A comprehensive outline of world history

A Comprehensive Outline of World History (Organized by Region) By: Jack E Maxfield Online: Infogrid Pacific Auckland, London, Singapore, Pune Contents 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 A Comprehensive Outline of World History (Organized by Region) Copyright Table of Contents Foreword Foreword to this Derivative Version Introduction The Mechanics of and Some Problems of the Presentation Africa Geographical Presentation of Africa Africa: Beginning to 8000 B.C Africa: 8000 to 5000 B.C Africa: 5000 to 3000 B.C Africa: 3000 to 1500 B.C NORTH CENTRAL AND NORTHWEST AFRICA SUBSAHARAN AFRICA Africa: 1500 to 1000 B.C Africa: 1000 to 700 B.C NORTH CENTRAL AND NORTHWEST AFRICA SUBSAHARAN AFRICA Africa: 700 to 601 B.C Africa: 600 to 501 B.C Africa: 500 to 401 B.C Africa: 400 to 301 B.C Africa: 300 to 201 B.C Africa: 200 to 101 B.C Africa: 100 B.C to Africa: to A.D 100 Africa: A.D 101 to 200 Africa: A.D 201 to 300 Africa: A.D 301 to 400 Africa: A.D 401 to 500 Africa: A.D 501 to 600 Africa: A.D 601 to 700 Africa: A.D 701 to 800 Africa: A.D 801 to 900 Africa: A.D 901 to 1000 NORTH CENTRAL AND NORTHWEST AFRICA SUBSAHARAN AFRICA Africa: A.D 1001 to 1100 Africa: A.D 1101 to 1200 Africa: A.D 1201 to 1300 Africa: A.D 1301 to 1400 Africa: A.D 1401 to 1500 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 Africa: A.D 1501 to 1600 Africa: A.D 1601 to 1700 Africa: A.D 1701 to 1800 Africa: A.D 1801 to 1900 America Geographical Presentation of America America: Beginning to 8000 B.C America: 8000 to 5000 B.C America: 5000 to 3000 B.C America: 3000 to 1500 B.C America: 1500 to 1000 B.C America: 1000 to 700 B.C America: 700 to 601 B.C America: 600 to 501 B.C America: 500 to 401 B.C America: 400 to 301 B.C America: 300 to 201 B.C America: 200 to 101 B.C America: 100 B.C to America: to 100 A.D America: A.D 101 to 200 America: A.D 201 to 300 America: A.D 301 to 400 America: A.D 401 to 500 America: A.D 501 to 600 America: A.D 601 to 700 America: A.D 701 to 800 America: A.D 701 to 800 America: A.D 901 to 1000 America: A.D 1001 to 1100 America: A.D 1101 to 1200 America: A.D 1201 to 1300 America: A.D 1301 to 1400 America: A.D 1401 to 1500 America: A.D 1501 to 1600 America: A.D 1601 to 1700 America: A.D 1701 to 1800 America: A.D 1801 to 1900 Central and Northern Asia Geographical Presentation of Central and Northern Asia Central and Northern Asia: Beginning to 8000 B.C Central and Northern Asia: 8000 to 5000 B.C Central and Northern Asia: 5000 to 3000 B.C Central and Northern Asia: 3000 to 1500 B.C Central and Northern Asia: 1500 to 1000 B.C 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 Central and Northern Asia: 1000 to 700 B.C Central and Northern Asia: 700 to 601 B.C Central and Northern Asia: 600 to 501 B.C Central and Northern Asia: 500 to 401 B.C Central and Northern Asia: 400 to 301 B.C Central and Northern Asia: 300 to 201 B.C Central and Northern Asia: 200 to 101 B.C Central and Northern Asia: 100 B.C to Central and Northern Asia: to A.D 100 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 101 to 200 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 201 to 300 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 301 to 400 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 401 to 500 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 501 to 600 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 601 to 700 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 701 to 800 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 801 to 900 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 901 to 1000 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1001 to 1100 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1101 to 1200 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1201 to 1300 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1301 to 1400 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1401 to 1500 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1501 to 1600 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1601 to 1700 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1701 to 1800 Central and Northern Asia: A.D 1801 to 1900 Europe Geographical Presentation of Europe Europe: Beginning to 8000 B.C Europe: 8000 to 5000 B.C Europe: 5000 to 3000 B.C Europe: 3000 to 1500 B.C Europe: 1500 to 1000 B.C Europe: 1000 to 700 B.C Europe: 700 to 601 B.C Europe: 600 to 501 B.C Europe: 500 to 401 B.C Europe: 400 to 301 B.C Europe: 300 to 201 B.C Europe: 200 to 101 B.C Europe: 100 B.C to Europe: to A.D 100 Europe: A.D 101 to 200 Europe: A.D 201 to 300 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 Europe: A.D 301 to 400 Europe: A.D 401 to 500 Europe: A.D 501 to 600 Europe: A.D 601 to 700 Europe: A.D 701 to 800 Europe: A.D 801 to 900 Europe: A.D 901 to 1000 Europe: A.D 1001 to 1100 Europe: A.D 1101 to 1200 Europe: A.D 1201 to 1300 Europe: A.D 1301 to 1400 Europe: A.D 1401 to 1500 Europe: A.D 1501 to 1600 Europe: A.D 1601 to 1700 Europe: A.D 1701 to 1800 Europe: A.D 1801 to 1900 The Indian Subcontinent Geographical Presentation of The Indian Subcontinent The Indian Subcontinent: