MSc Information Systems 1999 Human Computer Interaction The physical level Adapted from the book Human Interface Design (Thomas, 1999 forthcoming, Springer-Verlag) for the MSc Information Systems Human Computer Interaction course © Peter Thomas 1999 Introduction In chapter we developed a definition of HCI which suggested that it was the investigation of interfaces (physical components of a system which allow the control and manipulation of a system, by exploiting the user’s cognitive abilities, and allowing the uses to get an understanding of the system, for the purpose of performing some task in a context) with the aim of designing user technology for ease of use and effectiveness In chapers and we looked at the phenomena of the user’s cognitive abilities (in terms of the Model Human Processor), and the phenomena of users’ understandings (in terms of mental models) This chapter looks in detail at phenomena relating to physical system components of the human interface The chapter is divided into two sections Section deals with input devices – those physical system components which are available for the user to control and manipulate information in a computer system We will be looking both at the various devices that are available and also at some frameworks within which to consider the phenomomon of ‘input’ more generally The second section looks at output devices This is much shorter section, and looks primarily at visual output This section briefly looks at what technology is currently available (the most widely-used being the converstional CRT attached to most personal computers) and also at displays which are just becoming available (such as the flat-panel displays used in portable and handheld computers) We will also look at some of the issues relating to the hazards of displays and some of the regulations designed to lessen those hazards Input Devices This section is essentially a catalogue of input devices Several types of device are discussed along with some of their adavantages and disadvantages, and some of the applications for which they are most appropriate However, the purpose of this section is not to provide a complete catagogue; firstly because to so would mean several chapters in itself; secondly because there are many other books on user interface design which provide straightforward catagogues of devices; and thirdly because many of you will be all too familar with the basic characteristics of many available input devices (and will have used many of them) The second part of this section discusses some of the more fundamental issues relating to input devices, particularly on examining a framework of concepts for the evaluation and development of input devices and ways of using them Many of the concepts we will look at are the work of a researcher called William Buxton, whose excellent state-of-the art review book (Buxton, 1994) both gives a more complete catalogue of input devices, and explains the concepts we will look at in greater detail Input devices: some general considerations Interaction tasks and interaction techniques We can consider the input devices we will look at in two broad classes: textentry devices (keyboards) and pointing deevices (touchscreens, tablets, mice, josticks, trackballs, lightpens and some others) We will discuss keyboards later in this section, where the issues are primarily those of keyboard layouts to optimise the speed and accuracy of text entry In terms of pointing devices, there are many more issues we might consider This is largely bacause the range of activities the user can perform with pointing devices is much broader We can suggest define several types of interaction tasks which are possible with pointing devices: selection (choice from several items on a diplay), positioning (choosing a point in a 2, or more dimensional space), orienting (choice of a direction in a 2, or more directional space), pathing (the combination of position and orientation actions to suggest a trajectory for an object, or to trace a path), and quantifying (specifying a numerical value) (A further task, which requirtes a keyboard in addition to a pointing device, is textentry – entering, moving and editing text in a 2-dimensional space, as would be possible in a mouse-driven text and graphics editor) We could reduce these intertaction tasks further to the basic tasks of position (specifying a position), text (entering text), select (choosing from a set of items) and quantify (specifying a numeric value) Of course, by appropriate use of a keyboard with cursor keys which move a cursor around a display, many of the these tasks are possible, but the advtanage of pointing devices is that they provide users with the possibility of much more effective and efficient performance of