Discourse Markers in Oral Interaction by Third-year ULIS Mainstream English Majors . M.A Thesis Linguistics: 60 22 15

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES LÊ THỊ THU HUYỀN DISCOURSE MARKERS IN ORAL INTERACTION BY THIRD-YEAR ULIS MAINSTREAM ENGLISH MAJORS (Dấu Hiệu Diễn Ngơn Giao Tiếp Nói Sinh Viên Năm Thứ Khoa Tiếng Anh, ĐHNN, ĐHQGHN) M.A COMBINED PROGRAMME THESIS Field: English Linguistics Code: 60 22 15 HANOI - 2012 VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES LÊ THỊ THU HUYỀN DISCOURSE MARKERS IN ORAL INTERACTION BY THIRD-YEAR ULIS MAINSTREAM ENGLISH MAJORS (Dấu Hiệu Diễn Ngơn Giao Tiếp Nói Sinh Viên Năm Thứ Khoa Tiếng Anh, ĐHNN, ĐHQGHN) M.A COMBINED PROGRAMME THESIS Field: English Linguistics Code: 60 22 15 Supervisor: Assoc Prof Dr Lê Hùng Tiế n HANOI - 2012 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGE DECLARATION i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii ABSTRACT iii iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS viii PART I: INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of the problems and rationale behind the study Aims and objectives of the study 3 Scope of the study 4 Contribution of the study 5 Organization of the study PART II: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1 Discourse markers (DMs) 1.1.1 Terminology 1.1.2 Characteristics of DMs 1.1.3 Selection of DMs in the present study 12 1.1.4 Main functions of four selected DMs 13 1.2 Previous studies on DMs 15 1.2.1 Related studies worldwide 15 1.2.2 Related studies in Vietnam 19 CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY 21 2.1 Participants 21 2.1.1 Third-year ULIS mainstream English majors 21 v 2.1.2 Teachers of English Speaking Skill 25 2.2 Data collection instruments 25 2.2.1 Interaction task 25 2.2.2 Questionnaires 26 2.2.3 Interviews 27 2.3 Data collection procedure 28 2.4 Data analysis methods and procedures 30 CHAPTER 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 32 3.1 Most common DMs used by third-year ULIS mainstream English majors in spoken interaction with native speakers of English 32 3.2 Specific discourse functions of DMs in spoken discourse 34 3.2.1 Well 34 3.2.2 You know 39 3.2.3 I mean 42 3.2.4 Like 43 3.3 Justifications for the low frequency of DMs in students‟ spoken discourse CHAPTER 4: SOME PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS AND SUGGESTED DMs TEACHING RESOURCES 4.1 Some pedagogical implications 47 52 52 4.1.1 Implications for learners of English 52 4.1.2 Implications for teachers of English and syllabus designers 55 4.2 Suggested DMs teaching resources 57 4.2.1 Two explicit DM teaching frameworks 57 4.2.2 Some suggested activities for teaching oral DMs 60 PART III: CONCLUSION 65 Major findings of the study 65 Concluding remarks 66 vi Limitations of the current study 67 Suggestions for further research 68 REFERENCES 70 APPENDICES I Appendix I Topic and questions for the interaction Appendix 2A Questionnaire for students II Appendix 2B Questionnaire for teachers IV Appendix 2C Interview schedule for teachers VI Appendix Excerpts in the student data VII Appendix Transcription of the interview XI vii LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES TABLES PAGE Table 1: Terminology variations of DMs (adapted from Yang, 2011) Table 2: Main functions of the four DMs (Adapted from Müller, 2005: 246 and 14 Huang, 2011) Table 3: The distribution of students in different specific major classes 15 Table 4: Participants in the interaction with native speakers of English 25 Table 5: Codes and conventions used in the study (Adapted from Müller, 2005: 31 281) Table 6: Positions of the DM you know in the student data 40 Table 7: Sample lesson procedures in PPP and III frameworks in Jones‟s (2011: 74) 59 study FIGURES Figure 1: Number of occurrences of some DMs used by third-year ULIS students 34 Figure 2: Students‟ and Teachers‟ perception of the importance of DMs in oral 48 communication Figure 3: The extent to which DMs are displayed in students‟ oral discourse, as 49 perceived by the students and teachers Figure 4: Possible reasons for the students‟ infrequent display of DMs in speech, 50 from the perspectives of the students and the teachers Figure 5: The extent to which DMs have been explicitly taught by teachers 51 Figure 6: The students‟ expectation to acquire and incorporate DMs in their speech 54 Figure 7: Ways for students to acquire the use of oral DMs as suggested by the 55 students and teachers Figure 8: Teachers' perception towards the level at which DMs should be explicitly taught 57 viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS DM(s) Discourse marker(s) EFL English as a Foreign Language ESL English as a Second Language FELTE Faculty of English Language Teacher Education L1 first language L2 second language NNSs Non-native speakers NSs Native speakers ULIS – VNU University of Languages and International Studies – Vietnam National University PART I: INTRODUCTION Statement of the problem and rationale