Beginning to 8,000 B.C The Indian Subcontinent: 8000 to 5000 B.C The Indian Subcontinent: 5000 to 3000 B.C The Indian Subcontinent: 3000 to 1500 B.C The Indian Subcontinent: 1500 to 1000 B.C The Indian Subcontinent: 1000 to 700 B.C The Indian Subcontinent: 700 to 601 B.C The Indian Subcontinent: 600 to 501 B.C The Indian Subcontinent: 500 to 401 B.C The Indian Subcontinent: 400 to 301 B.C The Indian Subcontinent: 300 to 201 B.C The Indian Subcontinent: 200 to 101 B.C The Indian Subcontinent: 100 B.C to The Indian Subcontinent: to A.D 100 The Indian Subcontinent: 101 A.D to 200 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 201 to 300 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 301 to 400 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 401 to 500 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 501 to 600 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 601 to 700 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 701 to 800 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 801 to 900 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 901 to 1000 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 1001 to 1100 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 1101 to 1200 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 1201 to 1300 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 1301 to 1400 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 1401 to 1500 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 1501 to 1600 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 1601 to 1700 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 1701 to 1800 The Indian Subcontinent: A.D 1801 to 1900 The Far East Geographical Presentation of The Far East The Far East: Beginning to 8000 B.C The Far East: 8000 to 5000 B.C The Far East: 5000 to 3000 B.C The Far East: 3000 to 1500 B.C The Far East: 1500 to 1000 B.C The Far East: 1000 to 700 B.C The Far East: 700 to 601 B.C The Far East: 600 to 501 B.C The Far East: 500 to 401 B.C The Far East: 400 to 301 B.C The Far East: 300 to 201 B.C The Far East: 200 to 101 B.C The Far East: 100 B.C to The Far East: to A.D 100 The Far East: A.D 101 to 200 The Far East: A.D 201 to 300 The Far East: A.D 301 to 400 The Far East: A.D 401 to 500 The Far East: A.D 501 to 600 The Far East: A.D 601 to 700 The Far East: A.D 701 to 800 The Far East: A.D 801 to 900 The Far East: A.D 901 to 1000 The Far East: A.D 1001 to 1100 The Far East: A.D 1101 to 1200 The Far East: A.D 1201 to 1300 The Far East: A.D 1301 to 1400 The Far East: A.D 1401 to 1500 The Far East: A.D 1501 to 1600 The Far East: A.D 1601 to 1700 The Far East: A.D 1701 to 1800 The Far East: A.D 1801 to 1900 The Near East Geographical Presentation of The Near East The Near East: Beginning to 8000 B.C The Near East: 8000 to 5000 B.C The Near East: 5000 to 3000 B.C The Near East: 3000 to 1500 B.C 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 The Near East: 1500 to 1000 B.C The Near East: 1000 to 700 B.C The Near East: 700 to 601 B.C The Near East: 600 to 501 B.C The Near East: 500 to 401 B.C The Near East: 400 to 301 B.C The Near East: 300 to 201 B.C The Near East: 200 to 101 B.C The Near East: 100 B.C to The Near East: to A.D 100 The Near East: A.D 101 to 200 The Near East: A.D 201 to 300 The Near East: A.D 301 to 400 The Near East: A.D 401 to 500 The Near East: A.D 501 to 600 The Near East: A.D 601 to 700 The Near East: A.D 701 to 800 The Near East: A.D 801 to 900 The Near East: A.D 901 to 1000 The Near East: A.D 1001 to 1100 The Near East: A.D 1101 to 1200 The Near East: A.D 1201 to 1300 The Near East: A.D 1301 to 1400 The Near East: A.D 1401 to 1500 The Near East: A.D 1501 to 1600 The Near East: A.D 1601 to 1700 The Near East: A.D 1701 to 1800 The Near East: A.D 1801 to 1900 The Pacific Geographical Presentation of The Pacific The Pacific: Beginning to 8000 B.C The Pacific: 8000 to 5000 B.C The Pacific: 5000 to 3000 B.C The Pacific: 3000 to 1500 B.C The Pacific: 1500 to 1000 B.C The Pacific: 1000 to 700 B.C The Pacific: 700 to 601 B.C The Pacific: 600 to 501 B.C The Pacific: 500 to 401 B.C The Pacific: 400 to 301 B.C The Pacific: 300 to 201 B.C The Pacific: 200 to 101 B.C The Pacific: 100 B.C to The Pacific: to A.D 100 The Pacific: A.D 101 to 200 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 The Pacific: A.D 201 to 300 The Pacific: A.D 301 to 400 The Pacific: A.D 401 to 500 The Pacific: A.D 501 to 600 The Pacific: A.D 601 to 700 The Pacific: A.D 701 to 800 The Pacific: A.D 801 to 900 The Pacific: A.D 901 to 1000 The Pacific: A.D 1001 to 1100 The Pacific: A.D 1101 to 1200 The Pacific: A.D 1201 to 1300 The Pacific: A.D 1301 to 1400 The Pacific: A.D 1401 to 1500 The Pacific: A.D 1501 to 1600 The Pacific: A.D 1601 to 1700 The Pacific: A.D 1701 to 1800 The Pacific: A.D 1801 to 1900 BIBLIOGRAPHY Landmarks 10 11 12 13 14 15 Begin Reading Table of Contents Copyright Page Foreword Foreword Derivative Version Introduction Africa America Central and Northern Asia Europe The Indian Subcontinent The Far East The Near East The Pacific Bibliography This work is licensed by Jack E Maxfield under a Creative Commons Attribution