Ordinary Lives in the Early Caribbean This page intentionally left blank Early American Places is a collaborative project of the University of Georgia Press, New York University Press, and Northern Illinois University Press The series is supported by the Andrew W Mellon Foundation For more information, please visit www.earlyamericanplaces.org Advisory Board Vincent Brown, Duke University Stephanie M H Camp, University of Washington Andrew Cayton, Miami University Cornelia Hughes Dayton, University of Connecticut Nicole Eustace, New York University Amy S Greenberg, Pennsylvania State University Ramón A Gutiérrez, University of Chicago Peter Charles Hoffer, University of Georgia Karen Ordahl Kupperman, New York University Joshua Piker, University of Oklahoma Mark M Smith, University of South Carolina Rosemarie Zagarri, George Mason University This page intentionally left blank Ordinary Lives in the Early Caribbean Religion, Colonial Competition, and the Politics of Profit kristen block The University of Georgia Press athens and london © 2012 by the University of Georgia Press Athens, Georgia 30602 www.ugapress.org All rights reserved Printed digitally in the United States of America LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Block, Kristen Ordinary lives in the early Caribbean : religion, colonial competition, and the politics of profit / Kristen Block p cm — (Early American places) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-0-8203-3867-5 (hardcover : alk paper) ISBN-10: 0-8203-3867-2 (hardcover : alk paper) ISBN-13: 978-0-8203-3868-2 (pbk : alk paper) ISBN-10: 0-8203-3868-0 (pbk : alk paper) Caribbean Area—Social conditions—17th century Caribbean Area—Social conditions—18th century Caribbean Area—History—17th century Caribbean Area—History—18th century Caribbean Area—Biography I Title F2161.B58 2012 972.903—dc23 2012001900 British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data available ISBN for this digital edition: 978-0-8203-4375-4 Contents List of Figures ix Acknowledgments xi Introduction part i Isabel: “If Her Soul Was Condemned, It Would Be the Authorities’ Fault” Contesting the Boundaries of Anti-Christian Cruelty in Cartagena de Indias 19 Imperial Intercession and Master-Slave Relations in Spanish Caribbean Hinterlands 38 Law, Religion, Social Contract, and Slavery’s Daily Negotiations 51 part ii Nicolas: “To Live and Die as a Catholic Christian” Northern European Protestants in the Spanish Caribbean 65 Empire, Bureaucracy, and Escaping the Spanish Inquisition 81 Conversion, Coercion, and Tolerance in Old and New Worlds 92 part iii Henry: “Such as will truck for Trade with darksome things” Cromwellian Political Economy and the Pursuit of New World Promise 109 viii / contents The Politics of Economic Exclusion: Plunder, Masculinity, and “Piety” 119 Anxieties of Interracial Alliances, Black Resistance, and the Specter of Slavery 134 part iv Nell, Yaff, and Lewis: “He hath made all Nations of one Blood” 10 Quakers, Slavery, and the Challenges of Universalism 149 11 Evangelization and Insubordination: Authority and Stability in Quaker Plantations 166 12 Inclusion, the Protestant Ethic, and the Silences of Atlantic Capitalism 181 conclusion Cynicism and Redemption 13 Religion, Empire, and the Atlantic Economy at the Turn of the Eighteenth Century 201 Notes 231 Index 303 Figures 1–2 Modern views of Cartagena de Indias’s principal cathedral and Inquisition Palace 28 Modern view of the Jesuit Colegio in Cartagena’s Plaza San Pedro Claver 30 Engraved portrait of San Pedro Claver (Marcus Orozco, 1666) 31 Plan of the city of Cartagena de Indias (1735) 32 Engraved view of Sir Francis Drake’s attack of Cartagena (Boazio, 1588) 43 Modern display of the rack in Cartagena’s Inquisition Museum 90 Portrait frontispiece to The world encompassed by Sir Francis Drake (London, 1628) 9–10 Modern views of Cartagena’s San Felipe fortifications 116 132 11 Illustrated frontispiece to Tears of the Indians (London, 1656) 141 12 Dutch engraving, “English Quakers and tobacco planters in Barbados” (ca 1700) 159 13–14 Map of Barbados (Richard Forde, 1675), with detail showing Morris landholdings 168, 175 notes to chapter 13 / 297 55 Defoe, Some Considerations on the Reasonableness and Necessity of Encreasing and Encouraging the Seamen (1728); James Oglethorpe, The Sailor’s Advocate (London, 1728) Defoe also satirized the tricking of poor Englishmen to be sold as servants in Colonel Jack (London, 1722) 56 Daniel James Ennis, Enter the Press-Gang: Naval Impressment in EighteenthCentury British Literature (Missisauga, ON: Associated University Presses, 2002) Interestingly, Quakers who published autobiographical narratives of being forced into naval service used tales of being mercilessly beaten for their passive resistance to violence as a reflection of their strength of faith and character, not a denunciation of the immorality of press-gangs themselves (p 125) James Oglethorpe of Georgia, a rather eccentric figure himself, had made the moral connection between the enslavement of Africans and protecting English liberties against the tyranny of press-gangs (Ennis, Enter the Press-Gang, 49) See also David Eltis, “Labour and Coercion in the English Atlantic World,” Slavery & Abolition 14, (1993): 207–26; Linebaugh and Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea, 212–22; E P Thompson, Customs in Common (New York: New Press, 1991), 404–62 57 Alan Atkinson studied the case of transported convicts in eighteenth-century Britain: “A convict named Henry Woodford stated quite correctly in 1721 that ‘the Law was not that they should be sold for Slaves.’ Such punishment, he protested, ‘was worse than Death,’ for ‘being Christians by Baptism’ Englishmen could not be forced into bondage,” in “The Free-Born Englishman Transported: Convict Rights as a Measure of Eighteenth Century Empire,” Past & Present 144 (Aug 1994): 88–114, esp 91 58 Denver Alexander Brunsman, “The Knowles Atlantic Impressment Riots of the 1740s,” Early American Studies 5, (2007): 336–48 Brunsman argues that hostility towards impressment was even stronger in the Caribbean and other American ports, rioting “to defend local economic interests and their perceived rights and liberties within the empire” (339) 59 For executions between 1685 and 1688, Quaker names include William Andrews, William Bailey, John Evans, Philip Gamble, and Melatiah Holder; Quaker Dorothy Earle, a member of the Women’s Spring Meeting, was compensated ₤50 for two slaves executed following the 1692 conspiracy Hilary Beckles, Black Rebellion in Barbados: The Struggle Against Slavery, 1627–1838 (Bridgetown, Barbados: Antilles Publications, 1984), 43–47; Jerome S Handler, “The Barbados Slave Conspiracies of 1675 and 1692,” Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 36 (1982): 312–33 60 Jerome S Handler, The Unappropriated People: Freedmen in the Slave Society of Barbados (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974), 39 61 For the intensification of this trend in the eighteenth century, see Charles R Foy, “Ports of Slavery, Ports of Freedom: How Slaves Used Northern Seaports’ Maritime Industry to Escape and Create Transatlantic Identities, 1713–1783” (Ph.D dissertation, Rutgers University, 2008), and Julius Scott, “The Common Wind: Currents of Afro-American Communication in the Era of the Haitian Revolution” (Ph.D dissertation, Duke University, 1986) 62 Linebaugh and Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea, 164–67; Kenneth J Kinkor, “Black Men Under the Black Flag,” in Bandits at Sea: A Pirates Reader, ed C R Pennell (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 195–210; Peter 298 / notes to chapter 13 T Leeson, The Invisible Hook: The Hidden Economics of Pirates (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), 157–71 63 Trouillot, “Culture on the Edges,” 189–210 64 Case against Juan de Rada, natural of the Portuguese Indies, 1718 (AHN, Inq Leg 1623, Exp 2, Causa 24, ff 139r–140v) 65 See Hartman, Scenes of Subjection, 56–57 66 James Sweet discusses similar complaints by slaves to Inquisition officials of their English masters hindering them from converting or practicing Catholicism His research shows that Portugal’s inquisitorial preoccupation with Anglicanism began only after the early decades of the eighteenth century, presumably when the South Sea Company began administering an asiento station in Argentina, increasing the number of contraband slaves introduced into Brazil (Recreating Africa, 96–100) 67 AHN, Inq Leg 1599, Exp 14; Inq Lib 345, Madrid, Oct 5, 1734, no pagination, and Lib 346, Madrid, Feb 6, 1739 68 For scholarship on these laws and their inducements to runaway slaves throughout the Caribbean basin, see Jane Landers, Slave Society in Spanish Florida; Matthew Restall, “Manuel’s Worlds: Black Yucatan and the Colonial Caribbean,” in Landers and Robinson, eds., Slaves, Subjects, and Subversives; Linda M Rupert, “Marronage, Manumission and Maritime Trade in the Early Modern Caribbean,” Slavery & Abolition 30, (2009): 361–82; Rupert, “Water of Faith, Currents of Freedom: Gender, Religion and Ethnicity in Inter-imperial Trade between Curaỗao and Tierra Firme, in Nora Jaffary, ed., Race, Religion, and Gender in the Colonization of the Americas (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2007); Jorge Chinea, “A Quest for Freedom: The Immigration of Maritime Maroons into Puerto Rico, 1656–1800,” The Journal of Caribbean History 31, 1–2 (1997): 51–87; David M Stark, “Rescued from Their Invisibility: The Afro-Puerto Ricans of Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century San Mateo de Cangrejos, Puerto Rico,” The Americas 63, (2007): 551–86; James Sweet, Recreating Africa, 96–100; John J Tepaske, “The Fugitive Slave: Intercolonial Rivalry and Spanish Slave Policy, 1687–1764,” in Samuel Proctor, ed., Eighteenth-Century Florida and its Borderlands (Gainesville: The University Press of Florida, 1975), 1–12; and John Thornton, “African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion,” AHR 96, (1991): 1101–13 69 Leonard Cocke to Commodore Den, Santiago de Cuba, Nov 1736 CSPC, Item 469, Vol 42, 345–46 For earlier example of an Irishman who championed