behind the study In the world of increasing globalization, teaching and learning English language, especially in terms of communicative oral skill has become a matter of concern to many linguists and educators Ur (1996: 120) states that “of all the four skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing), speaking seems intuitively the most important” Ur‟s (1996) viewpoint was supported later on by Rudder (1999: 25) who regards speaking skill as “one of the most important goals in language teaching” since it is “now more than ever before (…) essential for interactive survival in a global setting.” It is not hard to find many other researchers and linguists who stress the importance of communicative skill In Littlewood‟s (1981: 89) words, one‟s ability to “use real and appropriate language to communicate and interact with others” is – and should be – “the primary goal of most foreign language learning” Since the adoption of the communicative language teaching approach, the prioritized focus has been put on the achievement of functional abilities in the target language Language learning has therefore shifted from a grammatical perspective to a communicative perspective that emphasizes the ability to use the linguistic system effectively and appropriately in the target language and culture Similarly, Campbell and Wales (1970, cited in Nguyen, 2006: 1) stress that in order to speak competently, not only does a person need to know the grammar and pronunciation rules of a language but s/he is also required to discern what to say, to whom, in which circumstances, and in what manner It is understandable why many acknowledge the importance of knowledge in a foreign language beyond grammar and vocabulary One of the aspects regarding knowledge beyond grammar and vocabulary is the use of discourse markers (hereafter DMs) in oral communication, which can help to make the speaker sound like a native This aspect, however, seems to be ignored though they belong to the speaker‟s delivery, particularly his/her fluency, which is said to define the way the listeners perceive the speaker (Croucher, 2004: 38) The lack of linguistic devices such as DMs may account for the fact that in social interactions in English, some ESL/EFL learners may unintentionally come across as “abrupt or brusque” (Lee, n.d.) In other words, the omission of DMs might make the speakers appear impolite or the speech might appear somehow deficient The following two conversations given by Lee (n.d.) can clearly exemplify the above point: Conversation Speaker A: Could I borrow your car? Speaker B1: No, I think I need it tonight Speaker B2: Well, I think I need it tonight Conversation Speaker D1: I’m going to be out of town next Speaker C: Could you take me to the airport next weekend? weekend Speaker D2: Well uh, I'm going to be out of town next weekend In responding to the requests, thanks to the presence of DMs (Well, uh…), Speakers B2 and D2 sound more polite and less abrupt The messages therefore reach Speakers A and C in a less extreme way although their requests have been refused Understandably, abruptness may especially happen most commonly in direct interactions in which no time is given for the interlocutors to think (Östman, 1982 and Croucher, 2004: 41) Having to think of ideas and select words to utter at the same time, these students may encounter problems of on-line discourse production (Chaudron and Richard, 1986) As a matter of fact, the use of DMs such as well, you know, right, okay, I mean, etc can help fill the pauses In fact, these items were considered performance errors for a long time (Moreno, 2001: 130) Luckily enough, their important roles in conversations and speeches have been increasingly acknowledged in a growing number of recent studies Stenström (1994: 17) believes that a conversation is “much less lively and less 'personal' without [DMs] signaling receipt of information, agreement and involvement” As stressed by Moreno (2001: 130), DMs not only help to “build coherence”, but they also “fulfill multiple interactive functions fundamental to the speaker – hearer relationship” Although DMs have been viewed from a variety of perspectives and approaches, it is generally agreed that DMs contribute to the pragmatic meaning of utterances, thereby playing an important role in the pragmatic competence of the speaker Similarly, the significance of the use of DMs is asserted in Moreno‟s (2001: 130-131) study that “they form part of the L2 students‟ pragmatic competence” Never before has the term “pragmatic competence” been mentioned so frequently in the body of research on second language (L2) learning and foreign language teaching Defined as “an aspect of communicative competence [which] refers to the ability to communicate appropriately in particular contexts of use” (Jaworski, 1998: 249, cited in Müller, 2005: 18), pragmatic competence is acknowledged as part of what a student should learn about a language DMs are much related to this kind of