-typical pictures of community participation and Latin American reality 176 16 Levels of participation among owners by settlement 204 17 Recognition of leaders by settlement 212 18 Recognition of extra-barrio personages and evaluation of settlement quality 215 19 The characteristics of leaders in the survey barrios 224 Al Services and public utilities used to derive points system for settlement selection 263 A2 Service and public utility scores for selected barrios 264 vii Acknowledgements We should like to thank the Overseas Development Administration for funding the research from 1978 to 1981 and the Department of Geography of University College for providing additional financial assistance during 1981 and 1982 We are also grateful to the Institute of Latin American Studies, London, and the Instituto de Geografia of the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico for providing office space and institutional support The research was carried out by several people who contributed enormously to the final outcome even if their names not appear as authors Dr James Murray and Ms Ann Raymond worked with us from May 1978 until September 1980 They helped us in the design of the project, in the collection of data and in the ordering and processing of that data on our return to London Dr Carlos Zorro Sanchez provided two base papers on urban housing and law in Bogota which helped us extend our knowledge of those phenomena in that city Bill Bell worked with us from 1980 to 1981 helping to process the statistical material and to refine our understanding of the theory of the state Needless to say, none of these people or institutions is responsible for the contents or views expressed in this book We should also like to thank Joanne Stone, Colin Titcombe and Patrick Nunn for their patience with our early efforts at word processing and computing, and Alec Newman, Richard Davidson and Sarah Skinner for preparing the figures Claudette John, Debbie Ryan, and Gwenneth Vardy helped continuously with their prodigious efforts on the word processor Croom Helm, Pergamon Press, and Sage Publications are also to be acknowledged for allowing us to reproduce sections from previously published material Finally, we should like to thank all those Latin Americans who spent time answering our questionnaires and responding to our enquiries Their friendliness and cooperation not only made the data collection relatively painless but also turned the whole research effort into a real pleasure Vlll Abbreviations AD Adeco ANAPO APRA AURIS BANOBRAS BCV BNHUOPSA CADAFE CANTV CAR CAVM CEAS CFE CMA CNC CNOP CODEUR CONASUPO COPEI COPEVI Accion Democratica Supporter of Accion Democratica Alianza Nacional Popular Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana (Peru) Accion Urbana y de Integracion Social Banco Nacional de Obras Banco Central de Venezuela Banco Nacional Hipotecaria Urbano de Obras Publicas Companfa Anonima de Administracion y Fomento Electrico Companfa Anonima Nacional Telefonos de Venezuela Corporacion Autonoma Regional de la Sabana de Bogota y de los Valles de Ubate y Chiquinquira Comision del Agua del Valle de Mexico Comision Estatal de Aguas y Saneamiento Comision de Fuerza y Electricidad Corporacion de Mercadeo Agricola Confederacion Nacional de Campesinos Confederacion Nacional de Organizaciones Populares Comision de Desarrollo Urbano Companfa Nacional de Subsistencias Populares Comite de Organizacion Polftica Electoral Independiente Centro Operacional de Poblamiento y de Vivienda IX Bibliography 307 Shaffer, B and Lamb, G (eds.) 1981 Can equity be organized: equity, development analysis and planning, Gower and UNESCO Silva Michelena, J A., and Sonntag, H R 1979 Elproceso electoral de 1978: su perspectiva historica estructural, Ateneo de Caracas Simmons, A B., and Cardona, R 1973 Family planning in Colombia, changes in attitude and acceptance, 1964-69, International Development Research Centre Skinner, R 1981 Community organization, collective development and politics in self-help housing: Villa El Salvador, Lima 1971-1976, unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Cambridge 1982 Self help, community organization and politics: Villa El Salvador, Lima, in Ward, P M., ed Self-help housing: a critique, Mansell Publishing