these tasks, with fewer errors and greater speed This fact, that these basic interaction tasks could be performed with different devices, suggests a further distinction between interaction tasks (what the user needs to do) and the interaction tecehniques (how the user does it) We will return to this notion later in the chapter, but for now we can note that there is not only one way in which an interaction task can be performed, and not only one device which can be used to perform it, although there may be more effective techniuqes and devices for different tasks Levels and devices We can also make another useful set of distinctions We can also look at interaction devices in terms of several levels: the device level (the physical characteristics of the device), the task level (in terms of the four basic tasks and the use of different techniques to realise them), and finally the dialogue level (the ways in which sequences of tasks are linked together) In this chapter we will be looking primarily at the device level and the task level: how devices are constructed and how they are used for specific tasks We will look at the dialogue level in the next chapter when we look at ‘interaction styles’ Finally we might note, as we will see later in this chapter, that we can add an additional level, the pragmatic level, which considers the ways in which the device, task and dialogue levels tie together and create the overall characteristics of the device and its suitability for different tasks and contexts of use Pragmatic Level Dialogue Level Task Level Device Level levels in considering interaction devices Further classifications of devices Further classifications of input devices is also possible In terms of pointing devices we can distingush between indirect devices (where the user controls a screen representation such as a cursor without using the display directly – such as a mouse, trackball or joystick) and direct devices (where thea user manipulates objects directly on the display – such as a lightpen or touchscreen) There are also different classifications of pointing devices which show how the properties of different devices relate to each other For example, we could suggest a class of locator devices (which allow the user to locate and indicate the position of an object by specifying screen coordinates), valuator devices (which allow the user to input a single value) and choice devices (which allow the user to indicate some choice from a number of alternatives) A further category is that of 3-dimensional devices (and devices of more than 3dimensions, which allow the user to provide input along several dimensions) The class of Locator devices can be further subdivided in a number of ways For example, absolute locator devices (such as a talbet or touchscreen) provide input with respect to a particular frame of reference, where the user indicates a position using the device which is the same position on the display In contrast, relative locator devices (such as mice, trackballs, tablets and some joysticks), provide input which indicates not absolute positions but changes from a previous position Here a user can, for example, move a mouse along a desktop and then pick the mouse up, reposition it to the starting point and move it again a similar distance Further distinctions can also be made which combine properties Direct locator devices (such as a lightpen, or touchscreen) allow the user to point directly at an object on a display; in contrast with indirect locator devices, such as a mouse or joystick, the user manipoulates a screen cursor or other object which allows the user to point indirectly at the object Continuous locator devices (again such as the mouse or trackball) allow the user to control the cursor smoothly through smooth motion of the device, whereas discrete locator devices (such as cursor keys) only provide stepped movements of a screen cursor (thorugh a text document, line by line, for example) The class of keyboard devices are also, of course, discrete devices which provide the user with the possibility of input of discrete information usually, in the case of the QWERTY keyboard, alphanumeric characters Valuator devices, such as knobs (or ‘potentiometers’) allow the user to specify single values; a bounded valuator device (such as a rotary volume control on a TV) can be turned only so far before the maximum value is reached when the user encounters a stop Such a device inputs an absolute value In contrast, a knob which turns continuously, or an unbounded valuator device, can be turned any number of times in any direction and can therefore input relative values Choice devices can be of several types, but the most familar are function keys of the types nortmally found on many personal computer