competence since they “constitute an intrinsic part of one‟s communicative competence” (Wei‟s, 1996: 2) In Vietnamese language teaching and learning context, many learners of English, even English-major ones, find it difficult to communicate with foreigners due to the fact that they lack the strategies to employ in conversations Meanwhile, DMs have been relatively neglected despite their claimed function as useful communicative strategies Being intrigued to further study the EFL speakers‟ use of DMs in interactions, the researcher conducts an investigation of the issue among English-major students in ULIS who are trained to become teachers and interpreters or business-related jobs in the future It is undeniable that those students, in their prospect jobs, are required to communicate frequently with foreigners Nonetheless, owing to some reasons, students not seem to pay due attention to make such interactions as authentic and native-like as that of the native speakers All the aforementioned grounds have genuinely inspired the researcher to conduct a study entitled “Discourse Markers in Oral Interaction by Third-year ULIS Mainstream English Majors” It is hoped that the research would contribute to the teaching and learning of DMs in classroom context, thereby enhancing the students‟ performance in learning foreign languages Aims and objectives of the study First and foremost, the current interlanguage pragmatic research is conducted with the aims to identify the most frequently-used DMs produced by the students in their interaction with native speakers and then to some extent, to identify the functions of those 72 Lewis, D M (2006) Discourse markers in English: a discourse-pragmatic view, in Fischer, K (ed.) Approaches to Discourse Particles, Elsevier, Amsterdam Liao, S (2008) Variation in the use of discourse markers by Chinese teaching assistants in the US Journal of Pragmatics, 41(7), 1313-1328 Littlewood, W (1981) Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction Cambridge: Cambridge University Press McCarthy, M J (1998) Spoken Language and Applied Linguistics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press McCarthy, M., McCarten, J & Sandiford, H (2006) Touchstone Student’s Book Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Moreno, Á E I (2001) Native speaker – non-native speaker interaction: The use of discourse markers ELIA, 2, 129–142 Müller, S (2005) Discourse Markers in Native and Non-native English Discourse Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins Nguyễn Thị Hồng Nga (2006) Discourse markers in the dialogues of the Vietnamese new set of English textbooks for lower secondary school students Unpublished M.A thesis Faculty of Post-graduate studies ULIS - VNU Hanoi, Vietnam Östman, J O (1995) Pragmatic particles twenty years after Proceedings from the Turku conference, ed by B Wårvik et al Anglicana Turkuensia 14, 95-108 Redeker, G 1991 Linguistic markers of discourse structure Linguistics 29: 1139-1172 Rudder, M.E (1999) Eliciting Student-Talk English Teaching Forum, 37(2), 24-25 Schiffrin, D (1987) Discourse Markers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Schiffrin, D (2001) Discourse markers: Language, meaning and context In Schiffrin, D., Tannen, D & Hamilton, H (Eds.) The handbook of discourse analysis (pp 5474) Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Schiffrin, D., Tannen, D & Hamilton, H (2001) The handbook of discourse analysis Oxford: Blackwell Schourop, L (1985) Common discourse particles in English conversation: Like, Well, Y’know New York: Garland Stenström, A-B (1994) An Introduction to Spoken Interaction London: Longman Trillo, J.R (2002) The pragmatic fossilization of discourse markers in non-native speakers of English Journal of pragmatics, 34(6), 769 -784 Ur, P (1996) A Course in Language Teaching Practice and Theory Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Verma, G.K & Mallick, K (1999) Researching education: Perspective and Techniques London: Palmer Press Vitale, S J (2009) Towards pragmatic competence in communicative teaching: the question of experience vs Instruction in the l2 classroom Unpublished M.A thesis 73 Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures, Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College Louisiana, USA Wang, L.-F & Zhu, W.