00 25/7/03 09:53 Page i Decision Engineering Springer London Berlin Heidelberg New York Hong Kong Milan Paris Tokyo 00 25/7/03 09:53 Page ii Series Editor Dr Rajkumar Roy Department of Enterprise Integration School of Industrial and Manufacturing Science Cranfield University Cranfield Bedford MK43 0AL UK Other titles published in this series Multiobjective Optimisation Yann Collette and Patrick Siarry Using the Analytic Hierarchy Process Navneet Bhushan and Kanwal Rai Publication due October 2003 From Product Description to Cost Pierre Foussier Publication due September 2004 00 25/7/03 09:53 Page iii Jerzy Pokojski IPA – Concepts and Applications in Engineering Springer 00 25/7/03 09:53 Page iv Jerzy Pokojski, PhD Institute of Machine Design Fundamentals, Warsaw University of Technology, Narbutta 84, 02-524 Warsaw, Poland British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Pokojski, Jerzy IPA: concepts and applications in engineering – (Decision engineering) Engineering design – Data processing Decision support systems I Title 620' 0042'0285 ISBN 1852337419 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Pokojski, Jerzy IPA—concepts and applications in engineering / Jerzy Pokojski p cm — (Decision engineering) Includes index ISBN 1-85233-741-9 (alk paper) Engineering design Expert systems (Computer science) Multiple criteria decision making I Title II Series TA174.P635 2003 620'.0042—dc21 2003050550 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers ISSN 1619-5736 ISBN 1-85233-741-9 Springer-Verlag London Berlin Heidelberg a member of BertelsmannSpringer Science+Business Media GmbH http://www.springer.co.uk © Springer-Verlag London Limited 2004 CLIPS is a rule-based language that was developed by NASA’s Johnson Space Center GBB is the product of Knowledge Technologies, International Inc., Flexible Service Center, 211 West State Street, Suite 203, Media, PA 19063, USA http://www.ktiworld.com/GBB/ Goldworks III is the product of GoldHill, 36 Arlington Road, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467, USA http://www.goldhill-inc.com/goldworks.htm The use of registered names, trademarks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made Typeset by Gray Publishing, Tunbridge Wells, Kent, UK Printed and bound by in the United States of America 69/3830-543210 Printed on acid-free paper SPIN 10876500 00 25/7/03 09:53 Page v Preface This book presents the results of extensive research in computer-supported decision processes in engineering, carried out over many years by the author and his collaborators The author has cooperated with designers in Poland and in Germany Very often there was university–industry cooperation for the building of specific software for certain engineering tasks The majority of the concepts, for example “the designer’s personal assistant” and the decomposition and coordination of multicriteria decision problems, evolved through cooperation with designers in this field The author, while working together with them, understood that this group of people is characterised by a strong individualism and that the range of applied approaches and methods is wide The most significant influences on the author’s opinions through contact with the designers were the lectures he delivered for more than 12 years for post-graduate studies on computer-aided design in machinery The lectures included seminars which required the creation of concepts for an individual computer support system for decision processes, generally well known to the designers who participated in the lectures In the theoretical part the characteristics of the actual computer-aided design and engineering (CAD and CAE) tools were depicted, whereas in the practical part the students created concepts of computer environments for the realisation of design projects in their own professional work The task was confined to the expression of the design process This was followed by the development of a concept for the implementation of different computer technologies in the next stages of their processes The lectures were attended annually by 15 to 25 participants, allowing the teacher the opportunity to cover quite a wide spectrum of real industrial design processes The majority of students worked in machine industries with different production outputs and product ranges: from aircraft components to a production line for the spraying of car bodies, and from the development of mobile aerial systems to the production of lightbulbs Several concepts worked out during the seminars were later realised in practice It remains to be added that the lectures were conducted flexibly and openly and did not aim at systematic design according to a certain design theory.Although elements of different schools were taught, it was left entirely to the students to choose Many of the problems that were subjects of the lectures were later picked up and further developed by ordinary students and research students Looking at the multitude of solutions of the design processes, the author drew the conclusion that the designers’ individualism and internal personal factors play an essential role Because of that it became important to notice the permanent development of