keyboards Choice devices are used to signal one from a fixed range of choices Pointing devices such as the mouse are essentially two-dimnensional devices, providing the user with the possibility of (in the case of locator devices) indicating objects and specifying choices in dimensions Some of these devices can be modified to allow the user to input information in 3dimensions For example, a joystick can be equipped with a shaft that rotates to provide a third dimension of input A more sophisticated 3D input device is a ‘spaceball’ which is a ball mounted in a solid base and which the user pulls, pushes and twists without actually moving the ball itself The ball contains a number of strain guages which sense the user’s attempts to move it A more complex, and very comprehesive, scheme for classifying the properties of inpout devices is proposed by Lipscomb and Pique (1993) They distinguish between multi-axis physical devices, which can control or manipulate objects along multiple dimensions, and single-axis physical devices which allow the user to manipulate objects in only one axis at a time Accirding to their classification these devices can be of several types: 1D, 2D, 3D (etc) devices: these devices have a number of ‘degrees of freedom’ (directions in which the user can manipulate the device) for each hand or finger For example a mouse with buttons has similar up-down and left-right axes, which make it a 2D device Free Devices: these can move in any direction on more than one axis but require considerable skills to manipulate accurately, for example a mouse, a puck used on a tablet, or a trackball Sticky Devices: these have a barrier that prevents inadvertent movement along one axis when another is used Rotation devices: these respond when twisted, for example a rotoary potentiometer Translation devices: these respond when pushed, such as mouse or a slide potentiometer Unbounded devices: these move without limit (for example a rotary potentiometer) Bounded devices: these have physical limits of motion, such as a one turn rotary potentiometer Homogenous devices: these cannot be set to a remembered physical position such as a trackball) Held-up devices: such as a pen, or a user’s finger on a touch pad Body-mounted devices: which are attached to the user (such as a dataglove) Some of these classifications will be used in the following sections, which discuss each device in turn In particular the notions of absolure/relative and bounded/unbounded devices will be used to distinguish the properties and uses of the devices A brief cataogue of input devices In general terms, all of the discussions of input devices in the following sections cover the following themes: the physical device itself (mouse, joystick, tablet, pen) the software interpreters (which accept input from the device and translate it into an appropriate representation for the application software and services) and the representation of the input from the device on a computer display There are issues for human interface design in all of these themes In terms of the physical device there are many low-level ‘ergonomic’ considerations which are important, such as the shape of the device and its suitability for the user’s hands (for example the size, shape, contouring, weight and resistance of a mouse) For software interpterers, issues exist in terms of the ways in which the software maps the input from the device into a form suitable for the application For example, as we will see in the discussion of graphics tablets, the movement of the pen or puck across the tablet can be translated differently with quite different resilts Finally, in terms of the representation of the input, this interpretation must be fed back to the user in a form which provides ways of most effectively using the device for an interaction task In the following sections we will look at all three issues, but focus particularly on the final two, since it is here where it is possible to influence the design of human interfaces most directly These two issues will also lead us to to a more detailed discussion of a particular framework for considering input devices Touchscreens Touchscreens allow users to provide direct input by touching or moving a finger on the surface of a display Two main forms of operation are used in touchscreens: either the user’s finger contacts with an overlay on the display, or her finger interrupts beams projected obver the surface of the display For overlay touchscreens there are several types of technology used: conductive (conductive layers which carry electrical signals which are bridged by the user’s finger), capacitative (the user’s body capacitance causes the generation of an electrical signal on the display) or crosswire (a grid of wires set in