License (CC-BY 2.0), and is an Open Educational Resource Maxfield, J (2008, October 30) A Comprehensive Outline of World History (Organized by Region) Retrieved from the Connexions Web site: http://cnx.org/content/col10597/1.1/ This derivative work has been created by Infogrid Pacific Pte Ltd It has been produced as a derivative work under the terms of the CC-BY-2.0 license and produced using IGP:Digital Publisher and Formats On Demand for release as a print PDF, various e-book formats, Online reuse and remixable content objects Contact Information Infogrid Pacific Pte Ltd sales@infogridpacific.com www.infogridpacific.com Table of Contents Foreword Foreword to this Derivative Version Introduction The Mechanics of and Some Problems of the Presentation Africa Geographical Presentation of Africa Africa: Beginning to 8000 B.C Africa: 8000 to 5000 B.C Africa: 5000 to 3000 B.C Africa: 3000 to 1500 B.C Africa: 1500 to 1000 B.C Africa: 1000 to 700 B.C Africa: 700 to 601 B.C Africa: 600 to 501 B.C Africa: 500 to 401 B.C Africa: 400 to 301 B.C Africa: 300 to 201 B.C Africa: 200 to 101 B.C Africa: 100 B.C to Africa: to A.D 100 Africa: A.D 101 to 200 Africa: A.D 201 to 300 Africa: A.D 301 to 400 Africa: A.D 401 to 500 the "transit of Venus" in 1769 so that this could be compared with two other places of observation around the globe Because of a cloud zone around Venus, however, the observation was to no avail His second goal was given to him sealed and was opened only after completion of the first It was to sail south to find "the southern continent", theorized to have to be present by geographer Dalrymple, who felt that New Zealand was only a northern peninsula of that hypothetical large continent On this trip Cook proved that New Zealand consisted of two major islands The Maori were initially unfriendly, but they could converse with a Tahitian accompanying Cook Some of the Maori canoes would hold 100 warriors On the Australian coast the aborigines paid little attention to the white men and just wanted to be left alone On a stop at Batavia many men were lost from malaria and dysentery although they had been healthy when they arrived in Asia (Ref.8) Cook's 2nd Pacific voyage (from west to east) was really another search for the "southern continent" He used Harrison's chronometer, a "never-failing guide" On his flagship Cook made the men keep to a strict dietary regime and he had no scurvy, but Lt Tobias Furneaux, commanding a second ship, did not carry out the dietary orders and his men developed scurvy In 1,774 when Furneaux was awaiting Cook in Queen Charlotte Sound, New Zealand, he sent 11 men ashore to get some vegetables and they did not return A rescue party found the remains of a cannibalistic feast! It is of interest that on Cook's third voyage he left Plymouth, England just days after the signing of the Declaration of Independence in the United States, but Ben Franklin saw to it that no U.S ships were to bother this scientific expedition On Cook's return, coming north from the tip of Africa, he stayed clear of Europe because of danger from French ships and went up around north of Great Britain and then down to Whitby on the east coast Cook described Polynesian canoes 60 to 80 feet long, some even up to 100 feet and carrying 60 people with pigs, dogs and fresh vegetables or 100 warriors He found Polynesians almost all over (Society Islands, Hawaii, etc.) were incorrigible thieves His biographer, Warner (Ref.11) thought the Polynesians might have gone through Micronesia on their eastward migration but certainly not Melanesia By 1,778 there were perhaps 300,000 Polynesians in Hawaii in warring and feudal-like farming chiefdoms By 1,795 all islands but Kauai were consolidated in a single kingdom under King Kamehameha (Ref.12) The Pacific: A.D 1801 to 1900 THE PACIFIC AUSTRALIA Although the first penal colonists, including 700 convicts and 324 officials and family members had landed in Botany Bay in 1,788, the population of Australia did not pass 50,000 until 1,830 and the 1,000,000 mark was not reached until the late 1,850s As the century opened England was so busy with Napoleon that there was little concern for Australia and it was not until about 1,820 to 1,825 that even reasonable information was available in England about the New South Wales colony Overall, by mid-century 160, 800 convicts had been sent, including many Irishmen Few free settlers could be tempted to arrive and by the middle 1820s there were not more than 2,000 It was in 1,801 that Captain Mac Arthur brought 12 ewes and a ram of the Merinos Spanish-origin sheep from South Africa, where they had been introduced from Spain a generation before But wool was not exported to Britain until 1,806 and did not become a really significant market factor until the middle 1,820s, chiefly as the result then of the prodding of Governor Lachlan Macquarie, successor to the famous William Bligh of "Bounty" fame The subsequent need for new grassland resulted in the successful crossing of the Blue Mountains and as the economy improved, a scattering of free settlements were started around the coast Then the inland exploration