Co., 209-29 Smith, P 1979 Labyrinths ofpower: political recruitment in twentieth century Mexico, Princeton University Press Solaun, M 1980 Colombian politics: historical characteristics and problems, in Berry, R A., et al., eds Politics of compromise: coalition government in Colombia, Transaction Books, 1-58 Solaun, M F., Cepeda, F., and Bagley, B 1973 Urban reform in Colombia: the impact of the 'politics of games' on public policy, in Rabinovitz, F., and Trueblood, F., eds Latin American Urban Research, 3, 97-132 Stein, S., and Stein, B H 1970 The colonial heritage of Latin America: essays on economic dependence in perspective, Oxford University Press Stevenson, R 1979 Housing programs and policies in Bogota: an historical/descriptive analysis World Bank City Study Research Project RPO 671-47 Stewart, W S 1977 Public administration, in Martz, J., and Myers, D., eds., Venezuela: the democratic experience, Praeger, 215-34 Sudra, T L 1976 Low-income housing system in Mexico City, unpublished doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Svenson, G 1977 El desarrollo economico departamental 1960-1975, Inandes, Bogota Tello, C 1978 La politica economica en Mexico, 1970-1976, Siglo XXI Mexico Travieso, F 1972 Ciudad, region y sub desarrollo, Fondo Editorial Comun Turner, J F C 1967 Barriers and channels for housing development in modernizing countries, Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 33, 167-81 1968 Housing priorities, settlement patterns and urban development in modernizing countries, Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 34, 354-63 1969 Uncontrolled urban settlements: problems and policies, in Breese, G., ed The city in newly developing countries, Prentice Hall, 507-31 1972 Housing as a verb, in Turner, J F C , and Fichter, R., eds Freedom to Build, Collier Macmillan, 148-75 1976 Housing by people, Marion Boyars Turner, J F C , et al 1963 Dwelling resources in South America, Architectural Design, 33, 360-93 308 Bibliography Turner, J F C , and Fichter, R., eds 1972 Freedom to Build, Collier Macmillan Udy, S H., Jnr 1969 Administrative rationality, social setting, and organizational development, in Litterer, J A., ed Organizations: structure and behaviour, John Wiley, 343-51 Ugalde, A., etal 1974 The urbanization process of a poor Mexican neighbourhood: the case of San Felipe del Real Adicional3 Ciudad Juarez, special publication of the Institute of Latin American Studies, Austin Ugalde, L 1972 El locus' politico del desarrollo de la comunidad en Venezuela, Cuadernos de la Sociedad Venezolana de Planificacion, 106-7, 21-34 UNECLA 1981 Statistical Summary of Latin America 1960-1980, Santiago, Chile UNESCAP 1982 Policies towards urban slums and squatter settlements in the ESCAP region, ESCAP, Bangkok Unikel, L 1972 La dindmica del crecimiento de la Ciudad de Mexico, Fundacion para estudios de poblacion, Mexico DF 1976 El desarrollo urbano de Mexico: diagnostico e implicaciones futuras, El Colegio de Mexico Urrutia, M 1969 The development of the Colombian trade union movement, Yale University Press Urrutia, M., and Berry, R A 1975 La distribucion del ingreso en Colombia, La Carreta Valladares, L Prado 1978 Working the system: squatter response to resettlement in Rio de Janeiro, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 2, 12-25 Van der Linden, ]., et al 1982 Situation and processes of informal housing in Karachi, Free University, Amsterdam, Department of Sociology and Geography of Developing Countries Mimeo Veliz, C , ed 1965 Obstacles to change in Latin America, Oxford University Press Venezuela, Banco Obrero 1963 Informe General de Valencia, Caracas 1970 Estudio sobre la situacion del problema de la vivienda en las areas urbanas: segunda parte Estudio por ciudades Vol 11: Valencia, Caracas Venezuela, CORDIPLAN (Oficina Central de Coordinacion y Planificacion de la Presidencia de la Republica) 1976 V plan de la Nacion, 1976-80, Caracas 1981 VI Plan de la Nadon 1981-5, vols., Caracas Venezuela, Direccion, 1978 Ministerio de Fomento, Direccion General de Estadistica y Censos Nacionales, X Censo de Poblacion y Vivienda Venezuela, F U N D A C O M U N (Fundacion Nacional para el Desarrollo) 1978a La accion del estado y el ordenamiento de las areas marginales en el pais Paper given to