the display generates input when specific wires are contacted togther) For beam touchscreens, there are infrared (the user’s finger interrupts light beams projectred over the surface of the diaplay) or acoustic (ultrasonic waves are projected over the surface of the screen are are again interrupted by the user’s finger) These different types of touchscreens have different properties For example, different types of screen provide different resolutions (the possible number of touch points on the display that can be mapped by software to correspond to users’ selections) with 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(1987) Interfacing Thought (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press) pp 17-38 Norman, D A (1990) Human Error and the Search for Blame Communications of the ACM, 33 (1) pp 6-7 Norman, D A (1991) Cognitive Artifacts In J M Carroll (ed) Designing Interaction: Psychology at the Human-Computer Interface (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), Olson, J R (1987) Cognitive analysis of people’s use of software In J Carroll (ed) Interfacing Thought, Cognitive Aspects of Human-Computer Interaction (Cambridge MA: MIT Press) Owen, D (1986) Naive Theories of Computation In D A Norman and S W Draper (eds) User Centred System Design (Lawrence Earlbaum: Hillsdale, N.J.) pp 186-200 Payne, S J (1991) A Descriptive Study of Mental Models Behaviour and Information Technology, 10(1), pp 3-21 Reason, J (1990) Human Error (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) Riley, M (1986) User Understanding In D A Norman and S W Draper (eds) User Centred System Design (Lawrence Earlbaum: Hillsdale, N.J.) pp 157169 99 Rubenstein, R and Hersh, H (1984) The Human Factor: Designing Computer Systems for People (Burlington, Mass: Digital Press) Schneiderman, B (1992) Designing the User Interface: Strategies for Effective Human-Computer Interaction (New York: Addison-Wesley) Sein, M K., & Bostrom, R P (1989) Individual Differences and Conceptual Models in Training Novice Users Human-Computer Interaction, 4(3), pp 197-229 Standish, T A (1984) An essay on software reuse IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, vol SE-10, No 5, pp 494-497 Stein, M K., Bostrom, R P., & Olfman, L (1987) Conceptual Models in Training Novice Users In H.-J Bullinger and B Shackel (eds) Proceedings of the IFIP Conference on Human-Computer Interaction INTERACT’87 (Amsterdam: North-Holland) pp 861-867 Sutcliffe, A G., & Old, A C (1987) Do Users Know They Have User Models? Some Experiences in the Practice of User Modelling In H.-J Bullinger and B Shackel (eds) Proceedings of the IFIP Conference on HumanComputer Interaction INTERACT’87 (Amsterdam: North-Holland) pp 35-41 Tauber, M J and Ackerman, D (1991) (eds) Mental Models and HumanComputer Interaction (North-Holland: Amsterdam) 100 Whitefield, A (1987) Models in Human-Computer Interaction: a classification with special reference to their uses in design In H.-J Bullinger and B Shackel (eds) Proceedings of the IFIP Conference on Human-Computer Interaction INTERACT’87 (Amsterdam: North-Holland) pp 57-64 Wosney, L (1989) The application of metaphor, analogy and conceptual models in computer systems Interacting with Computers (3), pp 273-283 Wright, P and Bason, G (1982) Detour routes to usability: a comparison of alternative approaches to multipurpose software design International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 18, pp 391-400 Young, R M (1981) The machine inside the machine: Users' models of pocket calculators International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 15, pp 51-85 101 MSc Information Systems 1999 Human Computer Interaction List of Books Relevant to HCI Issues A Guide to Usability DTI Usability Now!/Open University Press, 1990 Apple Computer, Inc (1987) Human Interface Guidelines: The Apple Desktop Interface Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Badre A and Shneiderman B (1982) Directions in human-computer interaction (Norwood, N.J., Ablex) Baecker, R (1990) Human factors and typography for more readable programs (Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley) Baecker R and Buxton W (1987) Readings in human-computer interaction, a multidisciplinary approach (Los Altos, Calif., Morgan Kaufmann) Bailey, Robert W (1982) Human Performance Engineering: A Guide for System Designers Prentice-Hall, Inc Englewood Cliffs, NJ Bailey, Robert W (1989) Human Performance Engineering: Using Human Factors/Ergonomics to Achieve Computer System Usability Prentice-Hall EnglewoodCliffs, NJ Bailey, R W (1983) Human Error in Computer Systems Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall Barker, Philip (1989) Basic Principles for Human-Computer Interface Design Hutchinson, London