interracial freedom struggles, see Ryan Crewe, “Brave New Spain: An Irishman’s Independence Plot in Seventeenth-Century Mexico,” Past & Present 207, no (2010): 3–52 Using the logic of Catholic evangelization and the defense of the Crown’s hinterlands, Spanish governors were far more adept at recruiting from among the ranks of free and enslaved people of color in the Caribbean Indeed, Spaniards’ willingness to create interracial alliances both expanded their ranks of frontier fighters, and sowed terror in the English colonies: from the Stono Rebellion of 1739 to the rumors of Spanish collusion in the New York fire and rebellion conspiracy of 1741, anti-English alliances built on Spanish Catholic loyalties Mark M Smith, “Remembering Mary, Shaping Revolt: Reconsidering the Stono Rebellion,” Journal of Southern History 67, no (2001): 513–34; John K Thornton, “African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion,” AHR 96, no (1991): 1101–13; Jill Lepore, New York Burning: Liberty, Slavery and Conspiracy in Eighteenth-Century Manhattan (New York: Knopf, 2005), 49–50, 163 notes to chapter 13 / 299 70 Deposition of John Tello, 18 June 1730 CSPC, Item 311 ix, Vol 37, 164 71 Linebaugh and Rediker, The Many-Headed Hydra, 193–98; Scott, “The Common Wind.” 72 “Account of ye Proceedings of the Governor of St Jago de Cuba,” Jonathan Dennis to Sir Joseph Eyles & Peter Burrell, Santiago, Cuba, Nov 1731 Clements Library, Shelburne Papers, 44:346 73 Ibid., 44:346; also “A list of the names of the Captains of Guarda Costas, fitted out of Porto Rico by Miguel Enriquez,” Clements Library, Shelburne Papers, 44:328 74 James Alexander Robertson, “The English Attack on Cartagena in 1741; and Plans for an Attack on Panama,” Hispanic American Historical Review 2, (1919): 69 Transcription of original manuscript at the British Library, Add Mss 22680 75 AGI, Escribanía 95B, Quaderno 12; Ermila Troconis de Veracoechea, ed., Documentos para el estudio de los esclavos negros en Venezuela (Caracas: Academia Nacional de la Historia, 1969), 222–23, Doc 48; Landers, “Mose: A Free Black Town,” 15; Restall, “Manuel’s Worlds,” 160; Chinea, “Quest for Freedom,” 67 76 Mavis C Campbell, The Maroons of Jamaica, 1655–1796: A History of Resistance, Collaboration, and Betrayal (South Hadley, MA: Bergin & Garvey, 1988); Barry Gaspar, Bondsmen and Rebels: A Study of Master-Slave Relations in Antigua with Implications for Colonial British America; Richard Price, Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) 77 The standard narratives of this conspiracy can be found in Roberto Arrázola, Palenque, Primer Pueblo libre de América (Cartagena: Ediciones Hernández, 1970), and María de la Carmen Borrega Plá, Los palenques de negros en Cartagena de Indias a finales del siglo XVII (Seville: Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos, 1973) The most recent description of the events of 1693 is in Sandra Beatriz Sánchez López, “Miedo, rumor y rebelión: la conspiración esclava de 1693 en Cartagena de Indias,” Historia Crítica 30 (Jan.–Jun 2006): 77–99 78 Jane Landers, “Cimarrón and Citizen: African Ethnicity, Corporate Identity, and the Evolution of Free Black Towns in the Spanish Circum-Caribbean,” in Landers & Robinson, eds., Slaves, Subjects, and Subversives: Blacks in Colonial Latin America 112 79 Their father, who died sometime in the 1630s, was also named Francisco Camargo Francisco Camargo, Jr., exercised his title as comisario to charge a Mompox tavern-keeper (pulpero) with blasphemy in 1648, but no slaves were sent from Mompox to Cartagena’s Tribunal for blasphemy (Splendiani, iii.190; AHN, Inq Lib 1021, ff 172) 80 Causa de Isabel Maria de la Torre (alias Cachete), 1717 AHN, Inq 1623, Exp Relaciones de Causas de fe concluidas en la Inquisición de Cartagena de 1716 hasta 1721 Causa de Juan Narajo, 1723 Inq 1623, Exp Relaciones de las causas de fe concluidas en la Inquisición de Cartagena de Indias, desde 1722 hasta 1727 More commonly, Cartagena’s Tribunal returned its focus to the disorderly conduct of blasphemous lower-class white individuals A belligerent silversmith was similarly sent from Bogotá to Cartagena after a blasphemous tirade during the night after being sentenced to the stocks for brawling Causa de Joseph Vidal de la Cruz, 1709 AHN, Inq 1622, Exp 15, s.f For other cases, see Causas de Francisco de Arcos and Bartolome de Arcos, 1679, ff 316–323v AHN, Inq Lib 1023; Causa de Juana de Escobar, 1709 AHN, Inq 1622, Exp 15, Relaciones de las causas de fe adelantadas por el Tribunal entre 1704 y 1709 s.f 300 / notes to chapter 13 81 “But if without becoming Christians, they cannot be saved, then we are by this unfaithful silence, as far as in us lyeth, the cause of their damnation.” In Godwyn, Supplement to the Negro’s [and] Indian’s Advocate, 82 Defoe, Singleton, 330–31 83 Ibid., 335, 342 84 Defoe did critique the inhumanity of West Indian slavery in one early treatise, The Reformation of Manners (1702), although he never made any connection in his tracts between the slave trade and the disastrous fall of the South Sea Company See Andersen, “The Paradox