Seminario Nacional sobre Politicas de Bienestar Social y de Poblacion, Caracas 15-19 May, 1978 1978b Boletin Estadistica 1969-78, Caracas 1979 Manual del vecino Caracas 1982a Participacion popular y desarrollo de la comunidad, Caracas Bibliography 309 1982b Primer seminario sobre participacion integral en el desarrollo de las areas marginales - material de apoyo, Caracas Venezuela, INAVI (Instituto Nacional de la Vivienda) 1979 INAVI: Programa de Vivienda, Caracas Venezuela, INOS (Instituto Nacional de Obras Sanitarios) 1977 Informacion estadistica del comportamiento del presupuesto para el periodo 1969— 1975, Caracas Venezuela, IVSS (Instituto Venezolano de Seguros Sociales) 1979 Anuario Estadistico 1979, Caracas Venezuela, MINDUR (Ministerio del Desarrollo Urbano) 1981 Distrito Valencia - Area Urbana: Estudio Eco-ambiental y socio-economico Plan de Desarrollo Primer Informe, Valencia Vernez, G 1973 Bogota's pirate settlements: an opportunity for metropolitan development Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley Villamizar, R 1980 Land prices in Bogota between 1955 and 1978: a descriptive analysis, World Bank City Project Paper No 10 Wallerstein, I 1974 The modern world system: capitalist agriculture and the origins of the European world economy in the sixteenth century Academic Press 1980 The modern world system II: mercantilism and the consolidation of the European world-economy, 1600-1759, Academic Press Ward, P M 1976a In search of a home: social and economic characteristics of squatter settlements and the role of self-help housing in Mexico City, Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Liverpool 1976b Intra-city migration to squatter settlements in Mexico City, Geoforum, 7, 369-83 1976c The squatter settlement as slum or housing solution: the evidence from Mexico City, Land Economics, 52, 330-46 1981a Political pressure for urban services: the response of two Mexico city administrations, Development and Change, 12, 379-407 1981b Urban problems and planning in Mexico City, in Pacione, M., ed Urban problems and planning in the modern world, Croom Helm, 28-64 1981c Financing land acquisition for self-build housing schemes, Third World Planning Review, 3, 7-20 ed 1982a Self-help housing: a critique, Alexandrine Press, Mansell Publishing Co., London 1982b Informal housing: conventional wisdoms reappraised, Built Environment, 8, 85-94 Webb, R 1975 Public policy and regional incomes in Peru, in Cornelius, W A., and Trueblood, F M., eds Latin American Urban Research, 5, 223-38 Weber, M 1962 Basic concepts in sociology, Citadel Press 1969 Bureaucracy, in Litterer, J A., ed Organizations: structure and behaviour, John Wiley, 29-39 Whitehead, L 1979 The economic policies of the Echeverria sexenio What went wrong and why? Paper delivered at the Latin American Studies Association, Pittsburgh 310 Bibliography 1980 Mexico from boom to bust: a political evaluation of the 1976-9 stabilization program, World Development, 8, 843-63 1981 On 'governability' in Mexico, Bulletin of Latin American Research, 1, 27-47 Wiesner, F 1978 Aguas para Bogota, in Camara de Comercio, Bogota: estructura y principales servicios publicos, Bogota, 239-52 Wionczek, M A 1971 Inversion y technologia extranjera en America Latina, Editorial Joaquin Mortiz World Bank 1978 Urban policy issues and opportunities, Vol 1., World Bank Staff Working Paper No 283 1980a Shelter, Washington DC 1980b Water supply and waste disposal, Poverty and basic needs series, Washington DC Zorro Sanchez, C 1979 Normas juridicas y realidad social: la evolucion reciente de las disposiciones en materia de urbanismo en Bogota Document for ODA-financed project on 'Public intervention, housing and land use in Latin American cities' Zorro Sanchez, C , and Gilbert, A G 1982 Tolerancia o rechazo de los asentamientos urbanos irregulares El caso de Bogota, Revista Interamericana de Planificacion, 16, 138-70 Author index Abrams, C 13 AbuLughod, J Algara Cosio, I 175 Amato, P W 64 Amis, P 113, 123 Angel, S 13, 14,244,249,253 Arguello, M 182 Arias, J 51 Bagley, B M 35, 36, 37, 85, 179, 184, 185-6 Baross, P 10, 113,244 Batley, R 150,200,242,252 Bell, W S 284 Bhooshan, B S 247 Bigler, G E 42 Bolivar, T 286 Boonyabancha, S 253 Bose, A 253 Bourne, L 123 Brett, S 12, 244 Bromley, R 