of Australia was dominated by the problem of the rivers, because away from them there was usually great drought (Ref 1, 2) Insert Map: Some Significant Explorations of Australia, and notes Multiple attempts were made by the British to settle the northern tip of Australia, chiefly to harass the Dutch in the adjacent islands and to make contact with the Malayans and Indonesians, who had been in communication with the Australian aborigines for centuries, but by mid-century all colonies had failed In the south wheat began to be of commercial importance by 1,843, when a mechanical harvester called a "stripper" became available Problems of land acquisition and ownership as well as the problem of labor supply continued for decades Even up to 1850 free labor lived under the shadow of convict competition At mid-century one still spoke of the "Australian Colonies", four in number, and initial proposals of federation got little response In 1,863, however, the political geography was fixed in the present day pattern, although the Commonwealth did not materialize until 1,901 Up until then, the people thought of themselves, not as Australians, but as Victorians or Queenslanders, etc., as the case might be Gold in significant quantity was discovered in New South Wales and multiple areas of Victoria in the 1,850s, leading to massive immigration from Europe, America and China, so that Australia's population almost tripled from 1,850 to 1,860, reaching 1,146,000 people Melbourne grew fiercely as the seat of government of the gold fields of Victoria and the presence of thousands of "diggers" in those fields resulted in a lasting nickname for any of Australia's residents But even then, wool-growing remained the premier industry Development increased in the 1,870s with a land boom in the 1,880s, followed by a financial panic in the early 1,890s Recovery occurred rapidly, with associated great political, social and cultural changes Agriculture and especially sheep raising remained the mainstay of the economy Sheep diseases, the carnivorous sheep-eating dingo and the pasture destroying kangaroos and imported rabbits were fought constantly In Queensland in 1,887 to 1,889 some 3,700,000 and 60,500 dingoes were killed, but the rabbits remained uncontrolled Wheat acreage was gradually increased during the century, with South Australia alone reaching over 1/2 million acres by 1,891 Cane sugar became an important crop in Queensland by the end of the century Less in true importance to the economy, but high in emotional value was mining - not only of the gold, but also of copper, a silverlead-zinc complex, tin and coal The leading manufactured products were boots, shoes and clothing Attempts to nationalize Australia and its various colonies surf aced at intervals after about 1,850 and culminated in 1,891 in a constitutional convention held in Sydney In spite of much work, ratification by most of the colonies did not follow and it was not until September 17, 1,900 that Queen Victoria was finally able to sign a Proclamation to the effect that on and after the 1st day of January, 1,901 the people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, Tasmania and Eastern Australia should be united in a federal commonwealth under the name of the Commonwealth of Australia Australia's remoteness from the rest of the Caucasian world lessened with the development of steam-driven ships and undersea cables In 1,881 60% of the shipping tonnage arriving in Australian ports was sail, but by 1,900 only 17% remained The appearance of refrigerated ships in the 1,880s allowed shipment of frozen meat through the tropics to the London market and many farmers made fortunes Urbanization progressed with Sydney reaching a population of 487,900 in 1,901 and Melbourne attaining 494,129 in the same year Immigration supplied over 25% of the increase in population in the last half of the century, with people from the British Isles leading the way Next in number were Germans, with Italians a distant third In the gold rush days, however, as we noted above, thousands of Asiatics, chiefly Chinese, entered the area Then other, chiefly Pacific Islanders called the "Kanakas", were deliberately imported as laborers, first in the pastoral industries and then in sugar manufacture The colony of Victoria legislated restriction on Chinese entry as early as 1,855 Led by Sir Henry Parks, Victoria, South Australia and Queensland all joined in passing fairly uniform legislation to stem the influx Western Australia followed in 1,886 and Tasmania in 1,887 By 1,901 the Chinese population had shrunk to 32,000 from a high of about 50,000 in the 1,870s Although it was agreed in the 1,880s that Kanaka importation should also stop by 1,890, a depression in that year changed the outlook and the restriction was not imposed In 1,803 Great Britain took possession of the island of Tasmania and in the following year established a penal colony there At that time there were approximately 7,000 natives, but they had been completely exterminated by 1,888 Originally part of New South Wales, Tasmania became a separate colony in 1,825, but did not receive its