of Trade and Morality in Defoe,” 23; Peter Earle, The World of Defoe (London: Weidenfield and Nicholson, 1976), 67–71, 131–46 85 Francisco José de Jaca et al., Resolución Sobre la Libertad de los Negros y sus Originarios, en estado de Paganos y después ya Cristianos: La primera condena de la esclavitud en el pensamiento hispano, ed Miguel Anxo Pena González (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 2002), xxiv, 11, 380 86 Richard Gray, Lourenỗo da Silva, the Capuchins, and the Decisions of the Holy Office,” Past & Present 115 (May 1987): 52–68 87 For the vociferous attack on such hypocrisy by New Jersey Quaker migrant John Hepburn (a member of the Shrewsbury Meeting near Colonel Morris’s Tinton Iron Works), see Block, “Inner and Outer Plantations,” 544–45; for the story of Quaker George Keith’s schismatic movement of 1693 and its ties to antislavery activists in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, see Katherine Gerbner, “Antislavery in Print: The Germantown Protest, the ‘Exhortation,’ and the Seventeenth-Century Debate on Slavery,” Early American Studies 9, (2011): 552–75 88 Larry Dale Gragg, “The Making of an Abolitionist: Benjamin Lay on Barbados, 1718–1720,” Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 47 (2001): 166–84; Benjamin Lay, All Slave-Keepers, that keep the Innocent in Bondage, Apostates (Philadelphia, 1737) 89 Soderlund, Quakers and Slavery; Christopher L Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 209–330 The Society of Friends remained overwhelmingly white, however, a reality that proves the difficult incorporation of people of color into “mainstream” Protestant churches See Donna McDaniel and Vanessa D Julye, Fit for Freedom, Not for Friendship: Quakers, African Americans, and the Myth of Racial Justice (Philadelphia: Quaker Press, 2009) 90 Relacion de causas de fe, y criminales de los años de 1728 hasta el de 1730 AHN, Inq Leg 1623, Exp 4, 1731 Places like Jamaica seemed to many poor white men “a metaphorical land of liberty”—a “pirate fantasy” world where authorities did not care to police religious conformity See Schwartz, All Can Be Saved, 232 91 Karl Marx, “Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right,” in Karl Marx: Early Writings, trans and ed by T B Bottomore (New York, Toronto, London: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964), 43–44 92 Ibid Marx continued: “The criticism of religion disillusions man so that he will think, act, and fashion his reality as a man who has lost his illusions and regained his reason; so that he will revolve about himself as his own true sun It is the task of history, therefore, once the other-world of truth has vanished, to establish the truth of this world The immediate task of philosophy, which is in the service of history, is to unmask human self-alienation in its secular form now that it has been unmasked in its sacred form Thus notes to chapter 13 / 301 the criticism of heaven is transformed into a criticism of earth, the criticism of religion into the criticism of law, and the criticism of theology into the criticism of politics.” I not agree with Marx’s ideal that “man” should use his reason to dispel myths so that he might better “revolve about himself as his own true sun”; my post-Marxian critique focuses on the need for educated men and women to see the destructiveness of individualism, and therefore to work to restore communities that foster and support individual respect and sustenance This page intentionally left blank Index Absolutism, 8–9, 11, 22, 66, 112, 234, 237, 263 Africa, image of, 11, 23, 137, 139, 151, 128, 138, 248 Africa, regions: Allada, 23, 138, 234; Angola, 26, 52, 138, 227, 239, 250, 276; Bight of Benin/Ouidah, 283; Bight of Biafra, 274, 276; Cape Verde, 26, 52, 153, 239, 275; Gold Coast, 175–76, 276, 283; “Guinea,” 26, 153, 239, 247, 274; Kongo, 26, 154, 227, 234, 235, 236, 249, 274, 289; São Tome, 26, 52; Senegambia, 26, 153, 237, 274, 275, 275, 275, 283; Sierra Leone, 26, 153, 274 African ethnicities, in diaspora: Akan, 283; Angola, 42, 45–48, 55, 244, 245, 250; Arará, 19, 42, 223, 236, 237; Congolese, 45–46, 49, 138, 270; Coromantee, 175–76, 186; Mandinka/Mandinga, 20, 22, 42, 45, 153, 160, 237 African religious traditions, 62, 154–58, 162–63, 169–70, 177, 189, 246, 249–50, 274, 277, 289–90 Aguilera, don Melchor de, 25, 27, 30, 41, 44, 54, 60–61, 238, 244, 250 Álvarez de Zepeda, Gregorio, 19–25, 38, 40, 42, 44–45, 53, 60, 236, 236, 238, 238 Angola, Susana, 19–20, 45–47, 60–61, 236, 238 asiento, 16, 206, 210–12, 218, 220, 244, 293, 294, 298 Atlantic World, 3, 8–11, 15–16, 38, 70, 105, 112, 152, 157, 188, 195, 202, 205, 221, 226, 229, 232, 237, 251–52, 258, 261, 266, 292, 297 autos de fe, 4, 35, 37, 59, 77–79, 100, 242, 248, 254, 254, 249 baptism, 7, 12, 14, 26, 36, 46, 61–62, 65, 72–74, 76, 95–96, 98, 102, 145, 211, 221, 253, 285, 290, 311 Barbados, xiv, 1, 3, 10–11, 15, 118, 124–26, 131, 136–37, 142, 149–200, 217, 219–20, 227, 268, 268–69, 271–31, 273–91, 297, 300 Barbary: and apostasy/renegades, 59, 63, 68, 93–96, 99, 111, 160, 257–59; captivity, 59, 68, 93–95, 99, 160, 162, 