-H (2005) A corpus-based study of the use of discourse markers in Chinese EFL learners‟ spoken English Foreign Language Research, 3, 40-44, 48 Wei, M (1996) A comparative study of the oral proficiency of Chinese learners of English: a discourse marker perspective Unpublished PhD thesis Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University Oklahoma, USA Wichmann, A & Chanet, C (2009) Discourse markers: A challenge for linguists and teachers Nouveaux cahiers de linguistique franỗaise 29, 23-40 Yang, S (2011) Investigating Discourse Markers in Pedagogical Settings: A Literature Review Annual Review of Education, Communication and Language Sciences, 8, 95 – 108 IN VIETNAMESE Diệp Quang Ban (1998) Văn liên kết tiếng Việt NXB Giáo dục, Hà Nội Ngơ Hữu Hồng (2001) Mấy vấn đề quán ngữ liệu tiếng Anh tiếng Việt Kỷ yếu ngữ học trẻ, Hội ngơn ngữ học Việt Nam, 240-245 Ngơ Hữu Hồng (2002) Vai trò quán ngữ việc kiến tạo phát ngôn Luận án Tiến sĩ, ĐHKH-SHNV, ĐHQG Hà Nội Ngơ Hữu Hồng (2010) Hiểu dịch tiểu từ Well tiếng Anh dấu hiệu diễn ngôn: Một nghiên cứu dịch thuật sở ngữ dụng học Tạp chí Khoa học ĐHQGHN, Ngoại ngữ, 27, 17-21 Nguyễn Thị Việt Thanh (1999) Hệ thống liên kết lời nói tiếng Việt NXB Giáo dục, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh Trần Ngọc Thêm (2009) Hệ thống liên kết văn tiếng Việt NXB Giáo dục Việt Nam I APPENDICES Appendix 1: TOPIC AND QUESTIONS FOR THE STUDENT – NATIVE SPEAKER INTERACTION FREE TIME AND PART-TIME JOBS The native speakers are expected to pose questions related to the topic “Free time and part-time jobs” to the students This list of possible questions is for the native speakers‟ reference only There is no need to strictly follow all the questions here Some questions may be left out while additional questions may be included if necessary How many hours you study at school? Do you have a lot of home assignments? Do you have much free time? How you spend your free time? Some students spend their free time doing a part-time job Do you have a part-time job too? a Yes  What kind of part-time job are you doing?  Could you share one memorable experience you had in your parttime job? b No  Did you ever have a part-time job? If yes, then why did you quit it?  Why don‟t you a part-time job? At what age should a student start doing a part-time job? What kind of part-time jobs are suitable for university students? What are the advantages of doing a part-time job? Some people say that a part-time job will you more harm than good Do you agree or disagree? 10 Do you have any advice for a student who has a part-time job? OR: How should a student balance his part-time job and schoolwork? II Appendix 2A: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS Discourse markers in spoken interaction My name is Le Thi Thu Huyen from ULIS - VNU For my M.A thesis, I am conducting a research on ““Discourse Markers in Oral Interaction by Third-year ULIS Mainstream English Majors” I hope to receive your cooperation in completing this questionnaire as only this will guarantee the success of my research All the information you give will be treated with the STRICTEST confidence Thank you very much in advance Before you continue with the questionnaire, you are expected to read through the following to find out what are meant by oral discourse markers Discourse markers (DMs) are words or phrases which function to organize and monitor the progress of a piece of written or spoken language Conjunctions like firstly, secondly, and, or, so, therefore are familiar with us in written language In spoken form, the most common ones include well, I mean, okay, well, so, actually, right, you know, like, anyway, and, „cos, etc Many researchers including Moreno (2001), Liao (2008) and Huang (2011) have suggested that using DMs in oral communication would make the speech more natural and native-like The present questionnaire is referring to DMs in spoken language Example 1: Well, I believe that a better solution is needed here… like… stricter punishments for those who break the laws, like doing community service or paying very high fines Example 2: A: So you are allergic to animals? B: Yes, well, but it doesn’t mean that I don’t like cats, you know Now complete the questionnaire How long have you been learning English? …………………………………………………………………………… How often you practice speaking English besides class time? a Frequently b Occasionally c Seldom d Hardly ever III How you evaluate the overall importance of the use of DMs in speaking? a Very important c Quite important b Important d Not important at all To what extent are DMs displayed in your speech? a Frequently b Occasionally c Rarely d Not at all If your response to Question is c or d, please continue with Question Otherwise, skip Questions and 6, then go to Question What might be the reasons for your infrequent display of oral DMs in speech? You can choose MORE THAN ONE option a b c d e I‟m not clear about the exact use of DMs I‟m familiar with speaking in written form I used to regard DMs as redundant words I lack the chance to interact with native speakers of English Others (Please specify): ………………………………………………………………………… ………… ………………………………………………………………………… ………… ………………………………………………………………………… ………… Do you want to acquire the use of DMs and employ them in your speech? a Yes, definitely! b No I won‟t change c Not sure What should you to acquire the use of oral DMs? You can choose MORE THAN ONE option a Practice speaking English with native speakers of English b Watch movies in English to see how DMs are used c Study listening texts in which DMs are frequently found to see how native speakers use DMs d Others (Please