5, Buia, C E de 210-11, 216 Burgess, R 9, 243, 248 Butterworth, D 86, 203 Cannon, M W 21, 149, 169, 170, 171 Cardoso, R H 3, 241 Carroll, A 84, 111,113, 117, 118,287 Castells, M 2, 8, 15, 16, 131, 135, 181-2, 240 Cepeda, F 37, 153 Chance, J 203 Cilento, A 286 Cisneros, A 25, 236 Cleaves, P S 75, 81 Collier, D 7, 13, 33, 68, 74, 75, 81, 178, 181 Connolly, P 87, 88, 95, 134, 147, 178 Conway, D 243 Cornelius, W A 13, 15, 56, 74, 76, 88, 92, 94, 95, 166, 181, 182-3, 189, 213, 214,217,218,223,291 Cosio Villegas, D 42, 191 DaCamargo, C P 17, 76 Daykin, D S 208, 288 DeKadt, E.I 77 Diesing, P 151 Dietz, H 75 DinkelspielJ.R 150, 155 Dix, R H 34, 36, 37 Doebele, W 7, 75, 76, 82 Dore, R 177 Drakakis-Smith, D W 2, 247 DurandJ 90 Durand Lasserve, A 10 Dwyer, D J Eckstein, S E 15, 39, 41, 179, 180, 217, 219, 292 Edwards, M A 14, 121, 125, 126, 205, 246,248 Edel, M 36, 37, 179, 184, 185-6 Evans, H 56 Evers, H D 113,244 Fagen, R 40, 290 Fanon, F 15 Feo Caballero, O 51,289 Ferras, R 94 Fichter, R 13 Fisher, J 205 Foster, D W 68 Fox, D.J 86,93 Fox, R 51 Friedmann, J 2, 150 Friedrich, P 182 Fuentes, A L 162, 207 311 312 Author index Garza, G 54, 56, 93 Gauhan, T O 37, 217, 227 Geisse, G 10, 244 Gerry, C 5, Gilbert, A G 2, 4, 7, 12, 13, 14, 17, 37, 46, 51, 74, 82, 149, 242, 248, 285, 287 Gil Yepes, J A 44, 45 Goldrich, D 15 Gomez, H 72, 82, 84, 111 Grimes, O F Grindle, M S 40, 96, 154, 181 Grove, J W 133 Guerra, de A R 210-11, 216 Guerrero, Ma T 86, 88, 89, 94, 111, 236 Gugler, J 2, 7, 12, 74 Hamer, A M 123-4, 125, 287 Handelman, H 15, 182 Hansen, R D 39, 41, 42, 91, 156 Harloe, M 4, 16, 132 Hart, K Hartline, N 47, 109 Hay, R Healey, P 21 Hoskin, G 153 Malloy, J M 6, 135 Mangin, W 11, 13, 16, 177, 202 Marchand, B 68 Mars, Z 177 Martin de la Rosa, 94, 111 Martinez, L G 84, 158 Martz, J 43 Michl, S 180 Miliband, R Misra, R P 247 Mohan, R 47, 109, 119, 247 Montano, J 15, 182, 183, 192, 219-20, 229, 237, 290, 291 Moser, C 5, 68 Muiioz, H 56 Murillo, G 178 Myers, D 43 Nalven, J 76, 156, 288 Negron, M 244 Nelson, J M 2, 13, 74, 179, 180, 182, 202, 205, 210, 216 Nikkan, P 98, 103 Nun,J.5 O'Donnell, G A 3, 32, 33, 35 Janssen, R 16, 182,235 Johnson, J J 3, 31 Johnson, K F 42 Kline, H F 34 Kusnetzoff, F 75 Lamb, G 242 Lascano,J A 284 Latorre, M 288 Laun,J.I Leeds, A 7, 11, 15,75,76, 179 Leeds, E 75, 179 Linn,J.F 252, 288 Linz,J.J 32,33 Lipset, S M 3, 31 Lloyd, P Lojkine,J 132 Lopez Diaz, C 88, 286 Losada, R 72, 82, 84, 111, 162, 207, 208, 284 Lovera, A 58, 72, 99, 104, 285, 286 Lozano, A A 134 Lozano, E 75 Lubell, H 46 McCallum, D 46 Padgett, V L 39 Pahl, R E 4, 132 Palma, G 241 Paredes, L R 84 Payne, G 2, Pearse,A 175 Peattie, L 8, 11, 13 Peil, M Penniman, H R 43 Peralta, G 124, 287, 290 Perez Perdomo, R 98, 103 Perlman,J 8, 179 Perlo, M 193 Pickvance, C 16, 182 Pinilla, L 82, 208 Portes,A 8, 75, 175,206 Posada, A J 150 Poulantzas, N Pradilla, E Purcell,J.39, 40, 41 Purcell, S 39, 40, 41 Quijano, A Ray, T 15, 16, 75, 101, 182, 183, 197, 200, 210, 223, 232-3 Author index Reveiz, E 37, 188,236 Reyna,J.39, 156 Richardson, H 245 Ridler, N 71 Riesco,J 132 Rivera Ortiz, A I 150, 151 Roberts, B 2, 8, 9, 182 Robock, S H 150 Rosas, L E 71 Roxborough, I 2, 241 Sanin Angel, H 133,286 Saunders, P 2, 4, 16, 132, 182, 246, 289 Schteingart, M 54, 93, 111 Sethuraman, S V Shaffer, B 242 Silva Michelena, A 284 Skinner, R 180, 181 Smith, P 38, 39, 40, 41, 96, 154, 156, 284-5 Solaun, M 34 Sonntag, H R 284 Stein, B H 153 Stein, S 153 Stepan, A 32 Stevenson, R 178, 179 Stewart, W S 45, 147, 155 Stiefel, M.I 77 Sudra,T L I l l 313 Tello, C 94 Tuohy, W 40, 290 Turner, J F C 11, 13, 75, 123, 177, 178, 179,254 Udy, S H.,151 Ugalde, A 219 Ugalde, L 197 Ungar, E 178 Unikel, L 55, 87 Urrutia, M 47 Valladares, L Prado 75 Van der Linden, J 123 Vergara, A 124,287,290 Veliz, C 179 Vernez, G 52, 75, 82 Villamizar, R 113, 115, 117, 119, 247 Wallerstein, I 240 Walton, J 8, 175,206 Ward, P M 2, 4, 12, 13, 14, 17, 52, 56, 76, 94, 97, 111, 149, 155, 181, 182, 192, 248,249, 285 Weber, M 150, 152 Whitehead, L 42 Wiesner, F 134 Wulff, R Subject index AD 42-3, 156, 197, 214, 221, 233-4 Agrarian Reform: Law 89; Ministry 91 Alliance for Progress 12, 177-9 ANAPO 34, 35, 36, 83, 160, 164, 228 APRA178 Argentina 33 AURIS 97 authoritarianism 18, 31, 32 auxilios 187,209, 229 Banco Obrero 198 Barranquilla 