Bass, L & Coutaz, J (1989) Human-Machine Interaction Considerations for Interactive Systems (Technical Report CMU/SEI-89-TR-4) Pittsburgh, PA: Software Engineering Institute, Carnegie Mellon University (Avail NTIS ADA206574) Bass, L and Coutaz, J (1991) Developing software for the user interface Reading, Mass : Addison-Wesley Beech, D (ed) (1986) Concepts in User Interfaces: A Reference Model for Command and Response Languages Berlin: Springer-Verlag Bolt, Richard A (1984) The Human Interface: Where People and Computers Meet Lifelong Learning Publications Belmont, CA Booth, Paul (1989) An introduction to Human Computer Interaction LEA Publishers Boy, G (1991) Intelligent Assistant Systems Acadenic Press, NY Brand, Stewart (1987) The Media Lab: inventing the future at MIT Penguin Books Brockman, R John (1986) Writing Better Computer User Documentation: From Paper to Online John Wiley & Sons New York, NY Brown, C M (1988) Human-Computer Interface Design Guidelines Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Co Brown, Judith R & Steve Cunningham (1989) Programming the User Interface: Principles and Examples John Wiley & Sons New York, NY Brown, C Marlin "Lin" (1988) Human-Computer Interface Design Guidelines Ablex Publishing Corp Norwood, NJ Browne, D., Totterdell, P and Norman M (eds) (1991) Adaptive User Interfaces Academic Press, London Bullinger, H -J & Gunzenh user, R (Eds.) (1988) Software Ergonomics Chichester: Ellis Horwood Card, S Moran T and Newell A (1983) The psychology of human-computer interaction (Hillsdale, N.J., L Erlbaum Associates) Carroll, John (ed) (1991) Designig Interaction: psychology at the human-computer interface Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Christie B (1985) (ed) Human factors of information technology in the office (Chichester, Wiley) Christie B (1985) Human factors of the user-system interface, a report on an ESPRIT preparatory study (Amsterdam, North-Holland) Coats, R B & I Vlaeminke (1987) Man-Computer Interfaces: An Introduction to Software Design and Implementation Blackwell Scientific Publications Oxford, UK Coombs M & Alty J (1981) Computing skills and the user interface (London, Academic Press) Deutsches Institut fr Normung (1988) VDU Work Stations: Principles of ergonomic dialogue design [DIN Standard DIN 66 234, Part 8) Berlin, FRG: Deutsches Institut fur Normang Diaper, Dan (ed) (1989) Task Analysis for Human-Computer Interaction Ellis Horwood, Chichester Digital Corporate User Publications (1991) Digital Guide to Developing International Software Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Dix, Alan (1991) Formal Methods for Interactive Systems Academic Press, London Downton, Andy (ed) (1991) Engineering the Human-Computer Interface McGra-Hill, Maidenhead Dumas, J S (1988) Designing User Interfaces for Software Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Dunlop, Charles and Kling Rob (1991) Computerisation and Controversy:value conflicts and social choices Acedemic Press, NY Ehrich, R W & Williges, R C (Eds.) (1986) Human-Computer Dialogue Design (Advances in Human Factors/Ergonomics, volume 2), Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B V Felker, D B., et al (1981) Guidelines for Document Designers Washington, D.C.: American Institutes for Research Foley, J D & van Dam, A (1982) Fundamentals of Computer Graphics Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Foley, James D., Andries van Dam, Steven K Feiner & John F Hughes (1990) Computer Graphics: Principles and Practice 1990 Addison-Wesley Publishing Co Reading, MA Forester, Tom (ed) (1989) Computers in the Human Context: information technology, productivity and people Blackwell, London Galitz, W O (1981) Handbook of Screen Format Design Wellesley, MA: QED Information Sciences Gardner, M & B Christie (Eds.) (1987) Applying Cognitive Psychology to UserInterface Design Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Gilmore, W E., Gertman, D I., & Blackman, H S (1989) The User-Computer Interface in Process Control Boston: Academic Press Gilmore, Walter E., David I Gertman & Harold S Blackman (1989) User3 Computer Interface in Process Control: A Human Factors Engineering Handbook Academic Press San Diego, CA Green, P (1990) Readings on Human Factors in Computer Systems: The 1989 List ACM SIGCHI Bulletin, 21(4), 20-26 Harrison M and Thimbleby H (1990) Formal methods in human-computer interaction ( Cambridge, Cambridge University Press) Hartson, H R., & Hix, D (March, 1989) Human-Computer Interface Development: Concepts and Systems for its Management ACM Computing Surveys, 21(1), 5-92 Heines, J M (1984) Screen Design Strategies for Computer-Assisted Instruction Bedford, MA: Digital Press Helander H (ed.) 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