present name until 1,853 (Ref 3, 4)1 MELANESIA Insert Map: Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia The people of the Solomon Islands are generally darker and shorter than even those of Fiji, New Caledonia or the New Hebrides, with many of the interior tribesmen being very black Pygmies are present in the southern islands European domination of the Pacific islands did not occur rapidly New Caledonia, rich in minerals, became French in 1,853 and by 1,900 there were 23,500 whites in that group, by far the largest Caucasian population in any South Seas island chain After 1,887 New Hebrides was controlled by a joint naval commission of British and French officers (Ref 6, 7) New Guinea (Papua) is the world's largest island, excepting Greenland It was so named because of coastal similarity to Guinea in Africa and consists largely of tropical jungle in which head-hunting and cannibalism have been practiced in some remote areas perhaps right up to the current writing The west half of the island was annexed by the Dutch in 1,828 and in 1,884 the British announced a protectorate over the southeast coast and adjacent islands, while the Germans claimed the northeast portion Thus it remained for the remainder of the century In Fiji, bordering Melanesia and Polynesia, Europeans came at the opening of the century looking for sandalwood, but their diseases almost destroyed the native Fijians, who were of Melanesian origin European guns intensified the tribal wars and after many chiefs joined in a request, the British annexed the islands in 1,874 Cannibalism flourished in those islands until the 20th century Small, hot peppers and other vegetables were served with human meat to give it better flavor After the British took over they hired natives to work in the cane fields, but at poor wages and only a few would work As a result the British began to import East Indian laborers and today there are more of the latter in Fiji than natives and that brings up many problems (Ref 8, 9, 10) Since whaling vessels stayed at sea until their barrels were filled with oil, the voyages sometimes took or years and only the dregs and troublemakers of the sailing men's world could be talked into signing up for such long voyages As a result the Pacific islanders saw some mighty rough and dishonest American and British sailors They brought in rum, started fights, stole women and anything else available Some jumped ship to become pirates on their own, the most famous being "Bully" Hayes, who also was one of the originators of "blackbirding" Ship captains would "rent" natives to entrepreneurs to be used as laborers or miners (in South America) with the theory being that af ter a certain period the "blackbird" would be released to return home Few ever did The men of Melanesia suffered most of this blackbirding and wherever they were taken, living condition were very bad and 10% up to 75% of them died of disease In the late 1,870s the people of New Caledonia rebelled against that and started to slaughter- any foreigner, savagely That got the attention of European governments so that they finally forced an end to that traffic in island people MICRONESIA The Japanese, feeling population pressure, began to more south in the Pacific, forcing the Chinese out of Okinawa and other Rykyu islands by 1,875 They had already laid claim to the Bonins in 1,861 and made them a part of their empire in 1,876 They then soon took the three volcano islands of which Iwo Jima is one, and after the turn of the century they moved still further south into the true area of Micronesia Copra and dried fish were about the only products of these tiny islands POLYNESIA In this 19th century Americans, Russians and Germans joined the Spanish, French and English in Oceania In the first 50 years, European attention was given chiefly to the eastern islands, all of which, except Fiji, were already inhabited by true Polynesian peoples The great explorers included the Frenchmen Dumont d'Urville (1,826-1,840), who also explored the Antarctica, the British Captain Frederick Beechey (1,825-1,828), Captain James Cook and above all the American Charles Wilkes, U.S.M (1,838-1,842) Wilkes had ships at his disposal and his explorations were extensive, from Hawaii to Antartica and the scientific publications arising from the expeditions are voluminous In the east Pacific as well as the west, white men brought much grief to the islands, including disease and guns for more deadly warfare than had previously been possible between tribes Dysentery and childhood diseases, along with firearms, started the process of island depopulation Whalers and missionaries, each in their own very opposite ways, had tremendous effects on the island natives (Ref 11) In the last module we described the visits of Captain Cook to the Hawaiian Islands In an effort to secure an agricultural base for Alaska, Georg Schaeffer, a Bavarian in the Russian Service, established forts at two places on Kuaui in 1,816, but was soon run out by Yankee traders Later in the century the Hawaian Islands functioned under theirown government, first as a constitutional monarchy and then