68, 81 Betancourt, Romulo 43 Bigott, Luis 103 Bogota 28, 46-54, 63-4, 78, 136-8, 160-5, 183-9,237 community action programmes 183-9, 208-9; levels of participation 203, 206-7; recognition of leaders 211-13; importance of outside support and political parties 215, 217-18 community leadership 223-9 economic structure 46-51, 53 housing 24-6, 47, 50-1,63 land: access to 63, 72, 77-85, 244-5; costs 105-12; changing price 112-25; changing tenure patterns 117-27 population and urban growth 46 power structure of Special District 146, 209 provision of construction permits 116 provision of services 136-8, 146, 147-8, 155-6; provision of water 160-5 survey settlements 271-6; comparative data for 24-6; forms of illegal settlement 78; costs of land acquisition in each 106—7; levels of resident participation 204; recognition of leaders 212; importance of outside support 215; public utilities in each 264 welfare provision 47-51 barriada (see also irregular settlement) 178,181 Brazil 33, 135,205 'bridgeheaders' 123, 129 Bucaramanga 125, 205 building materials, provision of 137, 139, 142, 145 bureaucracy 4, 14, 32-3, 74, 149-56 bureaucratic authoritarianism 4, 12, 32, 34 bureaucratic behaviour 10, 14, 32-3, 96, 161-4, 166-71, 191-2,252-3 influence of International Agencies 161, 171 measures and definitions of behaviour 152-3 'political rationality' 149-51, 155, 157, 164, 169, 171, 186-7, 192,253 'technical rationality' 32, 34, 149-51, 157, 161-4, 168,253 caciques (see also leaders) 182-3, 222, 22932 CADAFE, 198 Caldera, Rafael 198 camarillas 40 Campamento Dos de Octubre 236 capital accumulation, changing rate of 133 Caracas 45, 68, 147, 169, 197 Cardenas, Lazaro 41 caudillo 42 CAVM 167 CEAS 165, 168 Central de Provivienda 80 'charity' sector, see health care Chile 15, 180,205 Chingaza project 161 class struggle 15 314 Subject index CNC 39, 40 CNOP 39, 40, 190, 192, 219, 230, 236 collective consumption, means of 131-4, 181-2 Colombia, 19, 32-3, 46-54 economy 19, 28-30, 132-3 modernization of the bureaucracy 153 political structure 19, 34-8, 151 population growth, 29-30 state 34-8 colonias populates (see also irregular settlement) 56 Community Action, Department of see DAAC community land 6, 65, 67, 68, 89-91, 99, 248-9 community organization 16, 174-239 factors affecting creation 202—5 community participation 16, 17, 98, 2058, 207, 245, 249 for local physical improvements 174, 185,195,201-2,245 for purposes of social control 174, 177, 180, 195-6,201-2,245 history of its development in Latin America 177-83 levels of resident participation 205-7 comparative analyses, see methodology compensation, for loss of land 103-4 conscientizacion 177 Consejo consultivo del DF190 Conservative Party (Colombia) 34, 36, 228 consolidation process, see housing 'consolidators' 123, 129 cooptation 15, 37, 177, 179-80, 219-20 Copacabana 68 COPEI42-3, 156, 197, 214, 221, 233-4 CoRett91,279 corruption, see graft CTM 39, 40 Cuba 178 'culture of poverty* 175, 177 'customary land', see community land DAAC 38, 161, 179, 185-8, 203 debt of the DDF 193 delegados 167 democracy 18, 31; and theories of economic growth 3,30 dependency theory 241 DGAyS 165 DGCOH 165, 167 315 dictatorships drainage, see water, servicing EAAB 160, 164 Echeverria, Luis 40, 92, 157, 166, 237, 280; and low-income residents 190, 193,219-20 economic growth 29 efficiency and bureaucratic performance 15,185,252 ejido/ejidal land {see also community land) 65, 68, 69, 89-91; in Venezuela 98-105 elections 37 electricity 156-7, 207, 252-3; agencies responsible for provision in each city 137, 140, 142 employment 10, 17, 122 exchange value 243 factions 151 favelas (see also irregular settlement) 68, 179 fideicomiso 94 FIDEURBE191 FINEZA236,281 formal sector 5, 8, 67, 69 fraccionamientos clandestinos, see irregular settlement Frei Montalva, Eduardo 180 Frente, see National Front FUNDACOMUN 198-9 FUNVAL 58 graft 91, 96 Guayaquil 68 'guests' 123-4 Hank Gonzalez, Carlos 94, 97 health care: agencies responsible for provision in each city 137, 140, 142-3, 145 Herrera Campins, Luis 199 housing (see also irregular settlements) 2, 6,12,17,47,50-2,83,251-2 'consolidation' 10, 61 densities 24-5 ease of access to 126-7 markets 5, 12 modes of production 5, 9, 10 provision5, 137, 139, 142, 178, 251-2 'social interest' 178 