201, 256–258; in Christian imagination 40, 50, 59, 93, 162, 258; and corsairs, 68, 93, 97, 160, 257–58; redemption, 160, 162, 257 See also Islam, and Muslims/Moors Bennett, Herman, xii, 22, 233, 237–38, 242 Benson, Alexander, 185, 287 Berlin, Ira, 69, 237, 252 Bible/biblical, 12, 74, 113, 119, 121, 128–29, 151, 157, 163, 171, 174, 188, 194, 227, 235, 266, 280, 285 Biswicke, Ann, 185, 287 Black Legend, 10, 89, 114 blasphemy, 7, 14, 17, 36–37, 56–61, 65, 71–72, 89, 91, 101, 126, 161, 224, 242–43, 245, 248–49, 253, 294, 299 304 / index bozales, 29, 75, 210, 253 Brandão, Father Luis, 52–53 Brazil, 10, 131, 216, 225–27, 232, 277, 298; Marón, 95, 259; Pernambuco, 150 Brown, Christopher, xii, 300 buccaneers, 137, 215, 218, 270, 291, 296 See also pirates Burundel, Nicolas, 14, 65–105, 124, 156, 201, 205, 215, 229, 250–61 Caballero, don Pedro, 65, 104 Cáceres, 44, 240 Calais, 65, 68 Camargo, doña Eufrasia de, 20–21, 25, 34, 38–41, 44–50, 53–57, 60–51, 224, 236, 243–50 Canary Islands, 78, 85–86, 103, 255–58, 262, 278 See also Inquisition Capitalism, and commercial expansion: 2, 11, 118, 125, 150, 182, 196, 202–3, 226, 228–29, 235, 237 Caribbean islands: Cuba, xiv, 110, 128, 130, 145, 208–10, 220–22, 226, 254, 298–99; Cumaná, 84–85, 129, 254; Curaỗao, 24, 211, 251, 298; Leeward Islands (Antigua, Nevis, St Christopher), xiv, 10, 104, 118, 130, 135, 166–67, 178, 180, 182, 218, 279–80, 285; Providence Island, xiv, 149–50, 155, 160, 215, 232, 264, 267; Puerto Rico, 68, 110, 221–22, 298 See also Barbados; Hispaniola; Jamaica Cartagena de Indias, xiv, 14, 21–41, 52, 56– 59, 61, 65–70, 76, 84–89, 94–96, 104–5, 131–33, 138, 149, 210–12, 218–24, 226, 228, 237–45, 247–51, 254–55, 259–60, 269, 293–94, 296, 299; Gesthemani, 29, 31–33, 43, 241–42 Casas, Bartolomé de las, 6–7, 9, 52, 114, 142, 232–33, 247 Catholicism, Catholic/CounterReformation, 71, 73, 76, 96, 234, 252; clergy 7, 27, 44, 53, 61, 72, 74–77, 79, 81–82, 85–86, 117, 139, 209–10, 214–15, 221, 226, 239, 242, 247, 253–54, 261, 295; missions, 12, 26, 29, 59, 95, 97, 110, 226, 232, 234, 240, 260, 264, 274; religious orders, 6–7, 24, 26, 32, 55, 74–75, 77–78, 95–96, 104, 110, 226, 242, 250, 254, 261, 296, 300 See also Jesuits Charles I, of England, 111–12 Charles II, of England, 145 Christianity, and inclusion/exclusion, 12, 21, 29, 46, 57, 66, 68, 72–74, 78, 83, 85–87, 98–105, 163–64, 169, 180, 194, 196, 217–13, 217, 220–21, 226–29, 250–51 See also Catholicism; Islam; Protestantism cimarrones See maroons Civil War, English, 76, 110, 112, 146, 150, 155–56, 263, 266 civil wars, in Africa, 153–154, 275 Claver, San Pedro, 27, 29–31, 41, 44, 62, 169, 239–41 clergy See Catholicism; Protestantism confession, sacramental, 1, 12, 21–22, 40, 48, 53, 55, 60, 72, 75, 77, 79, 100, 216, 295 Conga, Dominga, 49, 247 Conga, Gracia, 45, 47, 60–61 conscience, 15, 53, 98, 101–2, 162, 167, 171, 186, 192, 285 See also toleration/ tolerance contraband See smuggling conversion, religious: to Catholicism, of Protestants, 7, 14, 16, 67, 71–72, 74–76, 81, 85–87, 89, 95, 97, 133, 205, 209–10, 255–56, 260, 293; to Christianity, of Africans, 12, 97, 151, 156, 164, 178, 192, 195, 234, 298; to Islam, of Christians, 68, 92–94, 96–97, 99–101, 160, 256–57, 256, 258–60; nature of, 67–68, 102, 104, 155, 192, 277; process, 68, 73–74, 80, 87, 102, 225; to Protestantism, of Catholics, 110; to Quakerism, 154–55, 157, 159, 167, 178, 192, 195; as strategy 7, 14, 16, 67–68, 73, 75–76, 80–81, 85–87, 94, 96, 99, 104, 156, 205, 209–10, 259 See also Barbary, and apostasy/renegades Coromantee See African ethnicities, in diaspora Cotton, John, 114 Counter-Reformation See Catholic Reformation Cox, Thomas, 74–76, 94, 104 creoles: Afro-descendant, 20, 22, 25, 38, 43, 46, 62, 66, 71, 122, 139, 220, 223, 237, 241; Atlantic creoles, 62, 69, 93, 103, 135, 237; as ethnic “surname,” 22, 45–47, 61; Spanish, 39, 52, 54–55, 115, 122, 139, 224, 241, 264, 294 creolization, 38, 59, 243, 250, 253 index / 305 Criolla, Inez, 45–47, 49, 61, 246 Criolla, Isabel, 1, 3, 8, 12, 14, 17–63, 174, 188, 208, 226, 229 Cromwell, Oliver, 10, 14–15, 109–18, 120, 123, 124, 127–28, 130–31, 133, 135, 140, 142–45, 149–50, 152, 154, 172, 213, 229, 262–68 See also Western Design Curwen, Alice, 179, 183, 284 Da Silva, Lourenỗa, 227, 300 De Soto, Lorenzo, 4151, 54, 57, 61, 244–45, 247 Defoe, Daniel, 201–3, 217, 224–25, 291–92, 297, 300 Demonology, 69–70, 80, 83, 157 See also spirit possession diplomacy and peace treaties, 69, 83–85, 87–88, 99, 133, 145, 204–8, 210, 215, 254–57, 262, 264–65, 292 discipline: of enslaved, 19–26, 33–41, 45–49, 59, 152, 154–57, 164, 173–78, 180, 219, 241, 243, 246–47, 249, 283–84, 290; military, 111, 123, 125–26, 129–31; religious, 35, 46, 76–79, 84–88, 95, 152, 166–68, 181, 219, 234, 243, 249, 279, 281, 284 Douglas, Mary, 5, 203, 233, 278, 292 D’Oyley, Edward, 129–30, 140, 268, 271 Drake, Sir Francis, 9, 42–43, 115–16, 119, 126, 135, 244, 262–65 Dutch, Caribbean migrants, 10, 131–33, 268; commerce and shipping, 9–11, 16, 29, 66, 83–84, 118, 130, 131–33, 137, 150, 211–12, 251, 275, 294; pirates and contrabandists, 9, 14, 87–88, 102, 118, 214, 216, 295; religion, 