in 1,893, after the deposition of Queen Liliuo Kalani, under a republic with Sanford B Dole as president In 1,900 the islands became a United States territory with Dole as governor (Ref 12) The Marquesas and Tahiti reluctantly became French protectorates in 1,842 At that time the population of the Marquesas was about 20,000, but-European diseases decimated the people, as elsewhere in the Pacific, and today in the 20th century there are only about 3,000 people, with of the islands having no inhabitants at all The people of those islands used knotted strings to help them memorize lists of their ancestors names, much the same as the Aztecs did (Ref 13) At the southwest corner of the great Polynesian triangle lies New Zealand, the only island group lying entirely within the temperate zone Although discovered by Captain Cook in 1,769 it had only temporary, various European settlements in the next half century By 1,840 the fierce, native Maori had already declined from a previous high population of perhaps 200,000 down to about 100,000 in the North Island, probably chiefly from inter- tribal wars The South Island probably never had more than 15,000 The Maori were cannibals, but ate only their enemies, and initially, at least, they did not consider the whites in general as enemies Their priests used notched sticks to help them remember endless chanted verses They all suffered from the white man's diseases, including venereal ones, changes in diet and clothing and the use of guns on themselves But they were happy to get iron, the pig and the potato Soon after 1,840 there were already 19 Church of England missions and Catholic ones, with both trying to keep the Maori tribes from warring on each other, although the church groups had conflicts themselves The British influence on the islands actually began in 1,833 with the appointment of James Busby as a resident agent In 1,835 he signed the Treaty of Waitangi with Maori chieftains, forming an infant state of mixed whites and Maoris, under the parent protection of the King of England Legally this appeared to be only a statement of intent to form a biracial society, with equal rights for both, but it survived only as an ideal In spite of land wars which raged from time to time, New Zealand became a Crown Colony in 1,842, with Captain William Hobson as the first governor A constitution of 1,852 set up a pseudo-federal system with provinces, each with legislatures and central governments, but the Maori were denied franchise because they were not land-owners individually, as the Europeans were, but communally Although not represented, they were still heavily taxed and Hobson and his successors had great difficulties pleasing both the Maori chieftains and the white settlers Great government deficits augmented the problems The principal promoter of systematic settlement, the New Zealand Company, was motivated by land hunger at the expense of the "naked savages" and the racial situation rapidly deteriorated to the Maori-pakeha2 Wars of the 1,860s These Maori Wars, lasting from March 1,860 to February 1,872, were not in any way a general native uprising They were loosely linked bush skirmishes in various parts of the North Island The total losses were probably not more than 700 whites and "loyal" Maoris on one side and 2,000 Polynesians on the other side The wars simulated the smaller Indian wars of the eastern American forests They finally ran themselves down and stopped, without any formal declaration of peace The Maoris tried to withdraw then from the pakeha world The whites were then able to exploit the North Island, with a boom developing in the 1,879s Maoris were employed as laborers on public works and as shearers and station hands In 1,867 some natives got the vote and elected members to the House of Representatives Running parallel with the wars during the 1,860s was the story of gold on the South Island, beyond the reaches of the battles Thus, both population and economy rose faster on the South Island, due not only to gold, but also to vast increases in cattle, sheep and crop acreage Full exploitation of the potential products of both islands was delayed because of the absence of technology such as refrigeration, however, and a depression developed in the 1880s Along with this, but unrelated, by the middle 1,880s it appeared that the Maoris might die out, as their number rapidly declined By 1,896 there were only 42,000 left New Zealand reached political stability under the leadership of a liberal prime minister, Richard John Seddon (1,893-1,906) and the help of rising prices and the export of meat, cheese and butter facilitated by refrigerated shipping The British initially offered a market for wool and gold Many experiments in socialism were undertaken in this country and it remains basically socialistic, yet without complete government control, today (Ref 14, 15, 16) It was noted previously that when the Maoris arrived in New Zealand they found a previous people, the Morioris3, which they drove out to the Chatham Islands, some 400 miles away In the 1,830s some Maoris apparently followed them there and largely exterminated