specify): ………………………………………………………………………… ………… ………………………………………………………………………… ………… ………………………………………………………………………… ………… THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION For further information, please contact me at huyen.le.thu@gmail.com IV Appendix 2B: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS Discourse markers in spoken interaction My name is Le Thi Thu Huyen from ULIS - VNU For my M.A thesis, I am conducting a research on ““Discourse Markers in Oral Interaction by Third-year ULIS Mainstream English Majors” I hope to receive your cooperation in completing this questionnaire as only this will guarantee the success of my research All the information you give will be treated with the STRICTEST confidence Thank you very much in advance Before you continue with the questionnaire, you are expected to read through the following to find out what are meant by discourse markers Discourse markers (DMs) are words or phrases which function to organize and monitor the progress of a piece of written or spoken language Conjunctions like firstly, secondly, and, or, so, therefore are familiar with us in written language In spoken form, the most common ones include well, I mean, okay, well, so, actually, right, you know, like, anyway, and, „cos, etc Many researchers including Moreno (2001), Liao (2008) and Huang (2011) have suggested that using DMs in oral communication would make the speech more natural and native-like The present questionnaire is referring to DMs in spoken language Example 1: Well, I believe that a better solution is needed here… like… stricter punishments for those who break the laws, like doing community service or paying very high fines Example 2: A: So you are allergic to animals? B: Yes, well, but it doesn’t mean that I don’t like cats, you know Now complete the questionnaire PART 1: THE USE OF DMs IN ORAL COMMUNICATION How long have you been teaching English? …………………………………………………………………………… How you evaluate the overall importance of the use of DMs in speaking? a Very important b Important c Quite important d Not important at all PART 2: REPRESENTATION OF DMs IN YOUR CLASSROOM To what extent have DMs been explicitly taught in your classroom? a DMs have frequently been presented b DMs have sometimes been presented c DMs have rarely been presented d DMs have never been presented V To what extent most of your students display the use of DMs in their speaking? a Frequently b Occasionally c Rarely d Not at all If your response to Question is c or d, please continue with Question Otherwise, skip Question and go to Question What might be the reasons for your students’ infrequent display of oral DMs in their speech? You can choose MORE THAN ONE option f Students are not clear about the exact use of DMs g Students are familiar with speaking in written form h Students regard DMs as redundant words i Students lack the chance to interact with native speakers of English j Others (Please specify): ………………………………………………………………………… …………… ………………………………………………………………………… …………… ………………………………………………………………………… ………… PART 3: THE TEACHING OF DMs IN CLASSROOM At which level should DMs be introduced in spoken texts in school textbooks? a At junior secondary level b At upper secondary level c Other level (Please specify): ………………………………………………………………………… …………… At which level should oral DMs be explicitly taught to students? a At an elementary level b At a pre-intermediate level c At an intermediate level d At an upper-intermediate level e Other (Please specify): ………………………………………………………………………… …………… What should students to acquire the use of oral DMs? You can choose MORE THAN ONE option e Practice speaking English with native speakers of English f Watch movies in English to see how DMs are used g Study listening texts in which DMs are frequently found to see how native speakers use DMs h Others (Please specify): ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION For further information, please contact me at huyen.le.thu@gmail.com VI Appendix 2C: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR TEACHERS My name is Le Thi Thu Huyen from ULIS - VNU Thank you very much indeed for having completed the questionnaire and now helping me answer some questions in detail As you know, my thesis title is ““Discourse Markers in Oral Interaction by Third-year ULIS Mainstream English Majors” This interview will take you about 15 minutes and I’m sure all the information you give will be kept confidential PART 1: STUDENTS’ USE OF ORAL DISCOURSE MARKERS (DMs) As a teacher of Speaking skill in Division III, can you give me some comments on your students‟ speaking ability? Are they all at the expected level of Upperintermediate? Specifically, regarding DMs, most of your students display the use of discourse markers in their spoken language? What can be the possible reasons for that? PART 2: THE TEACHING OF DMs IN CLASSROOM SETTING Are DMs taught explicitly in the classroom setting? Are DMs represented as a component in the speaking/ listening syllabus? Do you think that DMs should be explicitly