87–88, 102, 131–33, 210–211–12, 256 Edmundson, William, 166–67, 171, 173, 178, 180–81, 183, 278–79, 281–82, 284–86, 289 Egypt, 158, 171, 191–92, 281 Elizabeth I, of England, 9, 114, 250, 258, 262–63, 278 Equiano, Olaudah, 182, 184, 188, 191, 271, 286, 288–89 Esteban Ortíz, don Alonso, 44, 47, 61, 236 evangelization: of Africans and AfroCreoles, 12, 15, 146, 152–65, 167–74, 179–81, 195, 250, 279–85, 298; of Native Americans, 12 executions, public, 26, 43–44, 51, 79, 85, 89, 99–100, 111–12, 131, 161, 176–77, 181, 218–20, 245, 283, 297 Exquemelin, Alexander O., 214–17, 291, 295–96 flota, 25, 78, 128 Fox, George, 15, 151–52, 155, 158–59, 161–65, 168–74, 178–80, 183–85, 188, 190, 192, 194–95, 276–89; dreams and visions 161–62; and Gospel Family Order, 163, 168, 172, 278, 280, 282, 286, 289 See also Quakerism France, and French, 9–10, 16, 63, 71, 77, 95, 98, 100–101, 167, 219, 256–57, 264; Caribbean migrants and settlements, 1, 9, 14, 65–66, 68–72, 76; religious toleration, 100–101 See also Huguenots; Protestant denominations Fretwell, Ralph, 155, 179, 284 Friends, Society of See Quakerism Gage, Thomas, 109–20, 127, 135, 139, 261–62, 264, 266 galleys, 96–97, 104, 160, 243, 257, 259–60 Garcia Fernandez, Juan, 138–39, 270 Geertz, Clifford, 4–5, 78, 120, 233 gender roles, 263; connection to race, 112, 113, 188, 190; men, 35, 112–13, 123–26, 131, 138, 152, 156, 188–90, 215, 218, 267, 269; women, 35, 45, 125, 153, 267 geophagy, 46, 49, 246–47 Godwyn, Morgan, 183, 277, 279, 285, 300 Gray, George, 192–94, 290 greed, and avarice, 4–5, 13, 15–16, 111, 114–15, 118, 120–21, 128–29, 142, 144, 152, 157–58, 195–96, 202, 213, 223, 228–29, 235–36, 277 guardacostas, 97, 208, 222 Guatemala, xiv, 110, 114–15, 117, 264 Hakluyt, Richard, 113, 261 Hapsburgs, 9, 22, 66–67, 83, 89, 99, 110, 241, 251–52 Hartman, Saidiya, 233, 242, 246, 298 Hispaniola, xiv, 1, 7, 26, 66, 104, 110–11, 119, 121, 126, 128, 137–39, 146, 149, 223, 266–71, 296 Horozco, Diego de, 54, 248 306 / index Hutton, Rowland, 189–90, 289 iconoclasm, 4, 122, 215, 266, 296 indentured servants, 118, 125, 130, 143, 149, 163, 173, 183–84, 213, 267 Inquisition: bureaucratic and legal procedures, 6, 22, 24, 56–58, 66–67, 69, 70–71, 76–79, 81–87, 89, 91, 93–94, 96–97, 99, 104, 113, 167, 210, 249, 252–56, 258, 260; documents as sources, 6, 14, 16, 56–59, 67–68, 75, 103, 256; in Protestant imagination, 77, 83, 142, 206, 218, 222 See also autos de fe; torture Inquisition Tribunals: in the Canary Islands, 85, 255–56, 258; in Cartagena de Indias, 3–4, 6, 14, 16–17, 24, 27–28, 35–37, 44, 56–59, 65–70, 72, 74–79, 81–88, 92, 94–96, 98–99, 101–4, 210–12, 218, 220–21, 224, 228–29, 238, 242, 248, 250–51, 254, 256, 259, 294; in Europe, 68, 83, 99, 113, 249, 252, 255–56, 258, 260, 265, 300; in Lima, 68, 255–56; in Mexico City, 68, 110, 242, 261 interracial, alliances, 115, 134–35, 137, 140, 220–23 Irish, 11, 72, 74, 76, 117, 143, 146, 176, 217–18, 221, 253, 268, 272, 283, 296, 298 irreligion, 3, 16, 215, 218, 272 Islam: attitudes towards Christians, 100, 114; Christian attitudes towards, 102, 94, 96–102, 136, 160, 229; and law, 21, 97, 174, 283; and Muslims/Moors, 12, 21, 59, 68–69, 93, 95, 97–103, 160, 174, 229, 234, 237, 257–260, 275, 277; as slaves, 71, 58, 92, 98, 96–97, 260 See also Barbary Jaca, Francisco de, 226–27, 294, 300 Jackson, Captain William, 72, 76, 139, 149–50 Jamaica, xiv; English possession of, 10–11, 15, 111–12, 126–31, 135, 139–40, 142, 144–46, 149, 157, 167, 176, 205, 211, 215, 217, 219, 221–23, 228, 262–64, 267–68, 270–72, 276, 281; pirate haven, 146, 213, 216–17, 268, 292, 295, 300; Spanishruled, 1, 7, 65–66, 68, 71–73, 75–76, 82, 89, 104, 127, 130, 134–35, 139–40, 146, 149, 232, 253–54, 262–63, 270 Jesuits, 14, 26–27, 29–30, 41, 52, 75, 86, 97, 202, 218–19, 240, 259–60, 264, 291 Jews, 35–36, 97–100, 136, 150 Jones, Henry, 187, 288 kinship, ancestors, 218, 227, 234, 270, 272; family, 125, 152, 160, 171–72, 187–90, 194, 241, 243, 245, 275–79, 281; spiritual, 15, 152, 155–56, 160–61, 180–81, 197, 276–77 See also marriage; patronage ladino, defined 19, 76, 253; and specific cases, 19, 29, 76, 250 Landers, Jane, xiii, 232, 238, 240, 298–99 law, 84, 87, 96, 121, 130, 150, 160, 218, 256, 272, 284–85, 297; and slavery 12, 21–23, 35, 50–60, 87, 174, 178–79, 190–92, 221, 237, 247–48, 269, 284, 289, 298 Law of Bayonne (Ley de Bayona), 56, 248 L’Grafe, Juan, 88, 94, 255–56 López Nieto, Francisco, 57–58, 249 Mack, Phyllis, xii, 276, 280–81 Mandinga, Mariana, 20, 22, 42, 45–47, 60–61, 237–38 manumission, 12, 34, 135–37, 139, 152, 176, 183–92, 219–22, 226, 250, 286–87, 289 mariners, and sailors, 1, 3, 7, 32, 42, 52, 67, 72, 83, 86, 117–19, 124, 136, 142, 205, 217, 219–20, 222, 251, 254, 260–61, 263, 266, 272, 297 Maroons, 14, 19, 24, 38, 42–43, 45, 48, 61–62, 115, 135, 140, 220, 222–23, 236, 238–39, 241, 243–45, 264, 271, 298–99 See also cimarrones; palenques marriage, among the enslaved, 12, 22, 29, 172–74, 282; among Europeans, 12, 22, 44, 75, 82, 124–26, 131, 161, 163, 172–74, 222, 241, 249, 266, 267, 276, 278–79, 282, 287; and concubinage, 174, 283 Marx, Karl, 228, 300–301 Maya Restrepo, Adriana Luz, xii, 