316 Subject index housing (cont.) tenure (see also renters, 'sharers') 118-27 ICT70, 84, 179,272 IDB171 illegal subdivisions (see also irregular settlement) 7, 69, 75-8, 80-1, 82-3, 86-9, 99 import substituting industrialization 30 'improvement boards' (State of Mexico) 84 income: distribution 10, 47, 56, 58; levels found in survey settlements 122 INDECO 97 INOS 169-70 informal sector 5, 6, 8, 53, 67 invasions (see also irregular settlement) 7, 69, 75-8, 80, 91-3, 98-9, 102-5 irregular settlement 13, 23, 56, 69, 73, 75-7, 80-93, 100, 105-7, 248 Jimenez Cantu, Jorge, Ejercito de trabajo 210 juntas de accion comunal 184-9, 223, 228, 274 juntas de vecinos 184, 190-6, 210, 231 juntaspro-mejoras 184, 197, 201-2 Lake Guataparo 65 Lake Texcoco 64, 65, 87 land 6, 61-129, 136, 139, 142, 144, 246-7 acquisition (see also Bogota, Mexico City, Valencia) 7-8, 23, 105-27 banks 253 changing price of land 112-17 conversion process 62, 66-7, 69, 80-1, 86-92, 103, costs/prices 8, 71-2, 104-12, 246-7 legalization of holdings, see regularization markets 5, 10, 12, 62-7, 69, 70, 247, 253 values 14, 67, 70, 72, 253 leaders/leadership (see also caciques) 16, 23, 101, 182, 253; as 'brokers' or intermediaries 189; recognition rates by residents 211-16; characteristics of 222-35; power base 227-30, 232 Liberal Party (Colombia) 34, 36, 228 Lima 68, 75, 177 Lleras Restrepo, Carlos 36, 185-6 Lopez Michelson, Alfonso 35 Lopez Portillo, Jose 97, 193 lot sizes 119,244 low-income settlements, see irregular settlements MAS 234 Medina, Trino 101 methodology 18-27, 249-50, 255-70 choice of cities 18-19, 21, 256 choice of countries 19 choice of settlements 23-4, 260-4 comparative analyses (merits of) 249-50 interviewing 21-2, 27, 257-8, 260, 264-7 land cost analysis 105-12 methodological problems encountered 108,268-70 questionnaire design 27, 259-60, 264-70 Mexico 19, 32-3, 38-42, 54-7, 151 Congressional elections (1979) 220 economy 19, 28-30, 132-3 modernization of the bureaucracy 154 political reforms 38 political structure 19, 38-42, 154 population growth 29-30 state 30-4, 38-42 Mexico City 28, 48-51, 54-7, 65, 78, 138-41, 189-96,237 community action programmes 189-96, 209-10; levels of resident participation 203, 206-7; recognition rates of local leaders by residents 212-13; importance of outside support and political parties 215, 218-20 community leadership 229-32 economic structure 48-51, 54, 56 housing 24-6, 50-1, 54, 64, 87 land: access to 65, 72, 76, 78-9, 85-98, 244-5; land costs 105-12; impact upon tenure patterns 117-27 political boundaries of 55 population and urban growth 54 power structure of local government 146-7, 194-5,218-19 provision of services 138-46, 148, 157; water 165-8 survey settlements 276—82, comparative data for 24-6; forms of illegal settlement 78; costs of land acquisition in each 106-7; levels of resident participation 204; recognition of leaders 212; importance of outside support 215; Subject index public utilities in each 264, welfare provision 48-51, 54 migrants 11, 54 migration 54; intra-city 12 military regimes 19 minimum standards legislation (housing) 83, 250 minimum wages 56; and purchasing power of land 108 MIR (Movement of the Revolutionary Left, Chile) 15 MRC94, 169,236 National Front (Colombia): 35-7, 153, 160, 179; creation of'community action' 184-6 Nezahualcoyotl 86, 93, 97, 190, 196, 214, 236,281 Odria, Manuel, patron-client links with the poor 178, 181 Oficina de Colonias 190, 279 oil 28, 41,45 ONDEPJOV180 ORDEC 200, 221,234 PAN 38 PARM 38 Pastrana, Misael 163 patron 40, 154, 181,218 patronage in the bureaucracy 147, 154, 164, 173 patron-clientelism 15, 40, 74, 81, 155, 181, 189, 190-3, 246, 249; in land provision 101; in servicing 218-22 PCM 39 Perez, Carlos Andres 45, 198-9, 234 Perez Jimenez, Marcos 43, 98, 196 permuta 90 Peru 32, 180-1,205 petitioning see community participation PIDUZOB188 'pirate urbanizations', see irregular settlement, Bogota planning 4, 10, 59, 70, 72, 240, 245; for irregular settlements 245, 248, 250-1, 254 pluralism 32 politiqueria (see also bureaucratic behaviour) 186, 240-1 populism 12, 18 Porfiriato 54 PPS38 317 PRI19, 38-9, 41-2, 89, 156, 183, 193, 195, 232, 236; influence in servicing 217-21, 230; mobilization in irregular settlements 189-90 private sector responsibility for servicing 