taught in classroom? Could you suggest some ways for the students to acquire the use of DMs? VII Appendix 3: EXCERPTS IN THE STUDENT DATA 54 students participating in the study were referred to by numerical order in in-text excerpts, for example, S 1a, S 1b, S 2a, S2b, S 3a, S 3b, etc To be more specific, the students under the labels S 1a, S 2a, S 3a, etc are those who interacted with native speaker (NS 1) Similarly, the code names S 1b, S 2b, S 3b, etc indicate the interlocutors who spoke with native speaker (NS 2) PART 1: EXCERPTS WITH THE USE OF DMs Excerpt 1: NS 1: Do you have a lot of home assignments? S 3a: You know, as I said, I‟m in my third year so … er… most subjects we have projects to I will say that there are lots of home assignments in my study Excerpt 2: NS 1: Well, I myself think that students… like… I mean high school students can take a part-time job I mean it‟s not necessary that one has to wait until he enters university to so S 12a: Well, I don‟t quite agree with you You know… um… for a high school student, he has to study well and hard enough to pass the … er… university entrance ex… exam If he has a part-time job, he wouldn‟t have time for studying Excerpt 3: NS 1: S 13a: NS 1: S 13a: Excerpt 4: NS 1: S 20a: NS 1: S 20a: You said a student should balance his part-time job and schoolwork? Yes Then how? Can you be more specific? Okay Students should make clear… I mean, separate his time for job and for study Make a timetable Do you have a lot of home assignments, Nam? Well, y…yesss Quite a lot Does it mean you don‟t have much free time? Well, some free time Not much, I must say VIII NS 1: So when you have free time, how you spend it? S 20a: Well, I go swimming It‟s my favorite Or… well, I chat with my friends online Excerpt 5: NS 1: So in your opinion, at what age should a student start doing a part-time job? S 20a: Well, I believe that at least as a university student, a student should find a part-time job Well, a secondary or high school student must study hard to pass exams and you don‟t have much free time Well, at university, you will have less time at school and more spare time… so I think you can find a part-time job when you are a student at university Excerpt 6: NS 1: S 25a: NS 1: S 25a: So did you have any unforgettable experiences in your part-time job? Yes, a lot Can you share one with me? Sure … er… It was when I was at my tutee‟s house to teach him English He was in grade It was p.m and I was very hungry So my stomach… er… you know… er… it makes some sound, very big sound I was very … like… er… very emb… embarrassing Excerpt 7: NS 2: Some people say that a part-time job has more disadvantages than advantages Do you agree or disagree? What are your opinions? S 1b: Um… Well… er… it‟s hard to say whether I agree or disagree Everything has two sides and a part-time job is not an exception (…) Excerpt 8: NS 2: So you don‟t a part-time job? Why not? S 9b: Actually I had one But the thing is… you know… I have quite much work to at school so + NS 2: Yeah S 9b: + I can‟t continue the job You know… I have a 2-year-old sister and my mother asks me to play with her in my free time so that she can have time to her work IX Excerpt 9: NS 2: Could you share one memorable experience you had in this job? S 15b: Yes At the end of my first working month, I …er… received the money… I mean… the salary I was very happy because only me got the extra… I mean… bonus NS 1: How did you feel at the time? S 15b: Happy I was very happy NS 1: Because of the big bonus? S 15b: Not very big It was about… like… um… 50,000 VND or 100,000 VND It was two years ago so I don’t remember exactly Excerpt 10: NS 1: How you spend your free time? S 22a: In my free time… well… it‟s difficult to tell exactly because I‟m quite busy, but if I have some free time, normally I choose to hang out with my dear friend I and her often go shopping or eating somewhere in the Old Quarters PART 2: SOME EXCERPTS WITHOUT THE USE OF DMs Excerpt 11: NS 1: What are the advantages of doing a part-time job? S 22a: Having a part-time job makes students more active It also helps students earn some money to pay for their personal needs without having to ask their parents for money Excerpt 12: NS 1: How you spend your free time? S 27a: Um… I often listen to music Er… sometimes I go out with my friends or… or… I go somewhere X Excerpt 13: NS 2: What kind of part-time jobs are suitable for university students? S 15b: I think students can jobs of a teacher, ah no, er… a tutor, a server… NS 2: You mean a waiter [and waitress? S 15b: [Yes yes A waiter Sorry Er… or looking after babies NS 2: Baby-sitter Uh huh S 15b: Ah, also a shopkeeper NS 2: You mean a salesclerk? S 15b: Er… Someone selling clothes for a shop NS 2: Okay That‟s a salesclerk or shop assistant Not a shopkeeper XI Appendix 4: TRANSCRIPTION OF THE INTERVIEW There were three interviews in total with the teachers Basically, each interviewee was asked the same set of questions given in Appendix 2C and