individual engineering knowledge, its richness in facets and its constant evolution Another observation is the omnipresent re-using of previous processes, their forms of description and the adjustment of the modelling In spite of certain limitations, often creative v 00 25/7/03 09:53 Page vi vi Preface elements with the freedom to create new processes could be observed This mostly worked by using well-known tools, that is, existing and reliable sub-processes Interesting was the relationship between designing and the multicriteria optimisation methods It became obvious that the multicriteria optimisation methods presented as decision-making theory were widely accepted in connection with everyday decision problems All of this brought forth a palette of applications based on production realities, which existed at least as prototypes Some found application in real life, some were implemented within larger projects, and others became the beginnings of a product that is still being developed Apart from the direct working collaboration there were many discussions, comments and suggestions A good deal of the work that formed the backbone of this book was realised by my research students Pior Cichocki and Maciej Gil Various problems concerning the computer tools were solved by my colleagues and collaborators of the computer techniques team at the Institute of Machine Design Fundamentals at the Warsaw University of Technology: Janusz Bonarowski, Jacek Jusis, Boguslaw Kozicki, Grzegorz Linkiewicz, Witold Marowski, Stanislaw Skotnicki, and Jerzy Wróbel Many problems were solved practically by numerous students, research students and participants of the post-graduate studies I would like to thank everyone mentioned above for taking part in the research Also many thanks to my “English advisers”, my wife Antonia and our friends Sophie and Chris Klimiuk who made every endeavour to give my book its final shape 00 25/7/03 09:53 Page vii Contents Introduction to the Problems of Knowledge-based Engineering 1.1 The Role of Knowledge in Design 1.2 Concepts of Design Rationale 1.2.1 Design Knowledge Repositories 1.2.2 Introduction to the Concept of an Intelligent Personal Assistant 1.3 Examples Explaining the Sense of Knowledge in Engineering Design 1 10 10 18 18 The Nature of the Personal and the Team-based Design Process 27 Survey of Engineering Knowledge Representations 39 Survey of Intelligent Personal Assistant Software Concepts 51 A Common Model of an Intelligent Personal Assistant Concept 57 Intelligent Personal Assistant – Concepts for Solving Integration 73 Intelligent Personal Assistant – Design Process Modelling 81 Intelligent Personal Assistant – Knowledge Modelling 99 Intelligent Personal Assistant – Optimisation 113 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 Multiobjective Optimisation Layer Formal Model of a Machine Design Problem Two-level Optimisation Method Concepts of Criteria Space Ordering Relationships Between Different Concepts of Criteria Space Ordering 9.6 A Survey of Selected Multiobjective Optimisation Methods vii 113 118 125 126 128 129 00 25/7/03 09:53 Page viii viii Contents 9.6.1 Methods Based on the Value Function Concept 9.6.2 Method of Interactive Multiobjective Optimisation 9.6.3 Method of Constraints and Utopia Solution 9.6.4 Lexicographic Approach 9.6.5 Characteristics of Multiobjective Optimisation Methods 9.7 Additional Assumptions in the Formulation of Large Optimisation Problems in Machine Design 9.8 Method of Leading and Related Sub-problems 129 130 131 132 133 134 137 10 Intelligent Personal Assistant – Implementation 145 11 Intelligent Personal Assistant – Unified Framework 157 References 159 Further Reading 167 Index 169 11 25/7/03 09:54 Page 157 11 Intelligent Personal Assistant – Unified Framework In the overall intelligent personal assistant methodology, four groups of components should be considered: The design process: the designer’s thinking, ideas, concepts, mental and nonmental modelling and problem solving, way of using supporting tools, and of integrating different sub-problems Computer tools which are available nowadays for supporting and solving different types of problems Available hardware, networks, world-wide web The economic background of the development of the intelligent personal assistant approach Group (1) implies that the design process is realised by an individual designer in a specific way We acquired a rough idea of a designer at work We also have a certain idea of what the software supporting the design process should look like This idea we share with the designers If we ignore economic circumstances it would be possible to develop an intelligent personal assistant based on the concepts described in the previous chapters using computer technologies which are of high standards Although theoretically it is possible, putting the plan into practice would confront us with difficulties The biggest problem we are faced with is the multidiscipline of the project To implement multidiscipline software we would have to consult people specialising in different domains,people with considerable knowledge From the experience gained through our projects we can determine the following specialisations: programming languages, expert systems, knowledge management systems,office software,databases,a multitude of integration technologies and tools, optimisation methods and tools, CAD and CAE systems with their customisation and integration tools,PDM software,and internet tools;often many elements were just discovered for our personal assistant projects.Moreover,such a project should be finished in a reasonable period of time To develop our projects we had to organise the participating teams In most cases one or two system developers were involved who cooperated with the designers and created the software Their work was accompanied by intensive consultation The consultation was not only restricted to software issues Often it included good advice, either taken from theoretical literature or from practice engineering design, engineering software building or development Only in one particular method of software selection did the knowledge of the economic circumstances play a key role 157 11 25/7/03 09:54 Page 158 158 IPA – Concepts and Applications in Engineering Looking back at the experiences with the development of a personal assistant in certain concepts, we notice that after the initial cooperation stage, the work was mostly carried out through the designers’ and developers’ imagination Designers store their experiences, hypotheses and visions mentally They maintain their original concepts, try to develop them and on this basis, evolve new ideas To sum up, one can say that in many cases the model of a personal assistant is always present in the designers’ minds The only problem is that the software which is available on the market does not meet at once the requirements of that model We can make it fit if we endeavour to follow the development of computer technologies and are creative enough to convert them into the software Finally, we come to the conclusion that there is a demand for a tool which allows the designer to build a realistic model of his specific design process The UML language may serve our needs We have to consider how to model the issues of different intelligent personal assistants Obviously we can think of building a modelling language approach However, with this proposal we run the risk that the designers will not accept it It is more advisable to exploit that which the users already know from existing software and what they are able to model with it We may apply such prerequisites as tools for the identification of a formal model MS Office applications are a good source of information about the way design processes are carried out 12 25/7/03 11:57 Page 159 References Aamodt A, Plaza E (1994) Case Based Reasoning, Foundational Issues, Methodological Variations, and System 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from experience of peers through socio-technical interactions In: Proceedings of International Conference on Engineering Design ICED 01, Glasgow 21–23 August (CD) Lloyd T, Leifer L (2001) Incorporating incentives into design documentation tools In: Proceedings of International Conference on Engineering Design ICED 01, Glasgow 21–23 August (CD) Lowe A, McMahon C, Shah T, Culley S (2000) A method for the study of information use profiles for design engineers In: Proceedings of the 2000 ASME Design Engineering Technical Conferences (CD) 167 13 25/7/03 11:58 Page 168 168 Further Reading Lowe A, McMahon C, Shah T, Culley S (1999) An analysis of the content of technical information used by engineering designers In: Proceedings of the 1999 ASME Design Engineering Technical Conferences (CD) Park H, Cutkosky MR (1999) Framework for modeling dependencies in collaborative engineering processes Research in Engineering Design 11: 84–102 Pavkovic N, Marjanovic D, Dekovic D (2001) Object-oriented modelling of the design process In: Proceedings of International Conference on Engineering design ICED 01, Glasgow 21–23 August (CD) Pinfold M, Chapman C (2001) The application of KBE techniques to the FE model creation of an automotive body structure Computers in Industry 44: 1–10 Yen SJ, Fruchter R, Leifer LJ (1999) Facilitating tacit knowledge capture and reuse in conceptual design activities Proceedings of the 1999 ASME Design Engineering Technical Conferences (CD) 14 25/7/03 10:02 Page 169 Index A Hogan 135 local decision variables 123, 139 local value functions 135, 138 method of leading and related subproblems 124, 137 Shimizu 139 structure of optimisation problem 119 descriptive 46, 147 descriptive knowledge 16, 44, 84, 93 design activities 6, 43, 57, 85, 146 design history 28, 104, 109 design of speed reducers 86 design office 13 design process 1, 27, 40, 57, 73, 81, 99, 120, 145 design process modelling 81 design process of car braking systems 21, 150 design process of piping system 24, 61 design process of test stands 82 design process can be classified as routine innovative or creative, design rationale 10, 40, 82, 88, 89, 97, 101, 106 design rationale information generation 89 design teams 7, 43 designer’s auto-censorship designers’ knowledge 13 Dybala 51 activities 2, 38, 60, 76, 85 97, 117 activity knowledge 88 B blackboard architecture 13, 61, 74 control mechanism 74 knowledge sources 73 braking system