133 privatization of services 132 Procuradaria de Colonias Populares 157, 192,276 promesa de compraventa (see also land, Bogota) 82, 273 property developers 7, 277 PST39 public transport, see transportation public utilities (see also servicing) 132, 145 'queue jumping' for services 166, 170, 219 ranchos (see also irregular settlement) 99 real estate developers, see property developers regente, see Mexico City — power structure regularization (see also land) 8, 10, 60, 85, 91, 95, 157, 244, 246, 248, 250-1; and community mobilization 206-7 rent controls 87 renters, renting (see also 'sharers') 6, 14, 17, 53, 81, 99-100, 244-6; as a survival strategy 121-7; characteristics of 122-5, 247-8; propensity to participate in community works 205-6 repression 15, 41, 181; over land in Venezuela 104 reproduction of labour power residential choice 11 residential segregation 63-4, 65, 251 revolution 15 Rio de Janeiro 75, 179 Rojas Pinilla, Gustavo, see ANAPO rubbish collection in survey cities 138, 141, 143 'ruling coalition' 39 self-help (see also housing; irregular settlement) 2, 9, 11, 13,61, 121, 129, 174, 244, 247; encouragement by Alliance for Progress 178; functionality to different interest groups 74-5, 96, 127, 133 Senties, Octavio 157 318 Subject index servicing (see also Bogota, Mexico City, Valencia) 8, 10, 12, 81,130-73, 252-3; levels in different cities 13, 50-3, 56-7, 59; responsibilities of private and public sectors 135-46 sexenio 153 'sharers', sharing accommodation (see also renters) 6, 14, 17, 244-6; as a survival strategy 121-7; characteristics of 122-5, 247-8; propensity to participate in community works 205-6 SINAMOS180 sites and services 60, 97, 251 smog 57 Soacha209,218 social conflicts (see also urban 'social movements') 131 'social control' (see also community participation) 13, 14, 17, 193, 195 social movements, see urban 'social movements' social policy 132 social security 47, 56-7, 135, 145 squatter settlements, see irregular settlements, invasions state: concept of and nature 4, 30; 'instrumentalist' state 4, 241-3; 'liberal' state 4, 241-3; 'structuralist' state 4, 241-3 state intervention 7, 12, 254; growth of 131-5; in land 71-5, 82-4, 93-8; in servicing 101; to support capital 159 State of Carabobo government 147 State of Mexico government 88; water and drainage agencies 168; channels for community action 196 structuralist perspectives 4, 241 subsidies 5, 158,252 Superintendencia Bancaria 84-5, 117 'survival strategies' 121-7 unemployment, under-employment 11, 46,56 urban: diseconomies 53, 57; Development Plan of Mexico City 95; 'social movements' 16, 94, 97, 182, 206, 235-7; studies urbanization 2, 30, 46 URD43 Uruchurtu, Ernesto 88, 90, 92, 95-6, 166 use value 243 Tachira 42 'Thousand Days' War' 34 transportation 57; public transport in survey cities 138, 140-1, 143, 145 Turbay, Julio Cesar 35, 79 Turbay, Diana (settlement) 218, 225 Valencia 28, 48-51, 57-60, 65, 78, 141-3, 196-202,237 community action programmes 196-202, 210-11; levels of resident participation 203-4, 204-7; recognition rates of leaders by residents 212, 214; influence of outside support and political parties 215,221-2 community leadership, 232-5 economic structure 48-51, 57-9 housing 24-6, 50-1, 60 land: access to 65, 72, 78-9, 98-105, 245; land costs 105-12; impact upon tenure patterns 120-1 population and urban growth 57 power structure in local government 147-8 provision of services 102, 141-6, 148, 158; water 168-71 survey settlements 282-3; comparative data for 24-6; forms of illegal settlement 78; costs of land acquisition in each 106-7; levels of resident participation 204; recognition of leaders 212; importance of outside support 215; public utilities in each 264 welfare provision 48—51, 59 Venezuela 19, 32-3, 42-6, 57-60, 151 economy 19, 28-30, 132-3 modernization of the bureaucracy 155-6 National programme for Community Development 197 political structure 19, 42-6, 101-3 state 30-4, 42-6 Velasco Alvarado, Juan 180-1 unauthorised settlements, see irregular settlements water (and drainage) 57, 157, 160-71, 207, 252-3 Subject index agencies responsible for provision 137, 140, 142, 161-71 costs to the poor in Mexico 166, 252 welfare 17, 47 World Bank City Project, Bogota, 113-16, 125 World Bank support for development projects 