53, 238, 240, 250 Mediterranean, 12, 14, 59, 68–70, 89, 93–96, 102, 105, 252, 257–58, 260–61; and Braudel, Fernand, 252, 258 merchants, 3, 10–15, 26, 32–33, 35–36, 59, 68–69, 83–86, 89, 111, 113, 142–46, 151, 153, 157, 182, 186, 188, 204–6, 209–12, index / 307 217, 219, 221, 235, 239, 251, 254, 256, 258, 265, 272, 275–76, 278, 287–89, 292 mestizo See mixed-race Mexico, xiv, 26, 68, 110, 209, 232, 238–39, 250, 255, 261, 271, 293 microhistory, 3, 151, 236 militia service, 30, 118, 127, 131, 139, 146, 167, 179–81, 186, 192, 207, 283, 285, 290–91; black militias, 30, 139, 241, 284, 270 mixed-race, mestizo, mulatto, multiracial: 26, 30, 32–37, 41, 49, 58, 60, 71, 98, 122, 138–40, 187–88, 220, 222–24, 241–42, 248, 271, 287, 296 Molina, Ali/Alonso de, 259–60 Molina, Luis de, 52, 247 Mompox, xiv, 19, 21, 24–25, 27, 38–39, 41–44, 48–50, 60–61, 224, 243–45, 250, 299 Moors See Islam/Muslims moral economy, 5, 12–13, 15, 144, 154, 188, 204–5, 213, 215, 219, 230, 235 Morgan, Jennifer, xiii, 269–70, 274, 288 Morgan, Sir Henry, 213, 215, 217, 296 Morris, Colonel Lewis, 1, 15, 149–197, 215, 217, 272–91, 300 motherhood, 33, 41, 187, 218, 259, 282, 288 See also reproduction mulatos/mulattoes See mixed-race multiracial See mixed-race Murillo, Francisco, 82, 92, 96, 98–102 Muslims See Islam and Muslims/Moors Myng, Captain Christopher, 213, 268 naming patterns, 22, 151, 153, 187–88, 197, 258–60, 273–75, 283 Native Americans (Indians), 3, 9–10, 12, 20–21, 23, 29, 35, 42–43, 52, 97, 102, 110, 113–15, 117, 129, 138, 141–42, 145, 149, 159–60, 164, 184, 190, 195, 220–23, 232, 240, 244, 247, 253, 264, 271, 276–78, 286, 289 Nell, 1, 3, 8, 14, 15, 152–97, 276 New (East) Jersey, 186, 189–90, 273, 281–82, 284, 287–89, 300 New Granada, xiv, 26–27, 29, 53, 60, 76, 210, 254, 260; Bogotá, 6, 44, 82, 97, 238, 260, 299 See also Cartagena de Indias New York, 185–87, 191, 197, 287–89, 291 Nicodemism, 104, 261 Noguera, Juan de, 82, 92, 96–98, 102 Ortiz Nieto, Captain Diego, 43–44, 245 palenques, 19, 21, 43–44, 61–62, 223, 238, 244–45, 250 See also maroons Panama, xiv, 29, 42, 57, 115, 135, 211, 213, 216, 222, 240, 244–45, 254, 293, 299 patronage, 3, 5, 16, 23, 39, 49, 61, 67, 72, 87, 103, 151, 155–56, 160, 204–5, 209, 241, 245, 247, 249, 278, 293 See also kinship Penn, Admiral William (father), 113, 117, 121–22, 127, 140, 149, 151–52, 154, 156–57, 185, 261–62, 264–65, 269 Penn, William (son), 150, 152, 157, 197, 286, 291 Pennsylvania, 150, 187, 192, 196, 227, 281, 286, 300 Perrot, John, 170, 205, 276, 280–81 Peru, 26–27, 54, 110, 140, 142, 145, 232, 238–39, 248, 271 Philip II, of Spain, 255 Philip III, of Spain, 83–84 Philip V, of Spain, 206, 212, 249 piezas de Indias, 21, 208, 237 See also slaves, commodification of Pimienta Pacheco, Catalina, 33, 35, 54, 241, 248 pirates, 4, 14, 16, 24, 29, 35, 42, 67, 72, 86–88, 97, 103, 119, 145, 201–5, 213, 215 See also buccaneers; privateers political economy, 11–12, 109–15, 132–35, 144–45, 227, 262 popery See Protestantism, and anti-popery Portugal and Portuguese, 9, 21, 26, 32, 36, 52, 59, 82, 100, 150, 206, 233–34, 239, 242–44, 247, 274–75, 293, 298 poverty, and the poor, 29, 32, 95, 117–18, 125–26, 128, 149–50, 153, 158, 205, 211, 217, 219, 233, 235, 240, 246, 251, 265, 277, 297, 300 prayer, 39–40, 69, 70, 73, 77, 95, 98, 100, 103–4, 119–20, 149, 156, 162, 170, 177, 249, 264–66, 295 privateers, 7, 9–10, 72, 94–95, 103, 128, 139, 145–46, 149–50, 160, 204, 208, 211, 213, 215, 217, 222, 268, 274, 279, 296 See also Barbary corsairs; pirates prostitution, 32, 126, 267 Protestant denominations: Anglicans, 97, 149, 154–55, 168, 172, 178–79, 183, 218, 260, 279, 285, 290, 298; Calvinists, 1, 11, 66, 79, 81, 84, 87, 88, 103–4, 260–61, 308 / index 290; Huguenots, 1, 9, 75–76, 94–95, 99, 255, 259; Lutherans, 66, 84, 255 See also Quakerism Protestantism: and anti-popery, 122, 139, 261, 264, 291, 294; clergy, 120, 128–30, 172, 178, 183, 196, 265, 279, 285; confessionalization, 8, 68, 70–71, 79, 85, 100, 102–3, 131, 133, 234; missionary efforts, 12, 114, 117, 146, 154–55, 157–59, 166–75, 179, 181, 183, 185, 195, 273, 280, 284–85, 290; providentialism, 113–14, 116–17, 120, 126, 128, 134, 145, 161, 178, 212, 264; puritanism, 10, 15, 97, 104, 110–18, 121, 124, 127, 134, 144–46, 149–50, 154, 166, 178, 262, 264–65, 279, 290 Providence Island, xiv, 150, 215, 232, 267; and Providence Island Company (PIC), 149–50, 155, 160, 232 Quakerism: and historiography, 151–51, 196, 286; and internal discord 170–71, 205, 281, 300; and laws 179, 183, 227–28; and pacifism, 167, 177, 180–81, 201–2, 279, 285, 291; and “suffering,” 179, 183, 193, 195, 279, 284–85; and sources, 273, 278, 280, 282–85; and swearing, 164, 166, 281, 291; and visions, 160–61, 169–70 Quakers: 15, 201, 224–25; and slaveholding, 15, 151, 156, 158–60, 171, 179–97, 281, 284, 286–89; and trade, 158, 185–90, 202–227, 288–89 See also evangelization; Fox, George race, as a construct, 2, 112, 143–46, 152, 18–84, 195–96, 202–3, 212, 227, 231–32, 269; relation to gender, 133, 136, 138, 143–46, 269–70; relation to religion, 2, 98, 105, 136, 139, 143–46, 151, 196, 203, 219, 227, 231–32, 291, 297; relation to