design for a mobile crane C CAD 7, 10, 27, 43, 45, 50, 79, 100, 145, 157 CAE 7, 10, 43, 53, 79, 100, 145, 157 case-based knowledge 16 case-based reasoning 15, 57, 72, 101, 105, 148 Clarkson 52 collaboration 93 communication 38, 42, 74, 91 computer tools 7, 10, 28, 44, 78, 87, 95, 99, 109 conflict resolution 134 control mechanism 74 cooperation 38, 98, 116 coordination 37, 91, 124, 134, 140 coordination decision variables 123, 136, 139 criteria space ordering 126, 128 Cutkosky 53 E D estimation of car braking distance 150 evaluations and associations experimental aircraft chassis testing 151 data 6, 41 data structure 12, 53, 65, 74, 86, 107, 145 database 11, 13, 40, 62, 74, 86, 100, 143, 145 declarative 55 declarative knowledge 44, 84, 110, decomposition and coordination 136 coordination 124, 134, 140 coordination decision variables 123, 136, 139 Geoffrion 135 global value function 134, 137 F Fenves 54 formal knowledge model 42 G gear box 19, 46, 87, 96, 101, 118, 142 Geoffrion 135 169 14 25/7/03 10:02 Page 170 170 geometrical modelling 23, 43, 62, 73 global value function 134, 137 H Hamilton 52 heating system design 64, 151 Hildre 53 Hogan 135 Hong 53 HTML 43 I implementation 51, 91, 145 braking system design for a mobile crane design of speed reducers 86 design process of car braking systems 21, 150 design process of piping system 24, 61 design process of test stands 82 estimating of car braking distance 150 experimental aircraft chassis testing 151 heating system design 64, 151 machine dynamics 13, 29 machine shaft design 76, 105 piping system 24, 47, 61 stabilising moment of a car steering mechanism 150 toothed wheels 19, 45, 86, 94, 104, 119 informal knowledge model 42 information and knowledge 41, 78, 84, 90 integration of different design aspects 116 interactive goal programming 130 IPA – survey of concepts Clarkson 52 Cutkosky 53 Dybala 51 Fenves 54 Hamilton 52 Hildre 53 Hong 53 Tecuci 51 Turkiyyah 54 Weber 54 Werner 54 K KBE 87 Keeney 135 knowledge acquisition 11, 51, 99 knowledge-based 1, 43, 50, 65, 73, 87, 101, 154 knowledge-based engineering 1, 43, 87, 97 knowledge management 42, 86, 90, 100, 157 Index knowledge modelling 99 knowledge repositories 10 knowledge representations 39, 85 data 41 formal knowledge model 42 informal knowledge model 42 information and knowledge 41 long-term memory 43 object-oriented approach 49 rules 45 short-term memory 44 knowledge sources 14, 28, 39, 56, 63, 73, 85, 145 knowledge storage 12, 41, 84, 95 L lexicographic approach 132 local decision variables 123, 135 local value functions 135, 138 long-term memory 43, 98 M machine dynamics 13, 29 machine shaft design 76, 105 maze model 16, 30, 52, 57, 97, 113, 117, 122, 142, 146 method of constraints 131 method of leading and related subproblems 124, 137 methods with preferences articulated a posteriori 133 methods with preferences articulated a priori 133 methods with preferences articulated progressively 133 modelling of shaft 107 modelling with features 106 multiattribute methods 113 multicriteria optimisation 113 multicriteria optimisation layer 71 multiobjective optimisation 113, 122, 129 criteria space ordering 126, 128 interactive goal programming 130 lexicographic approach 132 method of constraints 131 methods with preferences articulated a posteriori 133 methods with preferences articulated a priori 133 methods with preferences articulated progressively 133 Pareto-optimal solutions 128, 133, 138 two-level optimisation method 125 utopia solution 131 value function 129, 130 14 25/7/03 10:02 Page 171 Index N 171 object oriented approach 49, 84 ontology 56 stabilising moment of a car steering mechanism 150 structure of optimisation problem 37, 119 sub-task 8, 26, 36, 51, 74, 90, 95, 100, 149 sub-task evolution 108 P T paper notebooks 11, 86 parametric 24, 47, 101, 138 Pareto-optimal solutions 34, 128, 133, 138 personal knowledge 7, 56, 95 personal knowledge development 79, 85 piping system 24, 47, 61 Pokojski 139 procedural 22, 49, 52, 75, 84, 99, 105 procedural knowledge 40, 44, 84 product and process representation product structure decomposition 116 project development 5, 76, 106 teams 1, 7, 11, 38, 52, 90, 98, 157 Tecuci 51 theoretical knowledge 13, 16, 30, 40 toothed wheels 19, 45, 86, 94, 104, 119 Turkiyyah 54 two-level optimisation method 125 node of the maze model 17, 71, 122 O R Raiffa 135 relational database 146 rules 15, 21, 45, 49, 58, 77, 84, 87, 146 S Shimizu 139 short-term memory 44, 61 single activity knowledge 85 U unified framework 157 utopia solution 131 V value function 129, 130 VRML 150 W Weber 54 Werner 54 Y Yang 53 ... British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Pokojski, Jerzy IPA: concepts and applications in engineering – (Decision engineering) Engineering design – Data processing Decision support systems... 1852337419 Library of Congress Cataloging -in- Publication Data Pokojski, Jerzy IPA? ? ?concepts and applications in engineering / Jerzy Pokojski p cm — (Decision engineering) Includes index ISBN 1-85233-741-9... 09:53 Page 4 IPA – Concepts and Applications in Engineering (a) Routine problem Standard tooth gear Standard list of design variables Z1 Z2 M A B Standard constraints … fulfilled (b) Innovative