161-3 zona urbana ejidal, see ejido zoning 72, 84 319 CAMBRIDGE LATIN AMERICAN STUDIES Simon Collier Ideas and Politics of Chilean Independence 1808-1833 Peter Calvert The Mexican Revolution 1910-1914: The Diplomacy of Anglo-American Conflict Richard Graham Britain and the Onset of Modernization in Brazil, 1850-1914 Leslie Bethell The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave Trade Question, 1807-1869 David Barkin and Timothy King Regional Economic Development: The River Basin Approach in Mexico Celso Furtado Economic Development of Latin America: Historical Background and Contemporary Problems (second edition) 10 D A Brading Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763-1810 11 Jan Bazant Alienation of Church Wealth in Mexico: Social and Economic Aspects of the Liberal Revolution, 1856-1875 12 Brian R Hamnett Politics and Trade in Southern Mexico, 1750-1821 14 Peter Gerhard A Guide to the Historical Geography of New Spain 15 P J Bakewell Silver Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico, Zacatecas 1564-1700 16 Kenneth R Maxwell Conflicts and Conspiracies: Brazil and Portugal, 1750-1808 17 Verena Martinez-Alier Marriage, Class and Colour in Nineteenth-Century Cuba: A Study of Racial Attitudes and Sexual Values in a Slave Society 18 Tulio Halperin-Donghi Politics, Economics and Society in Argentina in the Revolutionary Period 19 David Rock Politics in Argentina 1890-1930: The Rise and Fall of Radicalism 20 Mario Congora Studies in the Colonial History of Spanish America 22 James Lockhart and Enrique Otte Letters and People of the Spanish Indies: The Sixteenth Century 2b Leslie B Rout, Jr The African Experience in Spanish America: 1502 to the Present Day 24 Jean A Meyer The Cristero Rebellion: The Mexican People between Church and State 1926-1929 25 Stefan de Vylder Allende's Chile: The Political Economy of the Rise and Fall of the Unidad Popular 29 Anthony Hall Drought and Irrigation in North-east Brazil 30 S M Socolow The Merchants of Buenos Aires 1778-1810: Family and Commerce 31 Charles F Nunn Foreign Immigrants in Early Bourbon Mexico, 1700— 1760 32 D A Brading Haciendas and Ranchos in the Mexican Bajio 33 Billie R de Walt Modernization in a Mexican Ejido: A Study in Economic Adaptation 34 David Nicholls From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour and National Independence in Haiti 35 Jonathan C Brown A Socioeconomic History of Argentina, 1776-1860 36 Marco Palacios Coffee in Colombia 1850-1970: An Economic, Social and Political History 37 David Murray Odious Commerce: Britain, Spain and the Abolition of the Cuban Slave Trade 38 D A Brading Caudillo and Peasant in the Mexican Revolution 39 Joe Foweraker The Struggle for Land: A Political Economy of the Pioneer Frontier in Brazil from 1930 to the Present Day 40 George Philip Oil and Politics in Latin America: Nationalist Movements and State Companies 41 Noble David Cook Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1620 42 Gilbert Joseph Revolution from Without: Yucatan, Mexico and the United States, 1880-1924 43 B S McBeth Juan Vicente Gomez and the Oil Companies in Venezuela, 1908-1935 44 J A Offner Law and Politics in Aztec Texcoco 45 Thomas J Trebat Brazil's State-owned Enterprises: A Case Study of the State as Entrepreneur 46 James Lockhart and Stuart B Schwartz Early Latin America: a History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil 47 Adolfo Figueroa Capitalist Development and the Peasant Economy in Peru 48 Norman Long and Bryan Roberts Miners, Peasants and Entrepreneurs: Regional Development in the Central Highlands of Peru 49 Ian Roxborough Unions and Politics in Mexico: The Case of the Auto Industry ... books in the Cambridge Latin American Studies series please see page 320 HOUSING, THE STATE AND THE POOR POLICY AND PRACTICE IN THREE LATIN AMERICAN CITIES ALAN GILBERT University College and Institute... Organization Introduction: the research issues and strategy State intervention and the urban poor: major issues concerning housing, planning and servicing in Latin American cities The main objective... to the wider interests of the state and the constraints within which it acts, and examines governmental success in meeting the needs of the poor We examine the needs of the poor, their understanding