slavery, 2, 133–35, 143, 146, 183–89, 195–96, 231–32, 269, 291, 297 reproduction, 35, 136, 172, 270 See also motherhood restitution, 225, 229–30 Rio Magdalena, xiv, 19–20, 24–25, 42–44, 61–62, 244 rosary, 29, 39–40, 46, 77, 98, 100, 243, sailors See mariners saints, 29–30, 36, 41, 61–62, 70–71, 74, 215, 248, 250, 266, 274, 295 salvation of souls, 1, 11, 13, 2, 23–24, 41, 53, 60, 73, 84, 87, 97–98, 120, 131, 151, 163, 192, 195, 208, 218, 243, 251, 290, 300 Sandoval, Alonso de, 27, 29, 41, 52–53, 73, 169, 239–41, 247, 250 Santa Marta, xiv, 128, 210, 254, 260 Sedeño, don Jacinto, 65, 67, 72, 254 sex and sexual: favors and advances, 34–35, 178–79, 173, 185, 187–89; interracial, 32–34, 173–74, 188, 242, 269; taboos, 35, 47–48, 125–26, 136, 172–74, 223, 257, 282; violence and coercion, 25, 32–35, 47–48, 185, 187–88, 218, 247, 295 Siete Partidas, 21–22, 51, 237, 247 See also law, and slavery sin, 7–8, 21, 25, 34–35, 46, 74, 79, 83, 85–86, 95, 119, 122, 128, 157, 178, 225, 233, 249, 254, 270, 278 slave trade, 16, 23, 25–26, 51–53, 69, 112, 118, 146, 153, 164, 202, 204–6, 211–12, 218–19, 227, 235, 237, 239, 246, 253, 274–77, 283, 292, 294, 300; Middle Passage: 142, 153 slavery: in Africa, 22–23, 153, 274–75, 283; “white” slavery: 135, 257, 271, 297 See also Barbary; captivity slaves: children as “increase,” 172–73, 187; commodification of: 21, 60, 137, 182, 202, 206, 208, 237, 244, 282; rebellion, threat of 42, 175–77, 180–204, 211, 219–20, 222, 234, 283, 297–99; resistance, cultural 23, 40, 62, 196–97, 250; runaways: 1, 14, 16, 19–21, 24–25, 29, 38, 41, 43–44, 54, 62, 67, 126, 131, 135, 139, 176, 178, 221, 238, 245, 283, 298; and slave law: 33, 187 See also cimarrones; Maroons; motherhood; palenques Smith, Adam, 235–36, 262 smuggling, and contraband, 7, 10, 13–14, 24, 44, 66–67, 84, 87, 105, 118, 202, 205, 208–12, 217–18, 222, 239, 245, 251, 260, 292, 298 Society of Friends See Quakerism South Sea Company (SSC), 16, 206, 208–12, 217–18, 221–22, 229, 292–94, 298, 300; and South Sea Bubble, 206–7, 229, 292, 300 spirit possession, 69–70, 100–101, 157, 277 index / 309 suicide, 1, 55, 83, 225 sugar cultivation, and markets, 7, 9–11, 118, 131, 137, 146, 149–51, 153, 155–57, 159, 166, 175–76, 179, 186, 217–19, 225–26, 233, 235, 265, 273, 276 Tannenbaum, Frank, 23, 237 Thompson, E P., 219, 235, 297 Todd, John, 189, 191, 289 toleration, religious (and tolerance), 4, 13, 16, 67–70, 83–84, 100–102, 146, 150, 167–68, 173, 182, 185, 192, 204, 210, 212, 251–52, 230, 251–52, 260; 264 See also conscience Tolú, 62, 115, 149 torture, 140–42215–16, 229, 256, 271, 295; and the Inquisition, 81, 89–93, 96, 101–2, 259; and slavery, 34–35, 46–49, 57 travel narratives, 110, 113, 261, 263 Tryon, Thomas, 186–87, 280, 287 Turks, 94, 97, 101, 142, 163, 256, 259, 278 See also Islam and Muslims/Moors Venables, General Robert, 113, 117, 121–28, 135, 140, 149, 156, 261–62, 265–67 Virgin Mary, 1, 36, 57, 70–71, 88, 91, 100, 103, 122, 139, 248 Vokins, Joan, 157, 183, 277, 280 War of Spanish Succession, 206, 292 wealth, 4–5, 10–13, 15, 24–27, 33, 44, 66–67, 113–18, 121, 124–28, 134, 142, 145, 157–58, 167, 173, 176, 203, 209, 215, 217, 225, 235–36, 281, 292, 295 Weber, Max, 11, 152, 188–89, 202, 233, 292 Western Design, 14, 110–15, 134, 142–45, 152, 262–63, 267 Whistler, Henry, 1, 15, 109–42, 150, 154, 174, 261–71 whiteness, 2, 11–12, 35, 45, 98, 105, 111–12, 135, 143–44, 151–52, 175–76, 183, 188, 191, 195, 218–19, 231, 242, 270–71, 297, 300 See also race, as a construct wills, 15, 151–52, 171, 173, 184–85, 187, 189–91, 273–74, 276–77, 281–82, 286–90; as sources: 171, 173, 273–74, 276–77, 281–83, 286–88 Winthrop, Colonel Samuel, 166–67, 279 witchcraft, 62, 162–63, 235–36, 242, 250, 270 women, and spiritual authority, 154–55, 170, 172–74, 276 See also gender roles Wynter, Sylvia, 202, 292 Yaff, 1, 3, 8, 14–15, 147–197, 274–75 Zamba, Juana, 33–35, 45, 53–54, 56, 58–59, 61, 242 This page intentionally left blank Early American Places On Slavery’s Border: Missouri’s Small Slaveholding Households, 1815–1865 by Diane Mutti Burke Sounding America: Identity and the Music Culture of the Lower Mississippi River Valley, 1800–1860 by Ann Ostendorf The Year of the Lash: Free People of Color in Cuba and the Nineteenth-Century Atlantic World by Michele Reid-Vazquez Ordinary Lives in the Early Caribbean: Religion, Colonial Competition, and the Politics Of Profit by Kristen Block Creolization and Contraband: Curaỗao in the Early Modern Atlantic World by Linda M Rupert ... www.ugapress.org All rights reserved Printed digitally in the United States of America LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING -IN- PUBLICATION DATA Block, Kristen Ordinary lives in the early Caribbean : religion, colonial... stories so as to examine Christianity as a force for social inclusion and exclusion in the early Caribbean, centering on the struggles of ordinary people to survive in this burgeoning capitalistic... view our sources with a new awareness, reading against the grain, interpreting what was written between the lines in social interactions, and contemplating what was not written down at all Many