other related ones to better approach the issue One interview is transcribed here in detail However, it is notable that many significant quotes from other respondents could be found in Chapter 3: Results and Discussion Some abbreviations and symbols:     I = Interviewer TA = Teacher A DMs = discourse markers […] = cut-out extracts due to its irrelevance to the main content INTERVIEW WITH TEACHER A (TA) [Greeting and introduction] I: As far as I know, in their third-year at ULIS, your students are expected to be at an Upper-intermediate level So, regarding Speaking, you think that they have achieved this level? TA: Not really Speaking has always been my students‟ most frightening activity compared to others If I have to comment on my students‟ real speaking ability, I‟ll say they are at kind of Intermediate or lower I: Can you be more specific? TA: Well, their speech lacks coherence They use a lot of er, ah, um when they speak And as I answered in the questionnaire, they rarely used DMs although the DMs are regarded as communicative strategies that they should use they speak And only some, very few, competent students of mine use DMs very effectively and naturally I don‟t see this in most of my students I: So concerning this fact, what are the underlying reasons, in your opinion? XII TA: OK The biggest reason I can see is that many of my students have the habit of writing down before they speak Why? Simply because they believe that if they can speak like what they normally write, it‟ll be better and they will get better marks I: You mean they don‟t actually speak? They speak from their memory? TA: Exactly I: But what about the case when they have to speak immediately, I mean, they have no time for writing down? TA: It‟s the same As I said, they think that they SHOULD speak as in writing They think that they should try to speak in complex sentences This makes it very difficult to construct ideas and sentences at the same time And then, when they don‟t know how to express their ideas, they just let the time go by by fillers like ah and um This makes their speech a bit distracting and not native-like Besides, most of them forget the use of linking devices or markers to make their speaking sound smoother, you know… I: I see One more point, from the data collected from the student questionnaires, it was found that 40 out of 45 students believe that the reason is partly due to their lack of opportunities to talk to native speakers Do you yourself perceive this as a reason? TA: Maybe But the thing is that we can learn from many sources They can learn how native speakers react and speak in many available talk shows and TV programs on the Internet I mean this is not the most important reason in my opinion I: So what you think is the most important reason? TA: It‟s the students‟ awareness They are not quite aware of the usefulness of DMs in oral communication I: Thank you very much for raising this interesting point Because it is similar to what I‟ve found in the student questionnaire Before they did the questionnaire, 17 out of 45 students thought of DMs as redundant words TA: Right Not a small number That‟s why I think the students should raise their awareness of DMs XIII I: Now, the point you‟ve made is somehow related to one question I want to ask you I‟m wondering whether DMs are taught explicitly in your class? And previous school years as well? TA: To tell the truth, most of the time in a speaking lesson is devoted to teaching the students useful vocabulary and discussing topics among students So there‟s no time for the explicit teaching of DMs Somehow I just tell them to use DMs like you know, I mean to buy the time when they cannot think of what to say next There‟s no official lesson on that I: So you mean that DMs are not represented in the syllabus as a teaching point? TA: Right I: Do you think that we should? TA: Definitely As I said, only some students use DMs naturally The rest not They should be taught the functions of DMs so that they can apply them effectively in their talks But the teaching of DMs should be in specific contexts I: Thank you very much for your useful suggestion Regarding the non-native learners, could you recommend some ways for them to acquire the use of DMs? TA: To be brief, I‟ll say: they can learn from talk shows and TV programs with native speakers speaking in English But in general, I think the best way for students to acquire DMs can be found in their own listening texts You know, the teaching and learning of listening skill always goes with that of speaking Er… I mean, they can use the listening scripts to see the functions as well as the uses of the markers Because they cannot always practice speaking with natives, right?” I: I see Woah Lucky that I don‟t take more than 15 minutes from you Thank you very much for your detailed answers I must say that your answers are very helpful for my thesis TA: You are welcome You can contact me via email if you need any clarifications, OK? I: Thank you indeed