them, with the help of a disreputable white These Chatham Islands served as a place of confinement of Te Kooti and other Maori rebels during the wars of the 1,860s and were later incorporated into the pastoral economy of New Zealand At the risk of overemphasizing the importance of one small island, further information on the far southeastern Polynesian Easter Island may be of some interest To date we have noted: Probable original settlement by people from the South American mainland Late arrival of true Polynesians The loss of Polynesian culture, in the main, in favor of the earlier traditions Between 1,859 and 1,862 Peruvian slavers took some 1,000 Eastern islanders to Peru to dig guano A handful of those later returned to the island, but brought small-pox with them and that disease further decimated the already depleted island By 1,877 there were only 111 natives left (Ref 18) In 1,862 a French missionary, F Eugene Eyraud, visited Easter Island and found some strange boards and sticks with carved symbols in some of the huts and the local people had no idea of their meaning or significance Some were salvaged and eventually ended up in various museums across the world In 1,958 Thomas Barthel (Ref 19) got reproductions of those from Honolulu, Vienna, Santiago de Chile, Leningrad, Washington D.C and London, finally accumulating some 12,000 signs or ideograms to analyze The signs were 1/3 to 1/2 inches long and were elegantly made Previously a French bishop had found a man on Tahiti, who allegedly was originally an Easter islander and he had "read" four of the tablets containing the signs, by chanting a song in Polynesian for each The chants were recorded by the bishop, but translated into French they seemed meaningless and the notes were almost lost Barthel decided that the Tahitian, Metoro Tauara, was too uneducated to have completely translated the ancient script and proceeded to develop a translation of his own He reported that 120 basic elements were combined to make 1,000 compound signs as ideograms and that it was not a phonetic system Furthermore, he decided that the writing was chiefly religious ritual, without mention of historical events He says that the islanders had another writing called the "Kau Script" which recorded their annals, but that has disappeared Since the board writings had a special symbol for the breadfruit tree and other plants which never grew on Easter Island and since Pitcairn Island to the west was mentioned, Barthel felt that these things refuted Heyerdahl's theory of settlement from the eastern mainland But those talking boards are not dated and whereas Heyerdahl's South American migrations theoretically occurred many centuries ago, it does not seem that Barthel's conclusions are necessarily valid Ocean trips between Polynesian islands certainly occurred after the time of the early Polynesian migrations, if not before and such have no bearing on very early trips west from Peru or Ecuador (Ref 20) Please permit one more argument from Heyerdahl (Ref 21) In 1,864 before the local language had been recorded, a missionary with a group of Mangarevans came to Easter Island via Tahiti and the Tahitian language was introduced, so that subsequently there was a mixture of languages, if there had not been before The Tahitians who arrived at that time were Christians and therefore did not bring the classical Polynesian deities of Tu, Tane, Tangaroa, Tiki and Maui Some of those names persisted although they were not worshiped or venerated The Easter Island gods were Makemake and Haua and symbols related to the former were closely associated with sun-measuring devices and other trappings of solar worship, all unknown in other Polynesian areas Conversely, the complex bird cult and ritual of Easter Island has no counterpart in the rest of Polynesia, but the bird-man cult was present at Tiahuanaco, Bolivia and in the Chimu culture of north Peru, so that an American origin for those Easter Island practices is suggested [76] Grattan, C Hartley, The Southwest Pacific to 1900 (The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1963) [122] L, Animals, Men and Myths (Translated from German) (Harper & Brothers, New York 1954) [38] C, 3rd Edition (Columbia University Press, New York and London, 1963) [213] T, A History of the World (Harper & Row, Publ., New York, 1979) [312] P, "A Walk and Ride on the Wild Side", National Geographic 163, No 5: 676-693, May 1983 [76] G, The Southwest Pacific to 1900 (The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1963) [134] M Paul, Oceania: Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia (Thomas Nelson, Inc., Nashville, Tenn 1973) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 [38] C, 3rd Edition (Columbia University Press, New York and London, 1963) [175] R, The Last Two Million Years (Readers Digest Assoc., Inc., London New York, etc 1973) [134] M Paul, Oceania: Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia (Thomas Nelson, Inc., Nashville, Tenn 1973) [134] M Paul, Oceania: Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia (Thomas Nelson, Inc., Nashville, Tenn 1973) [199] S, "Why did Russia let Seward's folly go on the cheap?" Smithsonian, Dec 1979, page 129 [9] B., "The Talking Boards of Easter Island", Scientific American, 236:116-133, March, 1977 [76] G, The Southwest Pacific to 1900 (The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1963) [8] B (Editor), The Times Atlas of World History, (Hammond, Inc., Maplewood, New Jersey, 1978) [9] B., "The Talking Boards of Easter Island", Scientific American, 236:116-133, March, 1977 [76] G, The Southwest Pacific to 1900 (The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1963) [176] R, The World's Last Mysteries (Readers Digest Assoc., Inc., Pleasantville, New York, 1978) [9] B., "The Talking Boards of Easter Island", Scientific American, 236:116-133, March, 1977 [9] B., "The Talking Boards of Easter Island", Scientific American, 236:116-133, March, 1977 [95] H, Early Man and the Ocean (Doubleday & Co Inc., Garden City, New York, 1979) NOTES: In Tasmania the first Europeans (except a few shipwrecked sailors) were prisoners transported there in 1821 They worked under the lash, cutting 2,000 year-old Huon pines for ship building In the 1850s whalers came to Port Davey The whites raped the aboriginal women and stole their children Their men were relentlessly tracked down and killed for sport in parties like fox-hunters The last pure-blood aboriginal died in 1876 (Ref 5) "Pakeha" was the Maori word for "white settlers" Grattan (Ref 17) describes the Morioris as "Polynesians", but this may be incorrect Please see The Pacific: A.D 801 to 900 BIBLIOGRAPHY References ABBOTT, SHIRLEY, The National Museum of American History, (Harry N Abrahams, Inc New York, 1981) ABERCROMBIE, THOMAS J., "The Sweep of Islam.", Great Religions of the World, (National Geographic Society, 1978 Edition) ALLISON, MARVIN J., "Studies of Pre-Columbian American Diseases 1971-1976, National Geographic Research Reports Vol 12, 1971 Projects, pp 1-11 (National Geographic Society, Washington D.C., 1980) ANGELL, J LAWRENCE, "Osteoarthritis in Prehistoric Turkey and Medieval Byzantium", Henry Ford Hospital Journal 27: 38, 1979 ATIL, ESIN, "As bodyguards or rulers, Mamluks made a golden age.", Smithsonian 12: No 4, pp.108-1131, July, 1981 AZZI, ROBERT, "Saudi Arabia: The Kingdom and its Power", National Geographic 158:286, Sept., 1980 BALFOUR, MICHAEL, Stonehenge and its Mysteries, (Charles Scribners Sons, N.Y., 1980) BARRACLOUGH, GEOFFREY (Editor), The Times Atlas of World History, (Hammond, Inc., Maplewood, New Jersey, 1978) BARTHEL, THOMAS S., "The Talking Boards of Easter Island", Scientific American, 236:116-133, March, 1977 10 BELCHER, TAYLOR AND EDIE, "Great Golden Art of the Ancient Peruvian Artisans", Smithsonian 8:841, Dec 1977 11 BELL, I WILEY, "Admiral Yi and the Turtle Boats", American History Illustrated X11:44-48, June, 1977 12 BERGAMINI, DAVID, Japan's Imperial Conspiracy" (Wm Morrow & Co., Inc., N.Y., 1971) 13 BERGER, TENY, "Tulipomania was no Dutch treat to gambling burghers", Smithsonian 8:70-77, April, 1977 14 BIEL, JORG, "Treasure from a Celtic Tomb", National Geographic 157:428, March 1980 15 BOOKS AND MEDICINE, (Editors), M.D Medical News Magazine, Vol 3, No 8, Aug 1959 16 BOYD, WM C., "Genetics and the Human Race", Science 140:1057-1064, June 7, 1963 17 BREFFNY, BRIAN DE, (Editor), The Irish World, (Harry N Abrams, Inc N.Y., 1977) 18 BRITISH MUSEUM, (Personal notes, 1978) 19 BRITISH MUSEUM GUIDE, (British Museum Publications Limited, Bedford Sq., London) 20 BRODIE, FAWN M., Thomas Jefferson, An Intimate History", (W.W Norton & Co., Inc., New York) 21 BRONOWSKI, J., The Ascent of Man (Little, Brown & Co Boston, Toronto, 1973) 22 CANBY, Thomas Y., "The Search for the First Americans", National Geographic Vol.155 No 3, page 330, Sept 1979 23 CASTELOT, ANDRE, King of Rome, (Translated from French by Robert Baldick), (Harper and Bros Publishers, New York, 1960) 24 CERRUTE, JAMES, "Belgium, One Nation Divisible", National Geographic 155:314, March, 1979 25 CHAKRAVARTY, AMIYA, "Hinduism" Great Religions of the World, (National Geographic Society, 1978 Edition) 26 CHAN, WING-TSIT, "The Orderly Realm of Chinese Sages" Great Religions of the World (National Geographic Society, 1978 Edition) 27 CHAMBERS, JAMES, The Devil's Horsemen (Atheneum, N.Y., 1979) 28 CHEILIK, MICHAEL, Ancient History (Barnes & Noble Books of Harper & Row New York et al, 1969) 29 CHURCHILL, WINSTON, A History of the English Speaking Peoples (Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 1956) Volume I - 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D 601 to 700 Africa: A. D 701 to 800 Africa: A. D 801 to 900 Africa: A. D 901 to 1000 NORTH CENTRAL AND NORTHWEST AFRICA SUBSAHARAN AFRICA Africa: A. D 1001 to 1100 Africa: A. D 1101... interbreeding of races, in that today there are a number of Saharan and Sudanese tribes which appear to be intermediate between Caucasoids and African Negroes Mediterranean dark-white Hamitic Caucasoids appear... SUBSAHARAN AFRICA Africa: 1500 to 1000 B.C Africa: 1000 to 700 B.C NORTH CENTRAL AND NORTHWEST AFRICA SUBSAHARAN AFRICA Africa: 700 to 601 B.C Africa: 600 to 501 B.C Africa: 500 to 401 B.C Africa: